DR. B.R.

AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

JALANDHAR

Utilization of Electrical Energy and Electric Traction

Assignment - 2

Submitted by: DAMANPREET KAUR(20126020)

DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JALANDHAR

Submitted to: Dr.Nandan Kumar Navin (ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT )

Question 1. Draw and explain block diagram of auxiliary power supply system
used in modern electric traction.
Supply System
The single phase 50 Hz power for the electric traction is obtained from
220/132/110/66 kV Extra High Voltage 3 phase grid system through step down
single phase transformers. For this purpose duplicate feeders comprising of only 2
phases are run from the nearest sub-station of the Supply Authority to the
traction substation. The brief description of the system is given in Chapter 2 of
Volume I. The 25 kV single phase conventional system as adopted on Indian
Railways has been described in that chapter. A schematic diagram of the traction
sub-station and feeding post indicating the general feeding arrangement in
indicated at Fig

Ensuring a reliable power supply for railway traction requires effective

collaboration between Railway and Supply Authorities. Here are key actions to
enhance this:
a) Scheduled Meetings: Establish periodic meetings between Railway and Supply
Authorities at various levels to foster communication.

b) Voltage and Frequency Maintenance: Emphasize the importance of

maintaining traction voltage (25-27.5 kV) and frequency (48.5-51.5 Hz) to prevent
disruptions in railway traffic.

c) Essential Traction Load: Treat traction load as essential, avoiding

disconnections or reductions during supply system challenges. Encourage Supply
Authorities to adopt this principle.

d) Review of Interruptions: Regularly review and report short-duration power

interruptions at the Divisional level, highlighting causes. Discuss these
interruptions in periodic meetings for informed decision-making.

e) Formal Agreements: Ensure a specific agreement between the Railway and

Supply Authority governs electric traction power supply. Urgently finalize any
pending agreements.

Improving Power Factor:

a) Strategic Capacitor Placement: Prioritize installing power factor improvement

capacitors at the 25 kV bus of traction sub-stations. Give preference to sub-
stations serving large marshalling yards and those with penalties for low power
factor or exceeding maximum demand in the tariff.

b) Monthly Power Factor Monitoring: Calculate the average monthly power

factor by dividing kWh by kVAh. Ensure it doesn't become 'leading' when power
factor correction equipment is active, maintaining it close to unity. Use switched
capacitors for sub-stations with wide load variations.

c) RDSO Guidelines Adherence: Adhere to the guidelines provided by the Railway

Design and Standards Organization (RDSO) for selecting the kVAr rating during the
planning phase.
These steps will optimize power factor, enhancing operational efficiency and
minimizing penalties.

Question 2. Discuss briefly the role of SCADA system in modern electric traction

SCADA as we know is an abbreviation for supervisory control and data acquisition.

The control equipments installed are Receiving Substation (RSS), Terminal
Substation (TSS), Auxiliary Substation (ASS), Auxiliary Main System (AMS),
Switching Substations (SS), Paralleling and Sub-sectioning Stations. All these are
used for:

(a) Local management of automatic sequences e.g., interlocking of switchgears,

recording the status of signals and alarms.

(b) Compiling data such as equipment status, diagnosis and telemetry data which
will be transmitted to the control system.

(c) Assistance in maintenance through archiving of information relating to the

varying status of the switchgears, transmission of specific alarms indicating that a
maintenance operation is to be planned.

Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) are installed for all the RSS, TSS, ASS, AMS, etc.
locations. The SCADA system installed at the operator control centre (OCC)
continuously receives data from various RTUs over a combination of electrical
RS485 signals and a fibre optic network (FON is discussed in Chapter 3). SCADA
system implements functions like status monitoring of equipments, interlocking
of switchgears, alarms and events, trends for the metering signals, operator
control functions, etc. The operations performed and the number of times the
equipment has been in use can be monitored and displayed and the operator can
decide upon to assign the equipment for maintenance.

All the RTUs are time synchronised with the master stations through
communication links. This ensures that the RTUs are set to the same time domain
and the events reported from the RTUs synchronised are related to the same time
domain.
Man Machine Interface (MMI): The interaction between the Man (Operator) and
the SCADA(Machine) system takes place through man-machine interface. In
occurrence of critical alarms and events which the operator is able to see on the
monitor, he can as well change the sequence of operation. Operator can take
appropriate control actions from the MMI monitors (screens).

MMI provides three security levels for access to different functions:

(1) Control level: Access to view and control

(ii) Engineering level: Privilege to configure the database

(iii) Administrative level: Facility to add users in addition to above privileges.

Real time display of system: Full graphic coloured display of the full section with
relevant indices of devices can be seen on Visual Display Unit (VDU) screen of the
work station.

(i) All the substations in single line diagram will be indicated.

(ii) Open status of the breaker and other equipments in open position will be
indicated in red.

(iii) Close status of the breaker and other equipments in close position will be
indicated in green.

(iv) Equipment with uncertain status is indicated in magenta.

The status of tracks and bus bars when de-energised are indicated as red, when
energised it is indicated in green and blue for unknown.

In addition to the above, a separate window is also provided to indicate the status
of the CB like:

(v) Local/Remote

(vi) SF, gas pressure/vacuum level

(vii) 110 V DC fail

(viii) Protective relay status etc.

Remote Control: Under emergency or abnormal operating condition e.g., some

equipment or some section of the traction system goes faulty, the operator at the
Energy Control Centre (ECC) can isolate the faulty equipment or section of the
system and on the establishment of normal condition can restore the equipment
or section of the system. However, for the control of the field equipments, the
commands from the software are sent to the field, using the digital output card of
the RTU.

Question 3. Define the following terms: -

(i) Luminous flux and Luminous Intensity-

Luminous flux - It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per
second from a luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and measured
in lumens. Ex: Suppose the luminous body is an incandescent lamp. The total
electrical power input to the lamp is not converted to luminous flux, some of the
power lost through conduction, convection, and radiation, etc. Afraction of the
remaining radiant flux is in the form of light waves lies in between the visual
range of wavelength, i.e. between 4,000 and 7,000 Å, as shown in Fig.

Luminous Intensity- Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the

luminous flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle .
It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is usually measured in ‘candela’.
Let ‘F’ be the luminous I = ∅/ m
flux crossing a spherical segment of solid angle ‘ω’. Then luminous intensity
lumen/steradian or candela

(ii) Illuminous and Luminous efficacy -

Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit
area.It is usually denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m^2

Luminous efficacy is a measure of how efficiently a light source produces visible

light. It is expressed as the ratio of luminous flux (measured in lumens) to
electrical power input (measured in watts). In simpler terms, luminous efficacy
indicates how much visible light is produced per unit of energy consumed.

(iii) Lumen and Candle Power -

Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by
a source of one candle power per unit solid angle in all directions. Lumen = candle
power of source × solid angle.
Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
Candle power (CP) The CP of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines
emitted by that source in a unit solid angle.
CP = Luminous flux / Solid Angle lumen/steradian or candela

(iv) Luminance and Glare-

Luminance is the measure of the brightness of a surface as perceived by the
human eye. It is denoted by the symbol L and measured in units of candela per
square meter (cd/m²). The formula for luminance is:
L= I/Acos theta cd/m²

Glare refers to excessive brightness or discomfort caused by intense light. It can

be quantified using formulas related to luminance, illuminance, and background
luminance, but a concise formula for glare is not as straightforward. It often
involves complex calculations based on specific lighting conditions and visual
comfort criteria.

(v) MSCP and MHCP -

Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP) MHCP is defined as the mean of the
candle power of source in all directions in horizontal plane.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP) MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle
power of source in all directions in all planes.

Question 4. Define the following terms: -

(i) Beam angle- The beam angle is the angular spread of light from a source,
indicating the width of the cone where light intensity is at least 50% of the
maximum. It defines how focused or wide the emitted light is, measured in
degrees.

(ii) Beam lumens - "Beam lumens" refers to the total luminous flux within a
specific beam angle emitted by a light source. It quantifies the amount of visible
light concentrated within the defined beam, providing a measure of the light
intensity within that focused area.

(iii) Waste light factor - When a surface is illuminated by several numbers of the
sources of light, there is certain amount of wastage due to overlapping of light
waves; the wastage of light is taken into account depending upon the type of area
to be illuminated. Its value for rectangular area is 1.2 and for irregular area is 1.5
and objects such as statues, monuments, etc

(iv) Depreciation factor- It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the

ultimate maintained illumination on the working plane.
(v) Utilization factor - It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens reaching
the working plane to the Total number of lumens emitting from source.

Question 5. Describe the construction and principle of working and application

of the following:
Fluorescent Lamp:

The mercury vapour lamps operating at low pressure emit radiation about 2500
AU while at high pressure they emit radiation of about 3650 AU. Since both the
emissions are in the ultraviolet region, are of no use as source of light. However,
these radiations can be used to excite certain materials. When the excited
molecules of these materials return to normal, they emit a radiation at a
frequency different from that which caused the excitation and thus the radiation
emitted by the material may be within the visible zone so that the ultraviolet
radiations are converted to light. Materials which possess this property are called
fluorescent.
CONSTRUCTION:

The fluorescent lamp is in the form of a tube 3 to 5 cms. in diameter and 0.5 m. to
1.5 meter long with an electrode at each end which are in the form of coiled
filaments coated with an electron emitting material. The inside of the tube is
coated with fluorescent powder and as the operating temperature of the tube is
approximately 50° C, no outer tube is required. A series choke for stabilizing the
discharge and a shunt capacitor across supply terminals for improvement of p.f.
are used with the tube. The lagging p.f. is due to the choke only. Sometimes a
small capacitor of 0.05µ F is connected across the tube as shown in Fig. 6.27 to
suppress radio interference as the tube draws non-sinusoidal current from the
supply on account of the characteristics of the discharge.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

When the supply is switched on the starter provides a path through the
electrodes and the choke to provide preheating. The starter switch then opens
automatically thereby the current is interrupted. Since this heating current
reduces to zero value instantaneously in the choke circuit also, the choke field
collapses which releases stored energy and thus produces a high voltage between
the electrodes and causes the preionized tube to strike.

Mainly there are two types of starter switches (1) glow starter switch and (ii)
thermal starter switch.

The glow starter switch consists of a pair of bimetal contacts sealed in a small
glass bulb filled with argon gas. When the supply is switched on the total supply
voltage appears across the open contacts, thereby an arc discharge takes place
between the contacts. The heat from the discharge closes the bi-metal contacts
causing the preheat current to flow. The closure of the contacts extinguishes the
arc, thereby the bimetal contacts cool and open and the lamp strikes. A small
capacitor to suppress radio interference is fitted between the contact connections
outside the glass bulb. The glass bulb is usually mounted on a plastic base and
inserted into a small cylinderical metal canister. The base has metal studs or pins
coming out from it which are connected to the bi-metal contacts. An insulated
socket is mounted in the control gear housing to receive the metal studs of the
starter switch so that it may be connected into the control gear circuit.

A thermal starter switch has almost similar appearance to a glow starter switch
except that it employs a relatively larger size of the canister. This also has a pair of
bimetal strips which are initially closed rather than open as in case of glow starter.
The contacts alongwith the heater coil are enclosed in a glass bulb. The bulb is
filled with a gas to improve the thermal link between the heater coil and the
contacts.

When the supply is switched on, the current flows through the choke, the starter
heater and the electrodes. The heater coil raises the temperature of the bi-metal
contacts and they separate, thereby the current through the choke is interrupted
and the consequent voltage pulse of approximately 1000 volts causes the tube to
strike. Once the tube strikes the tube current flows through the starter heater and
the bimetal contacts remain open.

Fluorescent discharge lamps may be operated on a d.c. supply also. This requires
the use of a resistive ballast for arc stability in addition to the choke for producing
the voltage pulse. The resistive ballast introduces very high power loss in the
ballast. Also the migration of positively charged mercury ions towards the
cathode results in low light output from the anode end of the tube. For this
reason whenever the tube is to be used on d.c., a reversing switch is normally
used in the circuit to change the direction of the current through the tube every
few hours.

APPLICATIONS:

With the advent of power transistors, this method of operation of tubes is

extensively being used in trains, buses and aircrafts.
Question 6. Explain the various factors to be taken into account for designing
schemes for the following: -
(i) Street Lighting:

Designing schemes for street lighting involves considering several factors:

● Road Layout: The arrangement and dimensions of the road, including

width, curvature, and intersections, impact the placement and type of
streetlights.
● Pedestrian Zones: Identify areas with high pedestrian activity, such as
crosswalks and public spaces, and design lighting schemes to enhance
safety.
● Lighting Levels: Determine appropriate illuminance levels for different road
categories, considering factors like traffic flow and potential hazards.
● Uniformity: Aim for uniform lighting distribution to minimize dark spots
and ensure consistent visibility for both drivers and pedestrians.
● Color Temperature: Choose a color temperature that enhances visibility
and safety. Warmer tones may provide a more comfortable environment,
while cooler tones may improve visibility.
● Energy Efficiency: Opt for energy-efficient technologies like LED lighting to
reduce operational costs and environmental impact.
(ii) Flood Lighting:

Designing flood lighting schemes involves addressing specific requirements for

wide-area illumination:

● Purpose of Illumination: Define the purpose, whether it's for sports events,
architectural highlighting, or security. Different purposes may require
varied lighting intensities and distributions.
● Luminaires Placement: Consider the optimal placement and mounting
heights of luminaires to achieve even illumination across the targeted area.
● Control Systems: Implement control systems, such as timers or motion
sensors, to manage when the floodlights are active, improving energy
efficiency.
● Beam Spread: Choose floodlights with appropriate beam spreads to cover
the desired area effectively without causing spill light.
● Glare Control: Mitigate glare to ensure the comfort and safety of people
within and around the illuminated area.

(iii) Highway Lighting:

Designing lighting schemes for highways involves addressing the specific needs of
roadways:

● Traffic Conditions: Consider traffic density, speed limits, and the type of
vehicles using the highway to determine the required lighting levels.
 ● Spacing and Mounting Height: Determine the optimal spacing and
mounting height of luminaires to achieve uniform lighting along the
highway.
● Adaptive Lighting: Implement adaptive lighting systems that can adjust
brightness based on real-time conditions, promoting energy efficiency.
● Lighting Quality: Ensure adequate color rendering and color temperature
to enhance visibility and reduce glare for drivers.
● Maintenance Accessibility: Choose luminaires and poles that are easily
accessible for maintenance, minimizing downtime and associated safety
risks.
● Lighting Design Standards: Adhere to relevant lighting design standards
and guidelines to ensure the scheme meets safety and visibility
requirements for highway users.

Question 7. What is photometry? Describe the photovoltaic method of

photometry and discuss its limitations?
Except for the measurement of luminance of sources, measurements by visual
comparison have been replaced by photocell because these cells give more
accurate and faster measurements The more complex procedures and the
apparatus involved in visual measurements are thus avoided. Also, if es pro
precautions are observed the measurements by photo cells is not only more
accurate they are consistent as well. The two types of photocells used for
photometry are photovoltaic cells and photo-emissive cells. The photovoltaic cell
is the most widely used one because of the simplicity of the associated circuits.
The construction of a photovoltaic cell, also known as the barrier layer or rectified
cell is shown. It consists of a hase plate made of either steel or aluminum and
carries a layer of metallic selenium which is light sensitive. An electrically
conducting layer of cadmium oxide is applied by sputtering over the selenium
layer. The layer is sufficiently thin to allow light to reach the selenium and is
electrically continuous as it acts as the negative pole. The negative contact is
formed of a strip of wood's metal sprayed on to the edge of the top surface. The
base plate forms the positive contact. The front surface of the cell is protected by
a transparent varnish.
When light falls on the upper surface of the selenium, electrons are released from
the surface which maintain a flow of current through the external circuit
connected between the positive and negative contacts.
In photometry the current output of a photocell should be proportional to the
illumination which is achieved by keeping the external resistance at a low value.
Also if greater accuracy is required then illumination should not be allowed to
exceed 25 lumens/ft². The smaller the size of the cell, of course compatible with
obtaining sufficient current to be properly measured, the better a linear relation
is obtained between current and illumination. This is because, for such a cell, the
resistance of the electrically conducting film is at a minimum. Also, since the
current is small, the voltage drop due to the circuit resistance will be kept low.
Another limitation of the photocell is that if the light is incident at angles of 60° or
above, the lacquer tends to reflect a significant amount of light which, therefore,
does not reach the selenium layer. Thus the reading is less than what it should be
according to cosine law of illumination. Some compensation for this error can be
made by using a matt lacquer. A better method is to omit the lacquer and cover
the cell with a hemispherical dome of transparent

Question 8. What is a photoemissive cell? Describe its working when used along
with a dc amplifier?
When greater precision in terms of linearity and stability is required it is better to
use photoemissive cell rather than photovoltaic cell. However, the circuit involved
is more complex and requires the use of some sort of valve amplifiers.
The photoemissive cell has the anode made of a cylindrical wire mesh with
cathode placed in its' axis as shown in Fig. 6.18. The cathode is made of Bi-O-Ag-
Cs Cathode. The electrons are emitted from the cathode of the cell when light
falls on it. The anode is normally 30 to 50 V at a higher potential as compared to
the cathode. The spectral response dichroll is matched with the eye by using a
suitable solution of cupric chloride and potassium dichromate to correct
respectively the blue and red ends of the response and cobalt ammonium sulfate
to correct the region around 500 mu.

The switch S provides ranges of sensitivity. The amplifier is basically a Wheat

stone bridge circuit. The galvanometer G indicates the balance position. V, and V,
are the amplifiers having a very high input resistance to avoid diverting current
from the grid leak resistor R and R, together with the other variable one R, from
the other two arms of the bridge.

The out of balance current in the cell circuit changes the grid bias of V, thereby its
effective resistance is changed which is indicated by the galvanometer G. The dark
current is balanced out by adjusting R, with P set to zero. When the light falls on
the photocell the balance is restored by adjusting P.