Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Active tectonics in the Moulay Idriss Massif (South Rifian Ridges, NW T

Morocco): New insights from geomorphic indices and drainage pattern
analysis
Afaf Aminea,∗, Hmidou El Ouardia, Mjahid Zebarib, Hassane El Makrinia
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences-University Moulay Ismail, PB 11201, Meknes, Morocco
b
Institute of Geological Sciences, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, 07749, Jena, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Moulay Idriss Ramp anticlines of the South Rifian Ridges are located in the front of the Moroccan Rif Belt
Quaternary activity (southern branch of the Arc of Gibraltar) and have accommodated the tectonic escape of this Alpine chain as an
Geomorphic indices active edge, in response to the converging Eurasian and African plates. Nevertheless, recent evidences of this
Drainage pattern landscape tectonic activity remain poorly defined. We investigated the variations in tectonic activity and
Active folds
evaluated its influence on the landscape evolution, through the application of geomorphic indices including: the
Rif belt
Northern Morocco
mountain front sinuosity, valley floor width-to-height ratio, drainage basin asymmetry factor, hypsometric
curves, normalized steepness index, longitudinal river profile, and χ as an indicator of drainage network dis-
equilibrium. Morphotectonic study shows that fault related folds, in the area, produce differential uplift with a
relatively high degree of tectonic activity along the eastern part of the massif. The doming process accounts for
the elevation of the area, in the Dehar en Nsour salt dome, and this in turn, could be explained as being promoted
by the Nzala des Oudayas fault system. On the other hand, the Moulay Idriss fault exerts a strong influence on the
morphology of the Fert El Bir anticline inducing the Khoumane river deflection, while other streams exhibit
rejuvenation and water divide migration. These new data elucidate the recent tectonic evolution of folds and
strike-slip fault systems in the southern front of the Gibraltar-Rif southern edge, which contributes to the
movement of the Rif belt with respect of the stable Africa, and sheds new light on the ‘‘Meknes’’ earthquake,
confused with the contemporaneous 1755 Lisbon earthquake.

1. Introduction
The tectonic evolution of the western Mediterranean is complicated
because of the interaction between the Eurasia-Africa convergence
(DeMets et al., 2010; Koulali et al., 2011) and the westward collision of
the Alboran domain with the African-Iberian margins, in Early Miocene
times (Balanyá et al., 1987), as a consequence of subduction-related
processes (slab fragmentation, slab rollback and back-arc extension)
(Faccenna et al., 2004; Gutscher et al., 2012; Platt et al., 2013). The
dynamics of this tectonic event control the geometry of the Arc of Gi-
braltar (Faccenna et al., 2004) defined by the Betic Chain to the north and
the arcuate Rif Belt to the south (Balanyá et al., 1987; Platt et al., 2013)
(Fig. 1a), whose the WSW advance is characterized by west-vergent
thrust anticlines leading to the development of an accretionary wedge in
the Gulf of Cadiz (Gutscher et al., 2012).
The present day convergence of Eurasia and Africa, estimated at
average velocities of 5 mm/yr with NW-SE trends (Fig. 1a (DeMets et al.,
1994)), is well recorded along the Rif Chain (Medina and Cherkaoui,
1992; Meghraoui et al., 1996), especially in its frontal part. However,
recent GPS velocities (Fig. 1b; Fadil et al., 2006; Vernant et al., 2010;
Koulali et al., 2011) indicate a ~4–6 mm/yr independent SW motion of
this Belt, relative to stable Nubia (Fig. 1b). The plates shortening is re-
flected by the development of frontal and lateral ramp anticlines of the
South Rifian Ridges (SRR), since Miocene times (Bargach et al., 2004;
Chalouan et al., 2014, 2006) (Fig. 3a), together with the closure of the
south Rifian corridor (Capella et al., 2017). Accordingly, the Moulay
Idriss Massif (MIM) is limited to the south by the active E-W left-lateral
thrust, the Southern Rif front (SRF) (Fig. 2), which is interpreted by
Thiebot and Gutscher (2006) as the southern boundary of the Gulf of
Cadiz accretionary wedge, related to an eastern verging subduction. The
westward increase in deformation is supported by the stepped mountain
front and its arched shape (Chalouan et al., 2014), which mainly results

Corresponding author.
∗

E-mail addresses: a.amine@edu.umi.ac.ma (A. Amine), h.elouardi@fs-umi.ac.ma (H. El Ouardi), mjahid.zebari@uni-jena.de (M. Zebari),
h.elmakrini@edu.umi.ac.ma (H. El Makrini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103833
Received 14 October 2019; Received in revised form 17 February 2020; Accepted 30 March 2020
Available online 03 April 2020
1464-343X/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic map of the western Mediterranean showing the present-day relative motion of African and European plates (DeMets et al., 1994). Topography
and bathymetry data were obtained from the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (“GEBCO - The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans,” n.d.). AW-
Acrretionary wedge; GA-Arc of Gibraltar. The yellow square marks the location of (b). (b) Image of the Digital Elevation Model of the northwestern Africa. GPS
velocities in the Rif and Western Moroccan Meseta and Atlas systems are added according to Koulali et al. (2011). SRR-South Rifian Ridges. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

from the reactivation of NE-SW faults, in a strike-slip mode such as the together with the active NE-SW crustal faults (Fig. 2). The independent
Sidi Fili, Ain Lorma and Nzala des Oudayas fault systems (Sani et al., SW motion of the Rif Mountains is estimated at ~4–6 mm/yr relative to
2007). These two latter bound the MIM (Fig. 3b) and accommodate the stable Nubia (Fadil et al., 2006; Koulali et al., 2011; Vernant et al., 2010)
convergence between the Rif and the Western Moroccan Meseta foreland, (Fig. 1b). Thus, the MIM lies in a position to provide evidences of recent

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A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

Fig. 2. Structural map of the Rif and Meseta-Middle Atlas from Michard (1976) and Chalouan et al. (2014), mapped upon a shaded relief. Location of Fig. 3a is
shown. AOF-Aït Oufella Fault; MAF-Middle-Atlas Fault; MF-Mibladen Fault; NDF-Nzala Des Oudayas Fault; NMAF-North-Middle-Atlas Fault; SFF-Sidi Fili fault;
SMAF-South-Middle-Atlas fault; TTF-Tizi-n-Trattene Fault.

activity, which is confirmed by Amine and El Ouardi. (2017), and exhibits conclude the possible triggering structure of the 1755 Meknes earth-
a composite tectonic setting. Yet, the spatial distribution of these activ- quake, to highlight an active halokinesis in the region, and to char-
ities has not been studied in detail. acterize the tectonic activity in the SRF, which might contribute to the
To characterize the landscape recent activity in such regions, the activity in the south of Arc of Gibraltar as well as in the active Gulf of
geomorphic parameters based on the analyses of drainage networks are Cadiz.
efficient tools to describe and quantify landscape development (Burbank
and Anderson, 2012; Keller and Pinter, 1996; Snyder et al., 2000), which 2. Geologic and tectonic setting
in turn may reveal the extent of activities on active faults (Giaconia et al.,
2012; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Pedrera et al., 2009; Pérez-Peña et al.,
The overall geological structure of the Rif orogen system is dominated
2010). These geomorphic tools are sensitive to the tectonic activity,
by a succession of thrust nappes stacked to the south that are grouped
which produces vertical uplift and/or tilting that, in turn, influences
into three zones (Fig. 2; Wildi, 1983): (i) The Internal metamorphic zone
changes in the base level of rivers as a response to channel incision and
that derives from the Alboran domain, (ii) the Maghrebian Flyschs
river diversion (Burbank and Anderson, 2012; Cox, 1994; Hilley and
Nappes of probable oceanic origin (Durand-Delga et al., 2000) and, (iii)
Arrowsmith, 2008; Holbrook and Schumm, 1999; Snyder et al., 2000).
the External domain, which is divided into Intrarif, Mesorif and Prerif
Also, climate, topography, and lithology have influences on the progress
(Fig. 2), with Mesozoic to Cenozoic formations and metamorphic suc-
of the geomorphic processes and the evolved landscape (Burbank and
cessions, from the deformed North African passive palaeomargin of the
Anderson, 2012; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Schumm et al., 2000).
Tethys Ocean (Benzaggagh et al., 2014). The Prerif thrust sheets con-
With the aid of geodetic tools and the availability of high-resolution
stitute the southernmost External Rif affected by Alpine deformation, and
digital elevation models (DEMs), geomorphic indices have been suc-
consist of the Inner and External Prerif. The latter corresponds to the
cessfully used to evaluate active tectonics with different tectonic systems,
Prerif Nappe (the Nappe Prérifaine of Levy and Tilloy (1952)) and is
in many areas in the world (El Hamdouni et al., 2008; Font et al., 2010;
composed of blocks of different lithologies (evaporites, basalts, carbo-
Giaconia et al., 2012; Mathew et al., 2016; Pedrera et al., 2009; Pérez-
nates, sandstones) that are mixed within Cretaceous to Middle Miocene
Peña et al., 2010; Snyder et al., 2003), and others. Nevertheless, there are
marls (Feinberg, 1986; Leblanc and Olivier, 1984). This tecto-sedimen-
no such studies on the MIM area, which also lacks other studies that
tary complex (olistostrome (Wildi, 1983); constitutes likely the external
depend on subsurface and chronological data.
part of the accretionary wedge (Flinch, 1993) and thrusts over the South-
The aim of this study is to evaluate the relative tectonic activity in the
Rif foredeep basin (Gharb and Saiss basins) to locally reach the Meseta-
MIM ridges by quantitative analyses of landscape, using geomorphic in-
Atlas foreland, during the late Tortonian deformation (Chalouan et al.,
dices. The latters were used to drive approximate denudation and uplift
2008; Michard et al., 2008). Consequently, the SRR, which constituted
rates, in comparaison with previous data in the world. Results allow us to
the Atlas foreland (Fig. 2), have been involved in frontal thrusts from an

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A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

(caption on next page)

4
A. Amine, et al.
Fig. 3. (a) Geological map of the South Rifian Ridges and Saiss basin (modified from Faugères, 1978; Sani et al., 2007 and Roldán et al., 2014). SFF-Sidi Fili fault. (b)
Relief of the Moulay Idriss Massif including the drainage systems extracted from the digital elevation model and compared to the topographic map of Beni Ammar
(Ministere de l’Energie et des Mines Maroc, 2004). Different faults are compiled and modified from the geological map of Beni Ammar (Ministere de l’Energie et des
Mines Maroc, 2004) and Haddaoui (2000). Dashed lines indicate the main fault system bounding the area. Morpho-tectonic structures: DNP-Dehar en Nsour
Promontory; DNR-Dehar en Nsour ridge; F1 F2- faults F1 and F2; FBR-Fert El Bir ridge; KnR-Kannoufa ridge; MB-Moussaoua basin; NOD-Nzala Des Oudayas diapir;
NR-Nesrani ridge; TaR-Takerma ridge; ZeR-ridge. Main Faults: ALF-Ain Lorma Fault; DNF-Dehar en Nsour normal fault; MHF-Moussaoua-Hamroua fault; MIF-Moulay
Idriss fault; NDF-Nzala Des Ouadays fault; NF-Nesrani fault; TKF-Takerma-kannoufa fault.
E-W arcuate southverging general structure of the frontal part of the Rif
Cordillera (Faugères, 1978; Flinch, 1993; Haddaoui, 2000; Sani et al.,
2007; Zizi, 1996). Moreover, the SRR are considered to be a part of the
open seaway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea,
before complete disconnection from the Atlantic (Martin et al., 2001).
The SRR Mesozoic series were accumulated in Triassic-Jurassic ba-
sins, delimitated by NE-SW-trending normal fault systems (Haddaoui,
2000; Sani et al., 2007). They are limited to the south by a 150 km-long
roughly E-W left-lateral thrust (SRF) (Chalouan et al., 2001; Leblanc and
Olivier, 1984; Maldonado and Comas, 1992), whose the displacement
(3.5 ± 1 mm/yr) caused the 1755 Fes-Meknes earthquake (Poujol et al.,
2017) (Fig. 2). Late Miocene to present-day shortening between the two
plates has resulted in an inversion, with compression directions reor-
ienting from NE-SW to N–S and a current NNW–SSE (Morel, 1989), to-
gether with the development of the Alpine Rif thrust structures (Laville
and Piqué, 1992; Michard, 1976; Teixell et al., 2003), and the reactiva-
tion of normal faults in a sinistral strike-slip mode (e. g. Nzala Des Ou-
dayas, Ain Lorma and Sidi Fili fault systems) leading to the arcuate shape
of the SRR (Del Ventisette et al., 2005; Sani et al., 2007) (Fig. 3a). They
have accommodated partially the southwestward expulsion of the Rif
chain as an active wedge (Chalouan et al., 2006), at around ~4–6 mm/yr
with respect to stable Africa (Fig. 1b; (Fadil et al., 2006; Koulali et al.,
2011; Vernant et al., 2010).
This motion is continued to recent times, as observed by the deformed
Neogene-Quaternary sediments of Saiss and Gharb basins (Bargach et al.,
2004; Feinberg, 1986; Samara et al., 1997), and is favored by the pre-
sence of the subsiding Gharb basin that opens towards the Atlantic
(Flinch, 1993; Litto et al., 2001); and also by the distribution of deep
Triassic rocks that act as a main detachment level, as well as by the ac-
tivity of ENE-WSW to NE-SW major active crustal faults (Chalouan et al.,
2014). The most important faults are: the Trougout-Nekor active system
(Poujol et al., 2014), El Hajeb Fault (ELHF), South Middle Atlas faults
(SMAF), and North Middle Atlas fault (Chalouan et al., 2014) (Fig. 2). The
latter belongs to the Moroccan Hot Line (Frizon De Lamotte et al., 2008)
and continues toward the Carboneras and Palomares faults into the Al-
boran Sea, east of the Betic Cordilleras (Andeweg and Cloetingh, 2001;
Azor et al., 2002; Bernini et al., 2000; Jacobshagen, 1992).
2.1. Structural framework of the MIM
Alpine deformation in the MIM is resulted from the development of
active thrusts and folds related faults (Bargach et al., 2004; Chalouan
et al., 2014). The latters are involved to reverse as frontal and lateral
ramps (Haddaoui, 2000) (Fig. 3a). The Dehar en Nsour salt dome
(Faugères, 1978), Fert El Bir (FBR), Zerhoun (ZeR), Takerma-Kannoufa
(TaR-KnR) frontal ramp anticlines, Nesrani (NR) lateral ramp, Moussaoua
basin (MB) and river gorges are the main geomorphic features of the
region. They are carved by tributaries of the Zegotta, Mkes and Rdom
rivers under semi-arid climate conditions (Fig. 3b).
The ZeR is a faulted east-west elongated anticline, with a reduced
southern limb, where the south-verging Moussaoua-Hamraoua (MHF)
reverse faults (Faugères, 1978) splits and bifurcates into other branches
of faults to the west and extends to the east where it coincides with the
Nesrani sinistral ramp (NF) (Haddaoui, 2000) (Fig. 3b). The MHF is
considered by Moratti et al. (2003) as the most cause of the 1755 Meknes
earthquake occurring few days after the “Lisbon earthquake”, which has
damaged the Roman archaeological site of Volubilis (Chatelain, 1968)
and destroyed the Moulay Idriss town (Fig. 3a (SFERN, 1985)). The TaR-
KnR is an east-west to WNW-ESE inclined anticline, with a southward
vergence. It is related to the Takerma-Kannoufa longitudinal reverse
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
faults (TKF) (Bargach et al., 2004). The TKF and MHF belong to the SRF
(Fig. 2), considered by Poujol et al. (2017) to be the most destructive
structure of the Rif.
The NR is an arcuate E-W anticline. It is affected by the E-W and the
NE-SW reverse faults defining the Nesrani sinistral ramp to the east (NF)
(Haddaoui, 2000).
The FBR is an arcuate anticline, related to the E-W Moulay Idriss
reverse fault (MIF) and has been cut along its length by two reverse faults
(named faults F1 and F2 (Haddaoui, 2000);). Thus, this fold is considered
by Faugères (1978) as a tectonic weakness zone. The MIF overlaps the
northern limb of the ZeR which corresponds to its footwall.
The Dehar en Nsour salt dome anticline (2000m of salt in depth)
overlaps the NR, Moussaoua and ZeR (Fig. 3b; Haddaoui, 2000). It is
defined by two sectors, the Dehar en Nsour promontory (DNP) to the west
and the Dehar en Nsour ridge (DNR) to the east (Faugères, 1978). The
NW-SE reverse fault (DNF) controlled the DNR structuration in Miocene
time, but at present it moves as a normal fault in agreement with the late
relaxation of compressional deformations, producing the breaking down
of the El Heitouf north area and the apparition of N–S transversal tear
faults. These latters are also observed in the FBR and NR (Haddaoui,
2000). The Beni Meraaz and El Heitouf rivers cross the anticline through
gorges (Fig. 3b).
Two main NE-SW deep normal faults, namely the Ain Lorma (ALF)
and the Nzala Des Oudayas (NDF) fault systems were reactivated in
strike-slip mode, leading to the arcuate shape of the SRR structures, and
guiding its SW thrusting processes with plates motion (Del Ventisette
et al., 2005; Sani et al., 2007). The ALF coincides with the western most
termination of the massif (Fig. 3b (Bendkik, 2004)). The NDF defines the
easternmost termination of the massif KnR and NR (Fig. 3a and b) and
giving rise to salt tectonics during the Neogene-Quaternary compressive
phases in the Nzala des Oudayas diapir (Del Ventisette et al., 2005; Sani
et al., 2007).
2.2. Stratigraphy
The SRR record the plate's activity from the Triassic time with the
African and American divergence to the current convergence between
Eurasia and Africa. These two events are separated by salt tectonics
(Kanafi, 2002; Zizi, 1996). Accordingly, variations in the facies of the SRR
can be summarized by three stratigraphic sequences of Mesozoic to
Cenozoic successions (Faugères, 1978): (i) Triassic-Bajocian, (ii) Albian to
Paleocene, only exposed in the DNR, due to Pre-Miocene erosion and
lying on the Bajocian silty marlstones, (iii) a Middle to Late Miocene
molasse unconformably lying onto various Jurassic and Cretaceous for-
mations (Fig. 3a).
The Triassic rocks do not crop out within the studied zone but in
nearby areas. It constitutes a salt rocks layer, with variable thickness in
depth. They are related to the opening of the Triassic-Jurassic basins that
is synchronous to the rifting history (Flinch, 1995; Haddaoui, 2000).
The exposed rocks consist of thick Jurassic limestones, dolostones,
sandstones and marly limestones (Fig. 3a). They form the dominant relief
of the SRR reaching up to 2000 m.
The Cretaceous rocks in the northeastern DNR are marly limestones,
silty marl, limestones, chalk and shaly limestones.
Miocene rocks are transgressive in most part of the studied area. They
belong to the Prerif Nappe accretionary wedge complex, and to the late
Miocene post-Nappe marine deposits related to the Rif corridor.
Consequently, the Middle to late Miocene molasse lies unconformably onto
various Jurassic and Cretaceous formations and can be summarized from
bottom to top, as follows (Fig. 3a; (Faugères, 1978; Roldán et al., 2014):
A. Amine, et al.
- Lower Molasse (LM). It consists of variable thickness (0 and 40 m) of
Bioclastic limestones with gravel beds. This formation lies upon or
unconformably overlies the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks;
- Red Continental Formation (RCF) which corresponds to Red clays, red
sandstones, breccia, calcareous marls and conglomerates from the
SRR and Paleozoic relief origin. The thickness is variable attesting to
tectonic activity;
- Upper Molasse (UM) that consists of bioclastic marine limestones of
variable thickness (0 and 20 m) and progressively changes to white
marls. They are in discordance on Jurassic, LM or RCF rocks;
- White marly sands and marls, with interleaves with bioclastic lime-
stones in direct contact upon the UM or the Jurassic rocks;
- Marls of a gray or blue color with more or less gypsum of the Prerif
Nappe deposits.
The Plio-Quaternary succession is composed of sandy clays, con-
glomerates and sands as well as the Pliocene lacustrine deposits of the
Saïss basin, which emphasize a regressive phase (Ahmamou, 2002;
Taltasse, 1950).
3. Material and methods
To extract the drainage network and the geomorphic analysis, DEMs
from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), with 30 m pixel resolution
were used. Furthermore, satellite images archived by Google Earth™ as well
as topographic and geological maps at a 1:50,000 scale, from the Moroccan
Ministry of Energy and Mining, were used to check the validity of the
drainage network and to identify structural and lithological information.
Data processing and the extraction of these indices were conducted by
using ArcGIS10.3 in combination with MATLAB software package
TopoToolbox version 2 (Schwanghart and Kuhn, 2010; Schwanghart and
Scherler, 2014) and the river profile analysis codes (Gallen and
Wegmann, 2017).
3.1. Geomorphic indices
i. Mountain-front sinuosity index (Smf) was used to assess tectonic ac-
tivity along mountain fronts (Bull, 1977; Keller and Pinter, 2002; Silva
et al., 2003). It is defined as:
Smf = Lmf / Ls (1)
where Lmf and Ls are the real and straight-lines lengths of a mountain
front, respectively. The Smf is usually used as an age proxy for the uplift.
Sinuous fronts with higher Smf values are dominated by erosional pro-
cesses and related to relatively older uplift ages and vice versa. Previous
investigations have proposed that the lower values of the Smf index
(<1.4) are indicative of tectonically active fronts (Keller, 1986; Pérez-
Peña et al., 2010; Silva et al., 2003).
ii. Valley width-to-valley height ratio (Vf) was used in order to quantify
differences in erosion pattern between the different valley rivers. It
was defined by Bull, 1977 as:
Vf = 2Vfw /[(Eld Esc ) + (Erd Esc )] (2)
where Vf is the valley floor width to height ratio, Vfw is the width of the
valley for a given profile at fixed length (Silva et al., 2003). Erd and Eld are
the elevation of right and left divides for a given section line respectively
facing downstream, and Esc is the elevation of the valley floor. Deep V-
shaped valleys (Vf < 1) are associated with linear, active incision, in-
dicative of active uplift. By contrary, U-shaped, flat-floored valleys
(Vf > 1) are subjected to major lateral erosion in response to relative
tectonic quiescence (Keller and Pinter, 2002).
According to Silva et al. (2003) and Bull (2007), low values of both
Smf and Vf are assigned to tectonically active fronts. Intermediate values
are indicative of low displacement rates controlling moderate tectonically
active fronts, while inactive ones are characterized by high values.
iii. Basin asymmetry factor (AF) was used to detect possible tectonic
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
tilting, as well as fold propagation, at the scale of the whole massif. It
is defined as (Keller and Pinter, 2002):
Ar
AF = 100 ×
At (3)
with Ar being the area of the basin to the right (looking downstream) of
the stream, and At being the total area of the drainage basin.
AF values below or above 50 are known as asymmetric basins. In this
work we have defined AF as the absolute value minus 50, as previously
expressed by Pérez-Peña et al. (2010), who categorized four asymmetry
classes, using the index:
Ar
AF = 50 100 ×
At (4)
The classes are as follows: AF < 5 (symmetric basins), AF = 5–10
(gently asymmetric basins), AF = 10–15 (moderately asymmetric basins)
and AF > 15 (strongly asymmetric basins). Thereafter, each class is re-
presented by an arrow indicating the direction of asymmetry (Fig. 4a).
iv. The hypsometric curve is another valuable tool to identify geomorphic
evolution of drainage basins, since their degree of dissection produces
variations in the curve shape. The hypsometric curve represents the re-
lative proportion of the watershed area below a given altitude (Strahler,
1952). Convex hypsometric curves are typical of a youthful stage and are
related to weakly eroded basins; S-shaped curves characterize a maturity
stage and moderately eroded regions, while highly eroded basins show
concave curves and are indicative of a peneplain stage (Pérez-Peña et al.,
2010; Strahler, 1952). This kind of analysis allows comparison of basins
of different sizes (Keller and Pinter, 2002; Pérez-Peña et al., 2009b;
Walcott and Summerfield, 2008). Nevertheless, rock type, erosion rates,
tectonic factors and topological shape of the basin ((Masek et al., 1994;
Ohmori, 1993; Willgoose and Hancock, 1998) and others) influence the
hypsometric curvature, even within basins of the same age and region.
Therefore, other parameters should be correlated for the interpretation
of the evolutionary model in tectonically active areas. The hypsometric
curves were calculated with the aid of CalHypso extension for ArcGIS
tool (Pérez-Peña et al., 2009a).
3.2. River profile
Tectonic perturbations can be also inferred from the steepness of bed-
rock river channels, considering the direct proportionality between channel
steepness and uplift rates (Kirby and Whipple, 2001, 2012; Wobus et al.,
2006) and the relative stability of catchments that strive to attain equili-
brium between tectonics and river erosion (Willett et al., 2014).
i The normalized channel steepness (Ksn) represents the river dynamics,
whereby anomalous steepness can be identified as an ongoing ad-
justment to uplift rates (Kirby and Whipple, 2001, 2012), or erosion
rates, which can be described by the following stream power-based
equation (Howard et al., 1994; Howard and Kerby, 1983):
n
dz dz
=U E=U K Am
dt dx (5)
where dz/dt is the change in elevation of the channel bed with respect to
time; U is the rock uplift rate; E is the river incision; A is the upstream
drainage area; dz/dx is the local channel slope (S); K is a erodibility
coefficient that encompasses the influence of climate, lithology, and other
factors (e.g.,(Whipple, 2004), and m and n are positive constants that
depend on basin hydrology, channel geometry, and erosion processes
(Howard et al., 1994; Whipple et al., 2000; Whipple and Tucker, 1999).
Once steady state is reached, the incision rate and rock uplift rate are
equal, dz = dt, and Equation (5) becomes:
dz U
1
n
= A ( mn )
dx K (6)
Equation (6) describes a power-law relationship between channel
gradient and drainage area and has the same form as the empirically
A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

Fig. 4. (a) Geomorphic indexes map of the Moulay Idriss Massif. Distribution of drainage basins depending on their hypsometric curve shapes. AF values are
represented by colored arrows showing the classes and the direction of asymmetry. Green stars indicate the locations of the Vf measurements. N, S, E and W digits
indicate segments for Smf calculation (values different fronts are shown in Table 1). (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f) Hypsometric curves of basins with different maturity
stages. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

derived scaling relationship referred to as Flint's law (Flint, 1974): relationships between normalized channel steepness values and denu-
dation rates, extracted from 10Be estimations, from a variety of active
S = Ks A (7) orogens and where sufficient data exist (Bellin et al., 2014; Cyr et al.,
2010; DiBiase et al., 2010; Harkins et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2013;
Ouimet et al., 2009; Safran et al., 2005).
1
U n
With, Ks =
K (8)
ii Given the Flint's law, Ks (or Ksn) and θ can be estimated by a linear re-
lation in slope-area logarithmic plot. However, digital topographic data
θ = m/n (9) and their derivatives (i.e. slope) can introduce noise in river profile ana-
lysis (Wobus et al., 2006), by taking the derivative of elevation with re-
where, Ks is the channel steepness-index, θ represents the channel con- spect to channel distance. To reduce the influence of this problem, Perron
cavity (Flint, 1974; Hack, 1957), with the drainage area attaining a cri- and Royden (2013), proposed the integral transformation of the river
tical threshold ranging between 0.1 and 5 km2 (Montgomery and distance (horizontal coordinate) to χ (chi), as it can reveal the steepness of
Foufoula-Georgiou, 1993; Wobus et al., 2006). river reaches independently from the calculation of channel slope.
A variety of studies point out that θ is insensitive to differences in rock
uplift, climate or lithology, while Ks is sensitive to such factors (Kirby and Integrating Equation (6), with U and K constant leads to (Perron and
Whipple, 2012; Snyder et al., 2000; Whipple and Tucker, 1999). How- Royden, 2013):
ever, Ks will covary with θ and thus, the influence of tectonics and rock
erodibility would be difficult to compare in drainage basins with different U
1
n
concavities. To avoid this complication, Snyder et al. (2000); Wobus et al. z (x ) = z (xb) +
KA0m (10)
(2006); Kirby and Whipple (2012) suggested the use of a reference con-
cavity (θref ~ 0.45). Therefore, the calculation of the “normalized” With
steepness index (Ksn) allows us to compare river reaches with different m
x
parameters, such as lithology and climate variations, which are insig- A0 n
= dx
nificant comparing to rock uplift changes (Kirby and Whipple, 2001). A (x )
xb (11)
In order to get numerical erosion rates, we use the compilation by
Kirby and Whipple (2012) and Azañón et al. (2015), by ploting the where x is the channel distance from the base level point, xb; A (x′) is the

7
A. Amine, et al.
upstream basin area at location x′ and A0 is an arbitrary scaling area. In
the present work we used a reference drainage area (A0 = 1) as suggested
by Gallen and Wegmann (2017), to standardize χ plot.
As evidenced by Equation (10), the profile elevation is related linearly
on the χ parameter (referred to as χ plots), the slope of this line will be
the Ksn index. Such plot is useful to localize discontinuity zone or
knickpoint, as a break in slope between two linear segments (Gallen and
Wegmann, 2017). The knickpoint represents the migrating point up-
stream, separating reaches that are adjusting to the newly imposed uplift
toward regions that maintain their initial state (Crosby and Whipple,
2006; Howard et al., 1994). In fact, fluvial response to the tectonic for-
cing starts at the river channel mouth by steepening its gradient, and
gradually transmits headward until the river gradient reaches a new
equilibrium state (Whipple and Tucker, 1999).
The measure of river basin disequilibrium is depicted by divide mo-
tion, when mapping χ throughout a channel network, having uniform
bedrock erodibility and experiencing constant uplift rate (Willett et al.,
2014). χ at a channel head defines a measure of its total steepness. If the
adjoining channel head elevations are roughly the same, contrasting χ
values across divides implies their migration in the direction of high χ at
channel heads to achieve stable position. Those basins erode more slowly
comparing to their neighboring ones which display steeper and more
eroding channel heads (Willett et al., 2014).
We analyzed river longitudinal profiles as well as linear elevation-χ
relationship (χ-plots) following the methodology proposed by Gallen and
Wegmann (2017), by using the MATLAB functions for analyzing river
profiles (Gallen and Wegmann, 2017).
4. Results
4.1. Drainage pattern configuration
The MIM geomorphology shows an E-W, WNW-ESE to NW-SE elon-
gated crests and an elevation interval between 960 and 1100 m (Fig. 3b).
It has been organized into four sectors, according to the spatial dis-
tribution of anticlines. The northern side is occupied by the DNR and
DNP, the eastern by the NR, while the southern part contains the TaR,
KnR and ZeR, and the FBR belongs to the western sector (Fig. 3b).
To apply geomorphic analysis, 31 basins were selected from the tri-
butaries of the Sebou river, covering from few square kilometers to larger
areas (Fig. 3b). From west to east, the Zegotta and the Mkes drain the
northern ridge. Along the eastern and southern ridges, the main rivers,
from east to west are the Mkes and the Rdom whose main tributaries are
dominated by reaches parallel to the trend of the southern frontal ramps
(Fig. 3b). In fact, Menairo, El Botmat, Daya, Hassaine and El Cherichera
rivers flow to the ENE, while Khoumane river flows opposite, to the
WNW. The Rdom is localized close to the south ridges front, from which
smaller basins are transverse and slightly oblique to the trend of ZeR and
Tak-KnR to discharge into segmented alluvial fans, only present in this
area. The El Heitouf and Daya coincide with the trace of the DNF and NF.
The MIM shows a dendritic drainage pattern to the south and radial
drainage pattern to the north. In contrast, the middle sector exhibits a
rectangular to trellis drainage (Fig. 3b).
In the northern anticline, the main divide shows irregular trends with
northward convexity, correlated to the El Heitouf gorge (Figs. 3b and 4a).
Thus, headward erosion is advancing likely through the Khoumane wa-
tershed, whose E-W southern divide follows a straight line in ZeR and
TaR-KnR ridges. The Khoumane longitudinal course is parallel to both
northern and southern divides. It comes from the southeast, crosses the
MB and is diverted by the FBR to maintain its course around the end of
the anticline.
4.2. Morphotectonic indices analysis
4.2.1. Mountain front sinuosity (Smf)
The mountain front sinuosity (Smf) index is considered to be the most
informative index about the mountain front geometry. Since the massif is
formed by several anticlines and in order to avoid curvature of mountain
8
Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
fronts, we calculated the Smf index for the northern (segments Na, Nb, Nc,
Ne, Nf), eastern (segment E), southern (segments Sa, Sb and Sc) and
western (segment W) sectors, corresponding to the main boundaries and
faulting regimes (Fig. 4a).
The obtained Smf values vary from 1 to 1.47 (Fig. 4a and Table 1). The
northern mountain front shows segments close and higher than 1.4 co-
inciding with the documented gorges. They decrease progressively east-
ward along the northern anticline to reach the lower value (Smf = 1) in
the NR. The mean value of the Smf index in the southern and western
edges is lower than 1.4 (segments Sa, Sb, Sc and W in Fig. 4a).
4.2.2. Valley floor width-to-height ratio (Vf)
For each stream, the Vf was calculated at a fixed distance varying
from 1 to 2.5 km upstream of the mountain fronts to have Vf values from
similar geologic conditions. Moreover, average calculations at different
distances were considered for El Heitouf and Khoumane rivers (Fig. 4a).
In general, all the measured streams down-cut producing V-shaped
valleys, with slightly higher Vf values (streams 21, 29 and 30) con-
centrated along the southern mountain fronts. Hence, all of the Vf values
obtained are low, ranging from 0.34 to 1.39. Moreover, the northeastern;
western and eastern fronts show the maximum linear incision (Table 1)
consistent with highly active fronts. In spite of the less resistant lithology
of the southern basins, the Vf ratios are lower in the northwestern ones,
where streams carved into more resistant limestones of Jurassic age.
Consequently, rock types and Vf values could not be correlated.
The northwestern mountain front (Na, Nb and, Nc) is subjected to
moderately active uplift, showing low Vf and over-threshold Smf mean
value. The northeastern; western and eastern fronts belong to tectonically
highly active front class (Nd, Ne, Nf and E) that exhibit very low Vf and
Smf values (Table 1). Tectonically active front class characterizes the
southern mountain fronts (Sa, Sb and Sc) which display large alluvial
fans, probably generated by tectonic activity.
4.2.3. Basin asymmetry factor (AF)
At first sight, all the AF values of southern drainage basins are higher
(class 3 and 4), suggesting a predominantly asymmetric pattern, ex-
cluding basins 21 and 22, which are slightly symmetric. Tectonic tilting
in this sector shows a uniform eastward asymmetry (Fig. 4a, Table 1).
Basins of the eastern part that belong to the third class are moderately
asymmetric. By contrast, more variable asymmetry classes are observed
in the northern sector. The northeastern basins show a roughly north-
westward tilting, with low AF values (classes 1 and 2) except of the
central, larger basin which is strongly asymmetric.
The northwestern basins indicate a general northeastward asymmetry
with the occurrence of higher AF values (class 3), while Khoumane basin
shows a slight asymmetry (Fig. 4a, Table 1).
4.2.4. Hypsometric curves analysis
Younger basins, with convex hypsometric curves, occur in the
northern sector, although some present S-shaped and complex config-
urations (Fig. 4a and b). For the whole area, only three basins exhibit S-
shaped hypsometric curves, that may indicate an equilibrium stage, are
found in the northwestern, and the eastern sectors (Fig. 4a, c). The ma-
jority of the other obtained hypsometric curves are complex, with no
defined shape. They show a foot convexity which characterizes some of
the northern basins, or a head convexity, typical of southern ridges with
the exception of basins 21, 29 and 30, where their lower maturity is
observed in the lower part of their hypsometric curve (Fig. 4a, d). In
addition, basins 25, 26 and 31 exhibit an ε shape with a convex inflection
in their middle elevation (Fig. 4a, e). This form results from a differential
tectonic producing the uplift only in this part of basin (Barbero et al.,
2011). The convexity in the Khoumane river may correspond to the FBR.
Only one basin (24, Fig. 4a, f) exhibits a concave hypsometric curve,
which suggest that the basin is more mature. This basin does not reach
the TKF trace.
A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

Table 1
Smf and Smf mean values for each main front are also indicated. Values of Vf and AF streams shown in Fig. 4a and related class.
Sector Main Front Segment Basin Catchment Morphometric Index AF calss
River N° Name
Smf Mean VFW ELD ERD ESC Vf AF
Smf

North Zegotta Dehar en Nsour west Na 1 Zegotta 1.47 1.48 46.1 521 567 485 0.78 12.4 3
2 Beni Meraaz 70 497.5 570 442.5 0.77 1.7 1
3 Ain Kerma 50 590 622 539 0.75 23.52 4
4 Ain Amar 36.1 605 641.6 569.1 0.67 2.49 1
Nb 5 Ouch El Rhorab 1.38 33.3 580 580 530 0.66 12.5 3
6 Messous 40 581.2 647.5 571.2 0.93 8.22 2
Nc 7 El Heitouf 1.6 117.6 760 865 610 0.58 7.78 2
8 Kef El Kebir 58 587.5 616.2 543 0.99 10.21 3
Mkes 9 Menairo 40 668 680 626 0.83 19.32 4
Dehar en Nsour east Nd 10 Moulay Thami 1.23 1.19 28.5 588.3 578.3 521.7 0.46 7.5 2
11 El Kezzar 38,8 591.6 580 498.4 0.44 8.33 2
12 El Khenadek 31.8 563.8 567.4 500 0.48 8.17 2
13 Kef Rabine 40.9 450 461.6 380.3 0.54 29.11 4
14 El Aouina 25 425 445 402.5 0.77 4.05 1
Ne 15 Kef Hemara 1.17 30 364.2 400 336.8 0.66 1.98 1
16 El Mgaz Creek 38.8 480 451.6 378.4 0.44 5.15 2
17 Bendattia 35 480 451.6 375 0.39 0.05 1
Nf 18 Dalia 1.16 41.6 480 490 436.4 0.86 5.66 2
East Mkes Nesrani E 19 Daya 1 1 50 637.5 685 515 0.34 10.08 3
20 Hasseine 70.58 746.6 913.2 646.8 0.39 13.37 3
South Rdom Kannoufa Sa 21 El Cherichera 1.02 1.02 50 594.2 607.1 562.9 1.32 5.6 2
22 El Chadjra 1 33.3 530 518 488.6 0.94 9.12 2
Takerma Sb 23 El Chadjra 2 1.01 50 441.4 441.4 405 0.98 11.37 3
24 El Chadjra 3 30 433 440 384 0.57 12.23 3
Zerhoun Sc 25 Moussaoua 1.03 41.6 536.4 488.6 470.8 1 26.11 4
26 Chrakhi 1 50 680 580 540 0.56 22.47 4
27 Chrakhi 2 55.5 552.2 674.4 540 0.76 25.85 4
28 El balate 30 631.7 635 598.5 0.86 21 4
29 Rdoum 37.5 567.4 593.2 553.4 1.39 16.66 4
30 Arsel 33.3 532 520 496 1.11 20.11 4
West Fert El Bir W 31 Khoumane 1.05 1.05 38.51 581.1 657.7 526.9 0.42 8.8 2

Fig. 5. Normalized steepness indices (ksn) for river segments of the 31 basins investigated in this study. A drainage threshold area of >0.1 km2 and a reference
concavity of 0.45. The black square shows the location of (Fig. 6a, b, and c).

9
A. Amine, et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Panoramic view of facet shapes variability along the Moulay Idriss
fault scarp corresponding to the Moulay Idriss fault footwall. The triangular
facets indicate older and inactive segments, while the younger ones exhibit
trapezoidal shape. (b) The El Hamma ground-water seepage emerges at the base
of the head-theater scarp and into Khoumane river, which carve the Moulay
Idriss gorge in U shaped valley. (c) Google Earth image of normalized steepness
index (ksn) of the Khoumane channel with Ksn> 200 m0,9, associated with
vertical waterfall reach and El Hamma spring (location in Fig. 5). (d) Bedding
rock parallel to dip slip faulting observed in the proximal (upstream) part of El
Heitouf Gorge. (e) View looking south into the Beni Meraaz gorge cutting the
Dehar en Nsour promontory. (f) Thrust fault at the Takerma ridge. (g) Fault
gouge and sigmoid lenticulation in right lateral-shear within the Takerma-
Kannoufa fault dynamic zone at the Kannoufa ridge. (h) Pit of quaternary soil
and paleosol showing the evidence of the actif Moussaoua-Hamraoua faulting at
the Zerhoun ridge.
4.3. DrainageNetwork analysis
4.3.1. Normalized steepness index map (Ksn)
The Ksn map allows assessing the locations of main drainage network
perturbations that may be related to recent tectonic activity. The ob-
tained Ksn map underlines higher Ksn values (>40 m0,9) characteristics of
tectonic features (Fig. 5).
The northern front of the massif has steep channels, many with Ksn
values (>80) such as 17, 13, 2, and 7 channel segments. The stream 7
coincides with the DNF (Fig. 5). Higher Ksn values are also noted toward
the east, along the NF and the northern segment of KnR (stream 20).
To the middle, the Khoumane experiences more gentle gradients with
Ksn values (<80) and locally increases to reach the highest Ksnvalues
10
Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
(>200; Figs. 5 and 6c) once it passes through the western rim of the FRB,
creating a gorge, where El Hamma sulfurous groundwater rises (Fig. 6c).
Likewise, the MIF footwall displays an abrupt increase of Ksn values
parallel to the change of triangular to trapezoidal facets (Fig. 6a). These
morphological markers are indicative of normal faults (Burbank and
Anderson, 2012), where the variation in faceted spurs shapes reflects the
degraded remnant of a foot wall scarp (Wallace, 1978).
The southern catchments show generally lower values of Ksn than the
northern ones. By contrast, segments with intermediate Ksn values
(40–130) seem to be associated with the TKF and MHF, showing an in-
crease to the east, along TKF (Fig. 5).
In general the highest mean uplift rates are shown in the eastern;
western and northeastern sectors of the MIM ranging between 0.92 and
0.11 mm/yr. By contrast, the southern sector exhibits the lower values
between 0.047 and 0.062 mm/yr (Fig. 7).
4.3.2. Longitudinal river profiles knickpoints, and χ-plots
The change in Ksn values in the MIM reflects the deviation from
concave-up shape of stream longitudinal profiles and χ-plots, which are
marked by knickpoints or convex reaches. They are not correlated with a
specific geology and were probably generated in response to a neotec-
tonic influence (Fig. 8a).
The essential results concern streams (13, 19, 17, 20 and 31) coin-
ciding with areas highlighted by high Ksn values. Their longitudinal
profile exhibits generally a convex shape with two generations of
knickpoints (generation 1 and 2, Fig. 8b, c, d and f). By contrast, streams
2 and 7 display one generation of knickpoints coinciding with the
documented gorges and thus the development of convex reach on the
concave-convex long-profile (Fig. 8g). The latter profile shape is observed
in the southern streams, where the knickpoints coincide with the
southern fault traces (streams 22, 23 and 25, Fig. 8e) and decline toward
the western end of the ZeR (streams 29 and 30) probably due to the
differential TKF and MHF activities (Fig. 8a). The knickpoints generation
2 is located at lower elevations comparing to generation 1. The almost
alignment of trunk channel segments, between knickpoints on elevation
plots (Fig. 8b, d and f), suggests that standard θref = 0.45 (Mudd et al.,
2014; Perron and Royden, 2013) is an adequate concavity of the MIM.
4.3.3. Drainage χ and basin reorganization
In order to investigate how disequilibrium in drainage configuration is
affecting drainage area exchange in the MIM, we mapped the transformed
distance variable χ (Fig. 9). Basins of different sizes can be compared, since
χ eliminates the effect of drainage area. Contrast in χ is observed along local
and water divides in both the northern and the southern ridges.
Across the Khoumane basin (31), which separates the main water di-
vides, the channels on the southeastern side show higher values than those
on the northwestern side (Fig. 9). Such differences indicate that the Khou-
mane catchment is losing its southeastern area, through divide migration or
river capture to reach an equilibrium state (Willett et al., 2014).
In the northern sector, basin 7 appears to be growing in two direc-
tions, at the expense of the basin neighboring drainage area to the west
(basins 2; 4 and 6) and to the east (basins 8; 9; 10; 11 and 12) (Fig. 9).
The latter basins having very high χ at their headwater suggesting that
they are losing drainage area, which is supported by their elongate and
narrow shape of basins. The growing basin 7 indicates rapid channel
incision evidenced by the El Heitouf gorge (Fig. 6d).
In the TaR-KnR, basin (25) is expanding in size at the expense of basin
(23), which in turn is expanding by consuming its neighbor's drainage
area (basin 22; Fig. 9). Subsequently, the loss of basin area increases χ
and decreases the streams power making them victim of the aggressor
streams, which are gaining area that decreases their χ values.
5. Discussion
5.1. Morpho-tectonic interpretation
5.1.1. Northern and eastern sectors
The northern and eastern sectors are characterized by low values of
A. Amine, et al.
Fig. 6. (continued)
Smf and Vf, with Smf values increasing westward, indicative of a relative
quiescence in the DNP (Na, Nb and Nc in Fig. 4a).
The highest tectonic activity in the northeastern and eastern fronts ap-
pears to be related to the NF whose activity is accentuated by the occurrence
of NDF. They are affected by many tear faults which may favor the in-
filtration of meteoric water, leading to the dissolution of Triassic nuclei
(Haddaoui, 2000) and thus account for the increase of tectonic perturbation
in these sectors. This setting is well illustrated in the DNR, which exhibits
radial drainage pattern, indicative of active deformation and where the NW-
SE trending dip-slip fault (DNF) and the superposed N–S tear faults result
from the late stress relaxation generating a collapse area, north of El Heitouf
river (Faugères, 1978; Haddaoui, 2000) (Fig. 3b).
The high Ksn values (Fig. 5) substantiates the recent uplift of DNR,
along NR, as well as the creation of the El Heitouf and Beni Mraaz Gorges
in the DNP (Fig. 6d and e), that we interpret to be linked to a continuous
fault activity. There the uplift rate inferred from the empirical scaling
relationship between denudation rates and normalized channel steepness,
Ksn ranges between 0.07 mm/yr in the DNP mm/yr; 0.092 mm/yr in the
DNR and 0.11 mm/yr assigned to the eastern front along NR (Fig. 7).
11
Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
Catchments asymmetries support the influence of both NDF and ALF
displacement, which have an opposed effect on the tilting and tilting
direction of the drainage basins. The westward and eastward basin
asymmetries (Fig. 4a) confirm the increasing strike slip mode gradient to
the east and to the west respectively, causing the occurrence of younger
basins (18, 17 and 1 in Fig. 4a) with maximum uplift being localized close
to the NDF. Consequently, almost all basins in DNR are wholly re-
juvenated, then converted to complex basins towards the west and the
south in the NR, in response to the combined effect of fault displacements
and salt influence.
The completely rejuvenated basin (7 in Fig. 4a) is due to the recent
activity of the NW-SE trending dip-slip fault boosted by the associated
effect of related tear faults. The eastern basins asymmetries and their
higher Smf value confirm its down to the east normal movement (basins 7,
9, 10, 11 and Nc in Fig. 4a and Table 1), thus generating a foot-re-
juvenation basin process. The fault activity yields a westward uplift of its
footwall in the DNP, supported by the higher values of Ksn (Fig. 5) and
lower Smf value (Nb in Fig. 4a). Conversely, a gradual variation of hyp-
sometric curve is observed to the west, from convex hypsometric curves
A. Amine, et al.
Fig. 7. (A) Empirical scaling relationships between normalized steepness channels (Ksn) and denudation rates from a variety of active orogens (figure adapted from
Kirby and Whipple, 2012 and Azañón et al., 2015). (B) Mean values of Ksn for Moulay Idriss Massif.
(basins 1 in Fig. 4a) shape, close to ALF, passing through S-shaped hyp-
sometric curves (basins.3 and 2), towards complex hypsometric curves
(basins 5 and 6). Thus reflects the ALF eastward decrease influence,
leading to the Beni Meaaz gorge formation (basin 2 in Fig. 4a). This is
consistent with the increase of Smf index value (Na in Fig. 4a and Table 1)
and a differential uplift along the northern part of the massif. Therefore,
we suggest that the DNF and the associated tear faults result from the
growth of DNR instead of the late stress relaxation interpreted by
(Haddaoui, 2000).
5.1.2. Southern and western sectors
The obtained geomorphic indices from the southern sector are con-
sistent with the TKF and MHF recent activities, in accordance with field
observations (Fig. 6f, g and h). Although the mean uplift value of the ZER
(0.062 mm/yr) is higher than the TaR-KnR (0.047 mm/yr) (Fig. 7), the
anomalous steepness of river reaches identified by Ksn, along TKF trace
(Fig. 5), indicates a significant uplift relative of its hanging-wall block,
comparing to that for the MHF hanging wall, in response to a decrease of
fault gradient towards the west. The southern faults activity is responsible
for the generation of the head, foot and middle rejuvenation basins
(Fig. 4d and e), which exhibit a strong eastward asymmegrfdvcxrefdcxtry.
In TaR-KnR\, the Ksn values range between 80 and 130 (Fig. 5), which
reflects the maximum uplift in the southern part of the MIM, along the
TKF. The eastern motion of the MHF is influenced by the ALF activity.
More interestingly, the higher uplift rate of FBR, supported by the ε
shape of khoumane hypsometric curve, yields the maximum value of Ksn
(>200) as it is proportional to uplift rates (Fig. 5). Therefore, pointing to
an active halokinesis argued by the raising Triassic salt (sulfurous hot
spring of El Hamma) (Fig. 6c). This activity is favored by the combined
effect of F1 and F2, together with tear faults producing a highly fractured
area. They are stimulated by the additional subsiding control of MIF,
where the faceted spurs confirm its normal movement instead of reverse.
This activity results in the development of a gorge which we name
Moulay Idriss gorge (Fig. 6b), driven by the Khoumane incision into the
Jurassic bedrock of the FBR western rim, coevally with the occurrence of
trapezoid facet along MIF scarp (Figs. 5 and 6a), and where El Hamma
sulfurous groundwater rises (Fig. 6c). Such conditions suggest that Khou-
mane river could be antecedent to the FBR which exerts a modern uplift.
12
Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833
5.2. Drainage network evolution
Changes in Ksn values (Fig. 5) reflect the relief incision variations,
within the MIM, indicating the rivers response to different rates of ex-
humation (Fig. 7).
The eastern part of the massif as well as the FBR are highly active
zones, revealed by previous geomorphic features, exhibit a younger
morphology of streams with convex and concave-convex longitudinal
profiles (Fig. 8), while the linear character of the Khoumane attributes
confirm the MIF footwall uplift (Fig. 6a). Similarly, higher values of Ksn
(between 80 and 250) increase towards the W, in FRB
(Ksn > 200; Fig. 6c), confirming its maximum amount of uplift. Conse-
quently, the upstream propagating knickpoints with vertical waterfall
deflect the Khoumane river to carve up the Moulay Idriss gorge. The
formation of waterfall here results in the over-steepened Khoumane reach
developed onto fractured carbonate rocks as a result of the El Hamma
groundwater sapping function (Fig. 6b and c) promoted by salt tectonic
activity. Indeed, being at lower elevation, El Hamma discharges into the
Khoumane and produces a theater-headed valley, typical for the devel-
opment of sapping process (Laity and Malin, 1985) with a structurally
controlled ‘U’ shape (Fig. 7f and 6b).
Hence the Khoumane basin is losing its upstream drainage area,
leaving it with high χ. Moreover, other local water divide migrations,
mainly in TaR-KnR to the southeast and DNP to the northwest, are con-
sistent with a disequilibrium state due to tectonic perturbation in the
massif (Fig. 9).
The two knickpoints observed in (Fig. 8b and c, d, f) limit the river
reaches, where Ksn decreases upstream, progressively corresponding to
slope-break knickpoints. We interpret their formation as the result of two-
phased increase in uplift rate (Fig. 8), in response to the Quaternary
tectonic activity, coupled with an active halokinesis.
By contrast, generation of one knickpoint is observed in El Heitouf
and Beni Meraaz, consistent with gorge formations as well as along the
southern fault trace (streams 22, 23, 25, 27 and 28 in Fig. 8a), correlating
with a break of Ksn values (between 80 and 40) in the westernmost basins
(basins 29 and 30 in Fig. 5) indicative of a reduction in the uplift rate of
the MHF footwall.
A. Amine, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 167 (2020) 103833

Fig. 8. (a) Geological map showing the 31 trunk river channels and the correspondent fluvial knickpoints identified in this study. (b–g) χ plots for the main studied
rivers (blue with dashed red lines) with their correspondent trunk channel river profiles (blue lines). Triangles mark knickpoints (1 generation in yellow and 2
generation in green colors) and the dashed, red lines correspond to the linear regressions using for the determination of different (ksn) reaches. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

5.3. The Moulay Idriss Massif activity related to the SW Central Rif motion 6. Conclusion

The resulted vertical motion in the MIM ranging from 0.05 mm/yr to
0.11 mm/yr may explain the discrepancy between the present NW plate
convergence rates of 4–5 mm/year (DeMets et al., 1994) and the rela-
tively low maximum uplift rate of 0.11 mm/year. This will be concordant
with a mean 2 mm/yr SW regional differential displacement of the Rif
front, the Saïss foreland basin and the tabular Middle Atlas foreland
(Chalouan et al., 2014) and an horizontal shortening rate of
2.5 ± 1.3 mm/yr along the SRF, responsible for the 1755 Meknes
earthquake (Poujol et al., 2017), in agreement with previous regional
research studies (Fadil et al., 2006; Koulali et al., 2011; Vernant et al.,
2010) (Fig. 1b).
Salt tectonics and the activity of the NE-SW oriented NDF and ALF
account for the vertical growth of the MIM, mainly to the east, which in
turn may trigger the 1755 Meknes earthquake. The NDF and ALF together
with the SFF (Fig. 3a); the SRF (Fig. 2); and the sinitral crustal faults
mainly the North Middle Atlas fault (NMAF) (Fig. 2) accommodate the
SW escape of the Central Rif with respect of stable Africa (Chalouan et al.,
2014, 2006; Poujol et al., 2017). This motion is located between the
NMAF and the Jebha fault (Fig. 2) (Chalouan et al., 2006), which extend
northeastward and associated with the deformation in the Alboran sea
(Chalouan et al., 2001, 1997; Comas et al., 1999) accommodating the
shortening caused by the Eurasia-Africa convergence by N–S to NE–SW
shortening, locally rotated up to a NW–SE orientation and the possibly
associated subduction processes within this convergence zone.
The present geomorphic analysis demonstrates different degrees of
tectonic activity between the eastern and western parts of the massif that
are corroborated by the reactivation of both NDF and ALF, with the oc-
currence of salt influence. The spatial change of tectonic activity is re-
lated to the irregular salt layer in the area in depth (Faugères, 1978)
induced by the Mio-Pliocene to present fault activity and stimulated by
the motion of the Western and Central Rif to the SW via NDF and ALF
systems.
The results from the geomorphologic analyses support the relative
high activity of the eastern part of the MIM (DNR, NR and TaR-KnR).
These include the convex hypsometric curve in DNR and foot-rejuvena-
tion streams along the NR and TaR-KnR as well as convex and concave-
convex profiles, which exhibit high Ksn values and thus consistent with
rate of 0.11 mm/yr in the Quaternary. The recent activity in the DNR and
NR seems to be related to NDF and NF fault system, which in turn pro-
motes salt tectonics, especially in the DNR salt dome.
The differential uplift in the northern part of the MIM is corroborated
with the occurrence of one generation of knickpoint in the northwest and
two generation to the northeast, which are controlled by a neo halokin-
esis influence. This interpretation is argued by the salt tectonics control in
the FRB, where the El Hamma groundwater occurrence oversteepens
Koumane reach (Ksn> 200) with the formation of vertical waterfall
(Figs. 8f and 6c). In this part, the MIF footwall shifts to trapezoidal facets
indicative of normal fault recent activity, which results in the deviation of
the Khoumane river and the formation of Moulay Idriss gorge.
The southern faults are characterized by a progressive decrease of slip
towards the west in MHF, where the Ksn values together with knickpoints

13
A. Amine, et al.
Fig. 9. Spatial distribution of χ for rivers draining areas >0.1 km2. (a) χ map of the sebou watershed. (b) χ map of the Massif, black arrows indicate the direction of
divide motion depending on the variation in χ across drainage divides.
indicate its relative lower activity in the MIM, comparing to those of the
MIF or the TKF. Thus, it seems not to be the cause of the 1755 Meknes
earthquake as it has been interpreted by Moratti et al. (2003).
The obtained morphotectonic results not only provide evidences of
active structures accommodating the southwestward escape of the central
Rif, but also highlight regional tectonic deformations as well as active salt
tectonics, which can be studied under other aspects.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies
in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank José Vicente Pérez-Peña and an anonymous re-
viewer for their comments and suggestions that greatly improved this
paper. We are grateful to Damien Delvaux for handling the editorial
process.
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