ECE 2313: PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING II

Course Outline

Introduction to Wastewater: definition, sources, characteristics

Microbiology: types and roles of WW microbiology, growth kinetics

BOD: oxygen demand, kinetics of BOD removal

Sewerage: Collection and conveyance

Treatment : Preliminary, primary, secondary (WSP, Trickling filter, AS)

Communicable diseases and their engineering controls

Course Objective

- Describe the sources and types of wastewater

- Describe and perform design steps for wastewater collection and conveyance sewer system
- Understand the important wastewater microorganisms and determine basic growth kinetics
- Understand environmental communicable diseases microorganisms and application of public
health engineering in the prevention and control
- Quantify wastewater organic load
- Understand treatment levels and methods
- Carry out common laboratory tests for wastewater including BOD,COD, TS,TSS,SVI.

TEXT

1. Wastewater Engineering : Treatment and re-use, Metcalf & Eddy, McGraw Hill, 2003
2. Biological wastewater treatment: Principles, modeling and design. Ed Henze M, Van
Loosdrecht M.C.N, Ekama G.A and Brdjanovic D. IWA Publications, 2008.

Instructor: Prof(Eng.) Alfred O. Mayabi

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Production of waste from human activities is unavoidable. Liquid waste and solid waste mixed or
dissolved in water is wastewater.

Definition: Generally a combination of domestic effluent consisting of black and grey water, wastewater
from commercial establishments and institutions, industry, storm water and other runoffs.

2. WASTEWATER DISCHARGES

Sources of Wastewater

Households- domestic sewage (99.9% water, 0.02-0.04% solids)

Industries- dairy, tannery, food, pharmaceuticals, etc

Agricultural- farm yard, farm runoff, product processing

Storm water- runoff from urban centres

Institutions-domestic, commercial

Commercial- non-industrial businesses

WW Characteristics

The characteristics depend on the type of wastewater i.e domestic or industrial.

Physical –temperature, color, odour, inert solids

Chemical – organic (BOD/COD), inorganic, pH. Heavy metals(Zn, Cu, Pd etc) or micro-organic
compounds(Phenol, PAHs, chloroform, etc) may be important in industrial wastewater. Fats, proteins
and carbohydrates (i.e organic matter) is a major pollutant in wastewater and is traditionally measured
in BOD and/or COD.

Biological- bacterial, viral, helminth (worms). Most microorganisms come from human excreta. Faeces
and to a less extent urine contain millions of intestinal bacteria and small numbers of other organisms

Why characterize?

 Handling e.g contact, conduit material, etc

 Treatment- unit processes required
 Use-Reuse in agriculture, toilet flushing
 Environmental and public health impact

Domestic wastewater constituents consist mainly of biodegradable matter, inorganic matter, nutrients

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and microorganisms. Table 2.1 shows the constituents and components present in domestic wastewater
and their effect on public health and/or environment.

Table 2.1: Constituents present in domestic wastewater

Wastewater Constituents Wastewater components Public health/environmental

impact
Microorganisms Pathogenic bacteria, virus and Risk of contamination when bathing
worms eggs and eating shellfish

Biodegradable organic matter
Other organic matter
Nutrients
Metals
Other inorganic materials
Thermal discharges
Oduor and taste
Carbohydrates, proteins, and other Oxygen depletion in rivers, lakes and
biodegradable matter other water bodies.
Fish deaths, odours
Detergents, pesticides, fat, oil, Toxicity, aesthetics, bioaccumulation
grease, coloring, solvents, phenols, in the food chain
cyanide
Nitrogen, phosphorus Eutrophication, oxygen depletion,
toxicity
Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni Toxicity, bioaccumulation
Acids(e.g H2S), bases(eg NaHCO3) Corrosion, toxicity
Hot water Temperature changes for flora and
fauna
Gases e.g H2S Odour, aesthetics, corrosion,
toxicity

Estimation of WW Flow

Wastewater from a population can be estimated using person load and expressed as Population
Equivalent(PE) unit in volume or BOD. Person load can vary considerably from country to country with
ranges given below

Load unit range

COD g/cap.d 25-200

BOD g/cap.d 15-80

WW m3/cap.d 0.05-0.4

Existing practices in Kenya relates generated waste water to the per capita water consumption. The
amount of wastewater generated is estimated as a factor of water consumption. The guidelines
developed by WHO (1973) and presented in the “Sectoral Study and National Programming for
Community and Rural Water Supply, Sewerage and Water Pollution Control, Report 9, Selection and
Design Criteria for Sewerage Projects for Government of Kenya” gives the following sewage generation
factors.

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Category of consumer Water consumption Rate Sewage
factor
Urban Medium Class Housing 150 (L/c/d) 0.8
Schools/Institutions 65 (L/c/d) 0.85
Hospitals 5000 (L/d) 0.85
Commercial (basis Hotels) 300 (L/b/d) 0.85

Design for peak flow. Qd = Qpeak + infiltration, subject to minimum flow (e.g 1.5l/s)

Qpeak = Pf. Wf.P where Pf is the peak factor, =PF =1.8-2, wf is the WW production rate per capita for
projected population and infiltration allowance for service area ≈(70-140 m3/d/km) and

=2/3.

Minimum slope can be estimated from Sm = 5.64x10-3 x Qmin-6/13 based on minimum tractive shear stress
of 1Pa, where Qmin is the flow at the start of the design period. Pipe dia is based on Qmax i.e flow at the
end of design period i.e for projected population. But if the required velocity is achieved, the slope is
acceptable.

A number of population projection methods are given in the soft copy notes sent to you.

3. SEWERAGE COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE

Sewage is conveyed in pipes known as sewers from its place of production to its place of treatment and
disposal. From buildings/homes directly or from septic tanks by gravity and /or pumping. The basic
principle is the Bernoulli`s equation i.e conservation of energy.

Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hf

Types of sewers

Gravity –Combined or separate

Pressurized- used where gravity (conventional) systems are not practical e.g hilly, rocky or densely
populated areas with high water table.

Gravity

The sewers are usually in network of underground conduits. They are either of the separate or
combined system. House connections usually 4”, laterals 6-8”(150-200mm) and mains are much larger.
This then finally joins the trunk to the treatment system. Precast pipes of earthen or concrete as well as
PVC are common.

In a design layout of the collector sewer route is chosen taking into account of the following factors:-

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Ground slope, the existing sanitation infrastructure, other existing developments, future expansion plan
and location of treatment works.

The conduits carry open flow i.e not under pressure, hence open flow.

For enclosed pipe flowing partially full, let the angle subtended at the centre by the water surface be θ.
Flow area A= ⁄ ⁄ = =

A= [ ]

Note θ is the same as ф whenever used in this work.

For open flow in closed pipes, the variation in velocity over the range half full to full is insignificant and
full flow velocity can be used with negligible error within the range.

The design flow should be the Qpeak including infiltration and inflow where applicable. Minimum slope
should be based on Qmin while design capacity should be Qpeak.

From the shear stress equation in pipe flow, min slope is given by

Smin = 2.33x10-4 (τmin)16/13 Q-6/13, where τmin is the minimum shear stress, normally 1-3Pa.

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Gravity sewers serving communities -Typically, 4-inch diameter laterals transport sewage from
household plumbing fixtures to a sewer lateral and collector main in the road. At junctions where
collector mains intersect, manholes are installed for maintenance purposes. The collector mains flow to
larger trunk sewers that transport wastewater to a central treatment plant. Sewer depth becomes
pronounced in long pipe runs, necessitating the use of pump stations at deep junctures to lift sewage to
shallower depths to avoid deep excavations downstream.

A typical sewer collector and conveyance system should meet the following conditions:-

- Gravity flow. Pumping should be avoided as much as possible

- The pipes should be at an adequate depth for protection
- The flow velocity must be self-cleansing but not high enough to scour
- Junctions, change in slope and size, and at reasonable distances, manholes must be placed
- The system should be dendritic, or branching, network converging in the downstream direction
without closed loops.

Example.
A 120 m reach of sewer is to be designed with a flow capacity of 100 L/s. The
street elevation at the upper manhole is 90.00 m and the lower manhole is 87.60 m, as
shown below. Determine an appropriate pipe diameter and slope for this reach, and
establish the pipe invert elevations at the upper and lower manholes. Assume a minimum earth
cover of 2 m above the crown of the pipe and Manning roughness of 0.013.

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Solution

Pipe dia and slope

ground slope = (90 – 87.6)/120 = 0.02
Using the Manning equation, with s = 0.02 and Q = 0.1m3/s, we get D = 266 mm  take
standard dia. of 250mm  but the slope has to be steeper, to achieve the discharge: try
about 0.03 to have a capacity of 0.1m3/s.
If the slope is 0.03 the drop will be 0.03 x 120 = 3.6 m which means extra cover of 3.6 – 2.4
=1.2 m which is excessive.
Select a larger dia. Of 300 mm at ground slope 0.02 slope  full-flow capacity would be 0.137
m3/s. Partial flow condition is Q/Qf =0.1/0.137 = 0.73 and  we read d/D = 0.63 from partial
flow diagram and  V/Vf = 1.07.
The full flow velocity Vf = 1.938 m/s  v = 1.07 x 1.938 = 2.07 m/s which is okay
Required Pipe dia; 300 mm dia. at 0.02 slope

Upper and lower invert elevation

Upper invert elevation = ground elv. - cover - pipe diameter
= 90.00 - 2.00 - 0.3 = 87.70 m

Drop in the elevation of sewer

Fall of sewer = 0.02 x 120 = 2.40 m
\lower invert elevation = Upper invert elevation – fall of sewer
= 87.70 - 2.4 = 85.30 m

Note that for any flow condition, the partial flow equations can be substituted in the equation

in which R is the hydraulic radius. And when Q, So, and n are known D the diameter is
obtained. This is the only procedure that can be followed when d/D <0.5 and hence V/Vf ≠1.

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Pressurized system

The primary effluent is delivered to the collection tank (septic tank) by gravity where its grinded before
being pumped into the pressure line. Use low pressures up to 60psi.

The pump has choppers to reduce the size of the solids to enable use of small pipes. The pipes are small
and placed in shallow trenches. The pipes are 1.5-8” compared to 4-20” for gravity. Capital cost is lower
but O&M costs may eventually lead to higher overall cost.

A prime factor in evaluating the cost-effectiveness of a wastewater collection system is the terrain and
subterranean characteristics of the area. In rolling terrain, conventional gravity sewers are more costly
to install because they must be buried deep in the ground. Further, excavation costs are higher in areas
with shallow groundwater due to dewatering activities, and in areas where hard pan rock exists.

Sewer pipes materials

Pipe materials include concrete and reinforced concrete, clay, ductile iron, HDPE, PVC, glass reinforced
plastic, etc. Some materials are not available beyond a given size.

Sewer pipe material consideration should include trench conditions (geologic), corrosion, temperature,
safety and cost. The key pipe material characteristics to consider are:-

- Corrosion resistance
- Abrasion resistance i.e scouring factor
- Strength and durability
- Weight of the material
- Imperviousness i.e leak tightness
- Economy and cost
- Hydraulic efficiency i.e smoothness of the pipe wall

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 4. WASTEWATER MICROORGANISMS

4.1: Classification based on structural function and their role in wastewater treatment

The most important groups are the protista (algae,protozoa), fungi and bacteria.

Bacteria: Single celled. They are basically grouped into four shapes;- the straight rod, curved rod, spiral
and a sphere. The straight rod is the most common shape and includes the pseudomonas, zoogloea,
escherichia, and salmonella. The c-curved are vibrio including vibrio cholera and desulfovibrio. The
streptococcus is of the spherical group.

They are usually the largest population in WW treatment system, biodegrading organic matter through
respiration using oxygen(aerobic) or anaerobically. In AS filamentous type will result in sludge bulking,
poor settlement and dewatering due to low DO, low F:M, Low pH(<6) and nutrient deficiency.

Algae: These are photosynthetic eukaryotes. Inhabit fresh and salt waters. Use solar energy for
photosynthesis and nitrogen and phosphorus for growth leading to eutrophication. Wastewater systems
with suitable conditions for them are the trickling filter and WSPs. Are known for their capacity in
bioadsorption and biodegradation of toxic and complex pollutants e.g PCBs, pesticides, PAH, phenols
and heavy metals. They utilize ammonia, nitrate, phosphate as nutrients and have a symbiotic
relationship with bacteria. They grow rapidly and adopt to harsh conditions faster than bacteria and
fungi.

Four groups are important in wastewater treatment.

Chlorophyta (Green algae): have chloroplast and motile by flagella. Chlamydomas and scenedesmus are
common.

Euglenophyta: May be pigmented or colorless. Are not obligate photoautotrophs. Typical genera include
euglena and phacus.

Cyanophyta (blue-green algae): Sometimes referred to as cynobacteria because of its cellular

organization. Responsible for large floating masses/ algal blooms. Typical ones include oscillatoria,
anabaena and microcystis.

Chrysophyta: Not very common in wastewater systems but mostly in freshwater but Bodo caudatus is
unusual and found in anaerobic ponds.

Protozoa: Are eukaryotic unicellular organisms. They graze on dispersed bacteria and adsorbs and
flocculates suspended matter thereby helps in the production of clear effluent e.g in AS system. They
are generally obligate aerobes, hence good indicator of an aerobic environment in the system. They are
more sensitive to toxicity than bacteria and therefore absence or lack of mobility is an indication of
possible toxicity.
Most are parasitic e.g malarial parasite plasmodium. However no parasitic protozoa is associated with
WW treatment. Three phyla are to be observed in WW treatment systems.

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Mastigophora (Flagellated)-two classes- phymastigophorea contain chloroplasts and are both
autotrophic and heterotrophic. Many are also classified as algae e.g Euglena, Volvox and dinoflagellates.
Zoomastigophorea are heterotrophic and numerous in AS and trickling filter.
Sarcodina (the amoeba): Posses pseudopodial structures which are used for movement and feeding.

Cillophora (the cillates): they are the largest in species numbers and diversity in treatment plants but not
necessarily in largest number of individuals. Characterized by the arrangement of the cilia over the cell
surface that affects motility.

Fungi: Include yeast (unicellular) and molds (multicellular) microorganisms. Under certain conditions e.g
acidic, they may metabolize organic compounds and compete with bacteria. Some may oxidize ammonia
to nitrite and fewer still, to nitrate. Some have the ability to trap and adsorb SS using their fungal
hyphae to gain energy and nutrient requirements. Presence of fungi in AS indicates low pH problem and
old sludge. They thrive in warm acidic, sugary and aerobic conditions. Typically grow in attached mode
for support and as substrate for growth. Do poorly in suspended growth.

4.2: Classification based on carbon and energy source.

This is another classification relevant to wastewater treatment. Carbon and energy are obtained during
the breakdown of wastewater by the microorganisms .

Classification Energy source Carbon source

Autotrophic Photoautotrophic light CO2
Chemoautotrophic Inorganic redox reaction CO2
Hetrotrophic photohetrotrophic light Organic Carbon
chemohetrotrophic Organic redox reaction Organic Carbon

4.3: Disease causing microorganisms:

Disease causing microorganisms are known as pathogens. A number of pathogens will be found in
domestic wastewater due to fecal contamination. Pathogenic microorganisms commonly found in
domestic wastewater and the communicable diseases they may cause are given in the table below:
Type of microorganism Examples Disease caused
Bacteria Salmonella typhi Typhoid
Vibrio cholera Cholera
E.coli Diarrhea, UTI, etc
Clostridium botulinum
Nematodes Schistosomes Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia)
Guinea worms
Tape worm Taeniasis
Ascaris (round worm) Ascariasis
Protozoa Entomoeba histolytica amoebic dysentery
Giardia lambilia Diarrhea
Cryptosporidium Diarrhea
Viruses Polio virus Polio
Hepatitis A Hepatitis

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Communicable disease can be transmitted from one person to another either directly or indirectly via a
causing agent e.g through water, air, body fluid, coughing/sneezing, contact, etc

An infectious disease is spread from person to person directly e.g through body fluid, coughing or
sneezing or through contact.

NB : All infectious diseases are communicable diseases but not all communicable diseases are infectious.
For example schistosomiasis and malaria are communicable diseases but not infectious while TB and HIV
are infectious and communicable.

Water-related diseases may be avoided or mitigated by good engineering practice and appropriate
water management. Water related diseases can be classified as follows;-

Water-borne- infections spread through drinking contaminated water

Water-washed- caused by lack of proper sanitation and hygiene

Water-based –transmitted through aquatic inverbrate organisms

Water-related vector borne- transmitted by insects that depend on water for propagation..

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4.4: Microorganism growth kinetics

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4. Microorganisms that are important in wastewater treatment are bacteria, algae,
fungi and protozoa. Explain the role of each.
5. Determine the average velocity in a trunk sewer made of concrete (n=0.015) of 1500 mm
diameter laid on a slope of 1%. The peak discharge through the pipe is estimated to be 4m3/s.

6. Determine the size and slope of a main sewer pipe to serve a residential population in urban
centre currently at 20,000 but expected to reach 35,000 during the design period in Kenya. The
general ground slope of the area is 0.001. A minimum earth cover of 1.5m is required. State any
assumptions made and ensure the necessary sewer conditions are met.

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