Theoretical Project Design: Cantilever Retaining Wall Design for Riverside

located at Tropical Village, General Trias City, Cavite

(Background of the Study - Methodology)

By:
Vincent Joshua S. Ambion
Raymark R. Raposon

A Thesis presented to the

College of Engineering and Information Technology

Cavite State University –

Don Severino de Las Alas Campus

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

December 2022

Submitted to:

Engr. Nato B. Cubilla

 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Rationale

Soil is vulnerable to erosion where it is exposed to moving water or wind and

where conditions of topography or human use, such as steep slopes, compacted

surfaces, and removal of vegetation increase the force of the moving fluid or decrease

the cohesion of the soil. (Harden, 2001)

In recent years, the number of people building settlements on the riverside at

Tropical Village, General Trias City has been increasing. Improper building of

structures and increased human related activities in addition to its slope being

downwards on to a river has caused the soil to erode over time and thus the

deterioration of the land and of which may also lead to the river becoming polluted. In

addition to these, being besides the river may be more hazardous as the water level

can abruptly rise due to heavy rainfalls which may cause the soil to be washed away

over time or in the worst-case scenario, may lead into a sudden landslide.

These safety and sustainability concerns has encouraged the researcher to

propose a theoretical design of cantilever retaining wall. Retaining walls according to

Diwalkar (2020), are constructed to stabilize hillsides and protect it from erosion. At

any place if soils are unstable, steep slopes are there, or heavy runoff is present,

retaining walls are used to stop erosion. Sediments and pollutants get filtered out

before they enter the water source and as such, improving water quality.

This study will consist of the analysis and design of the proposed cantilever

retaining wall. Parameters such as earth pressure, cohesive strength and type of soil

are very important factors to be considered as the retaining walls may slide or be
overturned. Furthermore, factors such as wall location, required wall height,

topography, water table, ground movement and loadings will be carefully considered

in the analysis and design of the retaining wall.

Statement of the Problem

Increasing number of settlements and human activities along with the land

being sloped downward and exposed to moving water at the Riverside, Tropical

Village, General Trias City has raised sustainability and safety concerns due to

occurring soil erosion and possible landslides and river water pollution.

Thus, this study aims to answer the following:

1. What is a viable and practical design of a cantilever retaining wall that will

maintain the stability of the soil, prevent further soil erosion, and deter flood

water in the area?

2. What is the appropriate design of cantilever retaining wall that will be able

to comply to the general design and construction requirements of the NBCP

and NSCP 2015?

3. How much will be the estimated cost of the proposed cantilever retaining

wall?

Objectives of the study

The aim of this proposed theoretical design of reinforced cantilever retaining

wall are as follows:

• To be able to design a viable and practical cantilever retaining wall that will be

able to maintain the stability of the soil, prevent further soil erosion, and deter

flood water in the area.

 • To be able to design the cantilever retaining wall in compliance to the general

design and construction requirements of NSCP 2015.

• To be able to provide a detailed cost estimate for the cantilever retaining wall.

Significance of the study

This study will be of benefit to the public specifically the people residing in the

riverside as it will give them knowledge on the occurring soil erosion and possible

landslides and river water pollution in their area. This study will also be significant to

the local government of Tropical Village, General Trias City as it will provide them with

an option to consider building a cantilever retaining wall that will mitigate the worsening

condition of soil erosion in the riverside. This study will be able to provide a detailed

design and specifications with a detailed cost estimate of the proposed cantilever

retaining wall.

Furthermore, this study may be of use for the future researchers and serve as

their reference and guide in designing similar type of retaining walls for their respective

interests or studies. Also, future researchers may improve this study by capitalizing on

its research gaps.

Scope and Limitations

The main focus of this study is the analysis and design of the proposed

cantilever retaining wall for the Riverside located at Tropical Village General Trias City,

Cavite Parameters necessary for the design of the retaining wall such as the lands

topography conditions and soil properties will be identified in accordance to NSCP

2015. These conditions and properties will be constrained to the site area and may

vary among other locations. Moreover, the design procedure will be using the Load

and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) based on NSCP 2015 in the computation of the
loads and forces that will be considered. Furthermore, this study will consist of the

complete design computations and specifications along with a detailed cost estimate

of the proposed cantilever retaining wall design.

This study will not discuss a cost-effective analysis of the proposed cantilever

retaining wall and is delimited to the riverside bounded by Tropical Village.

Time and Place of the Study

The study of the proposed theoretical design of the cantilever retaining wall will

be conducted at the Riverside, Tropical Village, General Trias City, Cavite between

the span of February 2023 – May 2023.

Definition of Terms

Backfill - The soil placed behind a wall.

Backfill slope - Often the backfill slopes upward from the back face of the wall. The

slope is usually expressed as a ratio of horizontal to vertical (e.g., 2:1).

Cantilever Retaining Wall - These walls which retain earth by a wall cantilevering up

from a footing are the most common type of retaining walls in use today. These walls

are classified as “yielding” as they are free to rotate (about the foundation) because of

the lack of any lateral restraint.

Batter - The slope of the face of the stem from a vertical plane, usually on the inside

(earth) face.

Bearing Capacity - The pressure that a soil can sustain without failing
Lateral Earth Pressure - Soil pressures that are exerted laterally (horizontally)

Dowels - Reinforcing steel placed in the footing and bent up into the stem a distance

at least equal to the required development length.

Footing (or foundation) - That part of the structure below the stem that supports and

transmits vertical and horizontal forces into the soil below.

Footing key - A deepened portion of the footing to provide greater sliding resistance.

Grade - The surface of the soil or paving; can refer to either side of the wall.

Heel - That portion of the footing extending behind the wall (under the retained soil).

Keyway A horizontal slot located at the base of the stem and cast into the footing for

greater shear resistance. Principal reinforcing: Reinforcing used to resist bending in

the stem.

Retained height - The height of the earth to be retained, generally measured upward

from the top of the footing. Stem: The vertical wall above the foundation.

Surcharge - Any load placed in or on top of the soil, either in front or behind the wall.

Toe - That portion of footing which extends in front of the front face of the stem (away

from the retained earth).

Weep holes - Holes provided at the base of the stem for drainage. Weep holes usually

have gravel or crushed rock behind the openings to act as a sieve and prevent

clogging.
 RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

Retaining Wall

According to Encinas (2019) Retaining walls are structures built to hold soil

between two differing elevations. Retaining walls are primarily subject to lateral

pressure from the retained material and any additional surcharge. A well-designed

retaining wall can significantly boost property value and enhance land use.

According to Jamal (2017) A retaining wall is a structure that holds back or

retains any material, usually earth, to stop it from moving or degrading. A retaining wall

is made to withstand the lateral pressure of the material it is restraining.

Purposes of Retaining Walls

According to Stephens (2021) There are four main purposes of a retaining wall.

Retaining walls makes a slope functional, improve drainage, prevent erosion, and

make a landscape more aesthetic. The wall level the slope to prevent soil and water

from flowing downward. A sloped area can benefit from having retaining walls to help

with pedestrian access. The area is flattened by a retaining wall, making it simpler to

stroll there rather than up and down the incline. Additionally, retaining walls can be

utilized to control where water flows. When a slope is close to water, this is extremely

useful. Furthermore, the location could readily experience erosion if the earth sloes

downward. Water can be kept back by retaining walls. In the absence of a wall for this

reason, the shoreline may be vulnerable to erosion, which could cause the sea line to

move. Moreover, the installation of these landscape walls in residences is also done

for aesthetic reasons. A building’s landscape element can have features added to it.

Any office building can look better overall by using gorgeous stone and adding lighting.
Types of Retaining Walls

According to Lees (2021) The four main types of retaining wall are gravity

retaining walls, cantilever retaining walls, embedded retaining walls, and reinforced

soil retaining walls. Gravity retaining walls avoid toppling and sliding by using the

gravitational force of their own weight to withstand the lateral earth pressure from the

soil behind them. These retaining walls are the simplest and oldest kind known to man,

and they are often constructed of masonry, brick, concrete blocks, or mass cast-in-situ

concrete. Gravity retaining walls often have slanted faces and a larger base to better

withstand the greater lateral earth pressures at depth. This implies that while they are

simple to construct and appropriate for retaining heights of up to about 3 meters, any

higher and they tend to occupy too much space and become too heavy for the ground

below, which can result in bearing capacity failure. This might prevent the wall from

holding soil against it. Cantilever retaining walls are constructed using reinforced

concrete usually used with an L-shaped, or inverted T-shaped foundation. By

transferring the vertical tension behind the wall onto the foundation, the toppling

caused by lateral earth pressure from the same soil mass is avoided. The weight of

the soil and the resulting vertical tension in front of the wall helps at T-shaped

foundation, adding to its stability. Sometimes the base of foundations has the element

that sticks into the ground to prevent sliding failure. When compared to other retaining

wall styles, cantilever walls have the benefit of taking up less space once constructed

and being appropriate for retained heights up to 5m. They are not particularly well

suited to keeping existing slopes, though, unless temporary support is supplied while

building is taking place, which does require room behind the wall. Embedded retaining

walls are built to form near-surface underground structures like basements, parking

lots, and subway stations. Depending on the ground conditions, how watertight the
excavation must be, constructability (i.e., time, cost, and excavation method), and the

desired retained depth, this sort of retaining wall is constructed using a variety of

methods. In order to use the passive earth pressure of the ground below to at least

partially counteract the active earth pressure being applied to the wall above,

embedded retaining walls operate as cantilever walls, extending deeper than the

excavation. Internal propping, typically from the foundation slab, ground slab, and any

intermediate floor slabs, or ground anchors put through the wall provide additional

support. Reinforced soil retaining wall or mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls

strengthen the soil and increase its bearing capacity and resistance to differential

settlement, this type of retaining wall incorporates layers of geogrid. Instead of

vegetation, modern reinforced soil walls can utilize geogrid, but the idea is the same:

the reinforcement increases the soil's carrying capacity and resistance to settlement.

Depending on the project's aesthetic needs, the geogrid layers are mechanically

joined to a variety of facings, such as precast concrete blocks and panels, gabions,

and crib walls.

Cantilever Retaining Walls

According to Mishra (2013) Leverage principles are used to build cantilever

retaining walls, which are typically made of reinforced concrete. Its stem is

substantially thinner, and the majority of its resistance to sliding and overturning comes

from the weight of the backfill dirt. The most typical style of earth-retaining structure is

the cantilever retaining wall. From roughly the 1920s until the 1970s, reinforced

Portland-cement concrete (PCC) rigid retaining walls were the most common kind

used. There are two different ground surface elevations that are maintained by using

earth slopes and earthen retaining structures. The function of cantilever retaining wall
is to retain the soil in a position that is generally vertical or almost vertical, but at a

steeper slope than it would naturally adopt.

Reinforce Concrete

According to Hamakareem (2019) Reinforced concrete is the traditional cement

concrete combined with steel bar reinforcements. This combination uses the tensile

strength of steel and the compressive strength of concrete at the same time to resist

a variety of loading. The word "reinforced" is used because the steel strengthens the

concrete and gives it additional reinforcement. This material for construction needs to

be carefully engineered. If the concrete is not sufficiently strengthened, it may be

unstable and prone to failure. Reinforced concrete has a lot of benefits, but it also has

some drawbacks. Reinforced concrete offers potential for creative and aesthetically

appealing design because it can be molded and shaped in ways that other materials

cannot. Due to its high strength, ease of use, adaptability, versatility, durability, and

affordability, reinforced concrete is a widely used building material. It is frequently used

to build anything from building foundations to roofs, as well as precast buildings,

floating structures, hydropower tunnels, irrigation canals, sewers, and many other

types of constructions that can be imagined.

Advantages of Using Reinforce Concrete

According to Shojaedin (2016) The advantages of using reinforce concrete are

high compressive strength, can withstand tensile stress, fire and weather resistance,

durability, can be economically molded into different shapes, very low maintenance

cost, most economical construction material for footings, dams, piers, and etc., rigidity,

widely used in precast components, and requiring less skilled labor for project

construction.
 According to Hamakareem (2019) The strength of reinforced concrete is

excellent both in tension and compression. Because of this, reinforced concrete is a

popular building material. Also, concrete components are commonly accessible and

reasonably priced worldwide. Similar to that, producing concrete has a very low cost.

Utilizing reinforced concrete has a positive economic impact because it requires little

maintenance because of how durable it is. Reinforced concrete construction reduces

running costs associated with operational energy consumption, maintenance, and

disaster recovery through durability, resilience, reduced maintenance requirements,

and energy efficiency. Furthermore, on a construction site, concrete can be poured

into different shuttering or formwork configurations to create the necessary shapes,

forms, surfaces, textures, and sizes. This is due to the fact that newly laid concrete is

liquid and flowable. It is therefore better suited to architectural requirements. If

correctly constructed and installed, reinforced concrete structures are long-lasting.

The material can endure up to 100 years and is not influenced by weather conditions

like snow and rain. Concrete can withstand chemicals dissolved in water including

sulfates, chloride, and carbon dioxide that may induce corrosion in concrete without

suffering significant damage thanks to its low permeability. Because of this, reinforced

concrete is perfect for applications that need submerged or underwater construction,

such as pipelines, dams, canal linings, and building structures. Another advantage is

concrete cannot burn or catch fire due to its nature. It can endure heat for 2 to 6 hours,

giving rescue efforts enough time in the event of a fire. Compared to other frequently

used building materials like steel and wood, reinforced concrete structures are more

fire resistant. It can be utilized with fireproof steel and in blast and high temperature

applications. Moreover, reinforced concrete constructions gain ductility from the steel

reinforcement. If a reinforced concrete member is overloaded, ductility allows concrete

to display signs of distress like cracking and deflection. Engineers can then think of

appropriate ways to stop additional concrete deterioration.

Components of Cantilever Retaining Wall

According to Shrestha (2021), the components of a cantilever retaining wall are

the stem which is the lateral confinement is supported or constrained by the cantilever

wall's vertical upright part. The stem is thinner than the base. Sometimes the stem has

the same thickness all the way around, while other times it is thicker at the base. The

toe which is the component of the wall where the soil mass must not be retained is the

foundation footing that is buried in the ground. The heel, it is likewise a component of

the base footing that is buried in the ground, but it is located inside the wall where soil

mass must be kept in place. The heel is comparatively longer in length. In order to

raise the wall's self-weight, this is done. This increases the restoring moment against

the moment caused by the lateral force of the retaining mass and causes the soil

above the heel to behave as a part of the wall and supply weight at the base of the

footing. And the key which is a retaining wall's modest, obtrusive structure that is

occasionally built at the base to improve passive lateral force and resist sliding and

shearing.

Lateral Earth Pressure

According to Conrad (2012) Lateral earth pressure is the horizontal pressure

that soil experiences when it comes into contact with standing objects like retaining

walls and building basements is known as lateral earth pressure. The vertical effective

stress and cohesion are factors (K) of the vertical earth pressure at any depth given

by the equation:

Active: 𝜎 ′ = 𝐾𝑎 𝜎𝑣′ − 2𝑐√𝐾𝑎

 Passive: 𝜎 ′ = 𝐾𝑎 𝜎𝑣′ + 2𝑐√𝐾𝑎

At Rest: 𝜎ℎ′ = 𝐾𝑜 𝜎𝑣′

The soil unit weight and structure depth are used to solve for the vertical

effective stress. For sands or when cohesionless soil is mentioned in the problem, the

cohesion is typically specified and is frequently zero. The soil's "stickiness" is referred

to as cohesion.

There are three types of lateral earth pressure according to Conrad, these are

the active earth pressure which is the soil pressure attempting to make a structure

move. The soil that is creating the active pressure is under tension and is separating

from another body of soil (for example, the soil behind a retaining wall would typically

separate and crumble). The active earth coefficient ranges in value from 0.2 to 0.5 and

is smaller than the passive one. The Rankine formula for active earth pressure for a

vertical structure with cohesion typically considered to be zero is as follows:

∅ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) =
2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅

Passive earth pressure is the force attempting to maintain the structure's

integrity. Compression is being applied to the soil that generates passive pressure.

This is the same formula as above, with the exception of passive earth pressure. The

passive pressure is often higher than the active pressure, with values in the 2 to 5

range. The formula is:

∅ 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + ) =
2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅

The at-rest soil pressure is a presumption that the soil and the building will never

move. Imagine an aircraft carrier in the ocean; when it is struck by minor waves, it
barely moves. The at-rest equation can be applied to structures like enormous bridge

abutments and foundations that reach bedrock since it is assumed that they never

move (or that any movement is minor). The coefficient values range from about 0.4 to

0.8, slightly higher than the active but lower than the passive.

𝐾𝑜 ≈ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅

Where: ∅ is the angle of internal friction of the soil which is either given in the problem

or assumed based on the soil type of the sample.

Soil Bearing Capacity

According to Lees (2021) Soil bearing capacity is the ability of soil to hold the

loads placed on the ground above. It mostly depends on the soil's type, shear strength,

and density. Additionally, it relies on how deeply the weight is embedded; the greater

the foundation, the higher the bearing capacity. The applied stress to the soil can be

lowered to an acceptable value that is less than the bearing capacity where there is

insufficient bearing capacity. Alternatively, the load can be spread over a greater area

or the ground can be improved where there is insufficient bearing capacity. Spread

concrete reinforced concrete foundations can be used to accomplish this. When under

stress from loading, soil has a tendency to distort. The soil's resistance to deformation

is influenced by things like its water content, bulk density, angle of internal friction, and

how a force is applied to it. The bearing capacity of soils refers to the greatest load per

unit area that the soil or rock can support without yielding or displacement. The

carrying capacity of soil is influenced by soil characteristics including shear strength,

density, permeability, and others. Due to the fact that thick sand has a higher unit

weight than loose sand, it will have a greater bearing capacity.

 Based from Lees the most commonly types of bearing capacity used are the

ultimate bearing capacity and allowable bearing capacity. Ultimate bearing capacity of

soil is the highest vertical pressure that can be applied to the ground surface before a

shear failure mechanism occurs in the supporting soil. In essence, this refers to the

greatest load the earth can support before failing or fully giving way. As it's also vital

to take into account how soil will settle under pressure, which could influence its ability

to sustain a structure, we don't utilize this figure alone in the foundation design

process. While the allowable bearing capacity refers to the maximum load that a soil

can support without encountering shear failure or going over the permitted amount of

settlement. This illustration is the one used to design foundations because it accounts

for soil settlement as well as the load necessary to cause shear failure, the allowed

bearing capacity is always lower than the ultimate bearing pressure.

Angle of Internal Friction

According to Keaton (2017) Angle of internal friction is a characteristic of earth

materials, or the slope of a linear illustration of their shear strength. Engineers and

geologists commonly refer to unconsolidated and uncemented earth materials as soil,

while geologists may refer to such materials as sediment. Mineral or rock granules of

varying sizes, from extremely fine to very coarse, make up soil. A mass of grains that

are chemically and mechanically distinct from one another can be relatively easily dug,

and the removed material can be piled up to form a conical shape with slopes known

as the angle of repose. The angle of internal friction is represented by the angle of

repose.

According to geotechnical info the angle on the graph (Mohr’s Circle) of the

shear stress and normal effective stresses at which shear failure takes place for a
particular soil is known as the angle of internal friction. The direct shear test or the

triaxial stress test can be used to measure the angle of internal friction in a laboratory

setting.

Surcharge

According to Chegg, the term surcharge describes any weight or vertical

pressure acting on the ground surface. It's referred to as a surcharge burden. A

surcharge load will cause pressure in the lateral direction and act over the system if it

is placed close to the excavation. In addition to the standard earth pressure, this. The

groundwater also generates additional pressures, but these are not surcharge loads.

Embankments, construction equipment, constructions or nearby buildings, material

stockpiles, railroads, etc. are examples of surcharge loads. The soil engineers utilize

surcharge or preloading to add additional fill to the site in order to strengthen the weak

compressible earth. The loading that will be applied by the completed construction will

be greater than this fill weight. To determine the total amount of time needed for the

surcharge to generate the requisite level of settlement, monitor plates are used to

analyze the rate and size of settlements.

In the case of uniform surcharge loading, constant horizontal pressure

magnitude is included with the value of basic lateral soil pressure. This can be stated

as follows.

𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑄

Where: K is the coefficient lateral soil pressure caused by surcharge and Q is the

uniform surcharge applied to the backfill of the surface wall.

Proper Soil for Retaining Wall

According to Yee (2019) the better soil for backfilling a retaining wall shall be

non-cohesive, well-graded dirt that has been compacted should make up the backfill.

Even with pipes in the backfill, cohesive soils would be bad for the wall because they

would cause it to swell and contract and drain poorly. Clayey soils that have swelled

and retained water tend to provide additional driving and overturning force against

walls. The mild densification would let the intergranular friction/Phi value to be fully

formed, lowering later al forces, and well-graded and non-cohesive soils would be free

draining.

Cohesive and Non-cohesive soil

As cited by Gautam (2018) according to Mitchell and Soga (2005) Cohesive

soils are fine-grained, weak, easily deformable soils with a tendency for adhesion. If

the fines (material the size of silt and clay) make up more than 50% of the soil's weight,

the soil is categorized as cohesive. Cohesive soils include organic clay, clayey silt,

silty clay, and sandy clay. Significant cohesive strength and plasticity can be seen in

cohesive soils. Three main processes cementation, electrostatic and electromagnetic

attraction, and primary valence bonding and adhesion are responsible for the cohesion

between soil particles. Cohesive soil's clay structure greatly affects how the soil

behaves under engineering conditions. The geometric arrangement of soil or mineral

particles is referred to as the structure of the soil, and it depends on the soil's genetic,

chemical, and mineralogical characteristics as well as its previous stress

circumstances. The soil structure is also influenced by interparticle force. The

interparticle force in cohesive soils is significantly greater than in non-cohesive soils.

 According to Keaton (2018) Non-cohesive or cohesionless soils are mineral

soils that have granular properties, in which the grains do not form clods or cling

together in aggregates of particles. Cohesionless soils and granular soils are other

names for non-cohesive soils. They often have a high hydraulic conductivity or

permeability, which makes them good at transmitting water, and they have shear

strength that only has a friction component and no cohesion intercept. Sand, loamy

sand, and perhaps sandy loam are classified as non-cohesive soils by soil scientists

if the silt-sized particles are non-plastic or non-sticky.

According to Jackson (2020) Cohesive and cohesionless soils are the two

categories of soils. Particles of the same kind, origin, and nature are drawn together

by a cohesive soil's attraction properties. Cohesive soils are thus a subclass of soil

that adhere to one another. The silts and clays, or fine-grained soils, are cohesive

soils. Cohesionless coil (non-cohesive) soils rely on friction rather than adhering to

one another. These are coarse-grained soils, such as sands and gravels. When it

comes to erosion and stormwater runoff, the soil type is especially important because

cohesive soils tend to erode more slowly or more forcefully. As a result, cohesive soil

particles adhere to one another. These soils can have a variety of grain sizes, although

they often have a focus on fine grains. Because they don't adhere to one another, the

cohesionless soils may have larger grains and disintegrate more quickly.

Loads and Forces Acting on Retaining Wall

According to Hamakareem (2020) There are various types of loads and forces

acting on retaining wall. This includes lateral earth pressure, surcharge loads, axial

loads, wind on projecting stem, impact forces, seismic earth pressure, seismic wall

self-weight forces. Lateral earth pressure encompasses on the wedge theory that
proposes that a triangular wedge of soil intend to slide down if the retaining wall were

detached. This becomes basis for the computation of lateral earth pressure.

Figure 1. Free body of lateral forces acting on retaining wall

The most common method for calculation of lateral earth pressure are Coulomb

method and Rankine method. The Coulomb method uses backfill slope, angle of

friction at wall, rupture plan angle, and angle of internal friction for the calculation of

coefficient of active pressure.

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝛼 + 𝜙)
𝐾𝑎 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 + 𝛿) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝛽)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛿) [1 + √ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 − 𝛿) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝛽)

and 𝐾𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 𝐾𝑎

where: 𝐾𝑎 = coefficient of active pressure

𝜙 = angle of internal friction

𝛽 = angle of backfill slope

2 1
𝛿 = angle of friction between soil and wall (3 𝜙 𝑡𝑜 2 𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑)
 𝛼 = slope angle of the wall which is measure from horizontal (equal to 90

degrees for the vertical wall)

The Coulomb equation is further simplified in the case of flat level backfill soil when

zero friction is assumed at the soil-wall interface and the soil-sidewall is vertical. The

equation is reduced to:

(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)
𝐾𝑎 =
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

The Rankine method for the calculation of lateral earth pressure:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙

𝐾𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙

Another force acting on retaining wall is the surcharge load. Surcharge loads are

additional vertical forces operating on retaining walls that are applied to the backfill

soil above the top of the wall. There are three types of surcharge loads which are

highway surcharges, backfill compaction surcharge, and adjacent footing surcharge.

It may be a live load caused by the highway or parking lot, asphalt, or neighboring

footing, or it may be a dead load like sloping backfill above the wall height. When a

vehicle affects the surface of backfill soil at a distance equal to or less than the wall

height from the wall back face, the live load surcharge is taken into account. Below is

an explanation of active pressure from uniform surcharge.

 Figure 2. Active pressure from a uniform surcharge against the retaining wall

Where: W = uniform surcharge load

H = height of the wall

𝑃1 = 𝑘𝑎 𝑊𝐻

𝑃2 = 0.5𝑘𝑎 𝑊𝐻 2

Another force acting on retaining wall is axial force. This force gives overturning

resistance on the retaining wall. The different types of axial load acting on the retaining

walls are vertical loads on the stem, soil weight, structural weight, vertical component

of active pressure. Vertical load on the stem is resulted by the vertical force applied to

the stem vertically. Soil weight is the weight of the soil on toe and heel of the retaining

wall. Structural weight is the self-weight of the retaining wall which adds to the bearing

pressure of the soil and increase the stability of the soil by increasing the capacity

against sliding and overturning. Vertical component of active pressure is another

vertical load which is the resultant of earth pressure from the sloped backfill soil.

Another force acting on retaining wall is wind forces on projecting stem. This is when

retaining walls are exposed and protrude above grade, wind pressure produces an

overturning force. Here is a typical formula for calculating wind pressure:

 𝐹 = 0.0026𝑉 2

Where: F = wind pressure

V = velocity of the wind

Another load acting on retaining wall is impact loads. It may be required to design a

retaining wall with car bumpers if the wall rises above grade and is close to a parking

space. When a retaining wall is built to withstand impact loads, the stem needs to be

examined at evenly spaced intervals throughout its length from top to bottom since the

impact load spreads out across a longer portion of the stem. Additionally, disperse the

impact load with a slope of two vertical to one horizontal. Another load acting on

retaining wall is seismic earth pressure. Considerable assumptions must be taken into

account in the seismic design of retaining walls in order to solve an irrational problem

using differential calculus and statics theory. More research is needed to calculate the

static and dynamic pressures acting on retaining walls, and site selection is being

formalized. Site reports only provide location peak ground acceleration; the designer

is responsible for making use of this data. Lastly, seismic wall self-weight force, this is

the self-weight of the actual seismic wall.

Failures of Retaining Walls

According to Chinchawade (2013) There are five types of modes of failure of

retaining walls. These are the sliding failure, overturning failure, bearing capacity

failure, shallow shear failure, and deep shear failure. Sliding failure occurs when there

is shearing failure at the base of the wall, the wall slides away from the backfill.

Overturning failure occurs when there is a rotation of the wall about its toe due to

excess moments brought on by the coupling of opposing forces’ overturning forces.

Bearing capacity failure occurs when the pressure exerted by the vertical forces at the
base of the wall exceed the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. Shallow shear failure

occurs when excessive shear stresses take place along the cylindrical surface in the

soil mass. This failure occurs along the cylindrical surface passing through the heel of

the retaining wall. Deep shear failure is a critical failure found by trial and error. This

failure occurs along a cylindrical surface when there is a thin layer of unstable soil

under the wall at a depth of about 1.5 times the height of the retaining wall.

Drainage of Retaining Wall

According to Matt (2020) Failures of retaining walls are primarily caused by

water. The stone wall below collapsed as a result of inadequate drainage beneath the

wall. This wall failure was caused by a combination of the ground sloping toward the

wall, the absence of drainage stone behind the wall, and the absence of obvious weep

holes or drainage outlets. Due to the height of the wall and the water that was

accumulating behind the stones, pressure behind the wall increased, leading to this

blow out. Behind every retaining wall, there should be drainage stone. All walls should

have drainage pipes installed, but there are several instances where a perforated drain

pipe is definitely required.

A drainage system is made up of a number of essential parts, including outlets

through the face of the wall, drainage stone, filter fabric, and perforated pipe.

Remember to NEVER use grout between the blocks on segmental block walls before

we delve into these components. Grout fills in the spaces where water should be able

to flow between the blocks, preventing water from draining through the face. Blocks

for segmental retaining walls should have a lip or pins to prevent displacement. Use

construction adhesive to affix the top block and capstone to one another, keeping the

wall structure flexible.

 Figure 3. Drainage System of Retaining Wall

Design Considerations of Retaining Walls

According to Sabine (2016) There are various things to consider when

designing a retaining wall. These are materials, existing codes, drains, style, and

finishing touches. Material considerations includes the materials to be used for the

retaining which is dependent with the style and budget for the retaining wall. Existing

codes considerations is critical in designing retaining walls. Building retaining walls

requires a solid foundation that is excavated below ground. The base needs to be

excavated deeper the taller the wall is. Retaining walls taller than four feet are required

by many local laws to be planned by a licensed engineer and constructed by a trained

contractor. In some areas, walls that are three or four feet high must be fenced in.

Even for shorter barriers, it is imperative that you are aware of and abide by local

building codes prior to construction. Installation of drainage for retaining walls is

necessary to stop soil and water from seeping into the retaining wall's structure. A
retaining wall that has poor or no drainage is an unsound wall structurally. Next

consideration is the enhancement of the style. A retaining wall can be utilized to

change the look of your outdoor living space in addition to serving as a structure to

keep back soil. Shorter retaining walls create attractive flower beds and add texture to

a flat environment. Make your patio more inviting by putting a seating wall around it or

benches built directly into your retaining wall. Lastly, add finishing touches. Adding an

outdoor fire pit or water feature will highlight the beautiful side of your retaining wall.

To increase the outdoor living space, think about adding steps to gain access to the

space above the wall. To offer contrast and atmosphere, add landscape lighting to

your retaining wall, and put wall caps to finish the design.

Retaining Wall Stability

According to Prasad (2020) The stability of retaining walls is verified by

overturning and sliding tests. Base bearing pressure is additionally examined to

ensure that it is within the limit. When there is no surcharge load:

(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)
Active soil pressure: 𝐾𝑎 = (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)
Passive soil pressure: 𝐾𝑎 = (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

Checking includes the determination of factor of safety against overturning and sliding.

Factor of safety against overturning should be greater than or equal to 2 as standard

and the factor of safety against sliding should be greater than or equal to 1.5 as

standard.

Stability Analysis of Retaining Wall

According to Acharya (2021) For stability of a retaining wall, the factor of safety

against sliding should be at least 1.5. For granular backfill the factor of safety against
overturning shall be at least 1.5 while for cohesive backfill, the factor of safety against

overturning shall be at least 2.0. The retaining wall should be stable against bearing

capacity failing in which the factor of safety for bearing capacity failure for granular

backfill should be at least 2.0 while for cohesive backfill the factor of safety against

bearing capacity failure should be at least 3.0.

Acharya stated that in order for a retaining wall to be stable, various conditions

should be satisfied. The following conditions are:

1. All forces should combine to produce a result that falls within the middle third

of the base, as indicated.

2. A passive pressure exists below the soil surface on the wall's front face. It is

unlikely that the whole passive resistance would emerge, though. Additionally,

because the passive pressure is minimal, it might be disregarded. This results

in a more traditional design.

3. The base is struck at Point D by the resultant R, which is created by the wall's

weight W and active pressure P.

4. At the base, where the wall and the foundation meet, there is an equal and

opposite reaction R'.

5. R' can be broken down into its vertical and horizontal halves, Rv' and Rh',

respectively.

6. For the equilibrium of the system, Rv’ shall be equals to W and Rh’ shall be

equals to Pa.

7. Determine the eccentricity “e” of the force Rv’ relative to the center “c” of the

base of the retaining wall using the moment equation.

8. Take moment about the “toe”.

 𝐻
𝑅𝑣′ 𝑥 − 𝑊𝑎 + 𝑃𝑎 ( ) = 0
3

𝐻
𝑊𝑎 − 𝑃𝑎 ( 3 )
𝑥=
𝑅𝑣′

Where: x is the distance of point D from the toe.

𝑏
𝑒= −𝑥
2

Where: b = width of the base.

9. For safe design against sliding condition.

𝜇𝑅𝑣 > 𝑅𝐻

Where: RV and RH are the vertical and horizontal components of R.

The factor of safety against sliding:

𝜇𝑅𝑣
𝐹𝑠 = ≥ 1.50
𝑅𝐻

10. For safe design against overturning condition.

𝑊𝑎
𝐹𝑜 =
𝐻
𝑃𝑎 ( 3 )

The factor of safety against overturning:

𝛴𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑜 = ≥ 2.0
𝛴𝑀0

Where: 𝛴𝑀𝑅 = sum of resisting moment about toe

𝛴𝑀0 = sum of overturning moment about toe.

11. For safe design against bearing capacity failure, the pressure caused by Rv at

the toe of the retaining wall shall not exceed the allowable bearing capacity of

soil and the pressure distribution at the base is assumed to be linear.

The maximum pressure:

𝑅𝑣 6𝑒
𝑃𝑀𝐴𝑋 = [1 + ]
𝑏 𝑏

The minimum pressure:

𝑅𝑣 6𝑒
𝑃𝑀𝐼𝑁 = [1 − ]
𝑏 𝑏

The factor of safety against bearing:

𝑞𝑛𝑎
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑃 ≥ 2 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠), 3 (𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠)
𝑀𝐴𝑋

Where: 𝑞𝑛𝑎 = allowable bearing capacity

12. For safe design against tension, when the eccentricity “e” is greater than b/6,

tension develops at the heel. Since the tensile strength of soil is weak, tensile

crack will develop.

𝑅𝑣 6𝑒
𝑃𝑀𝐼𝑁 = [1 − ]
𝑏 𝑏

𝑏
When: 𝑒 = 6 , 𝑃𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 0

𝑏
When: 𝑒 > 6 , 𝑃𝑀𝐼𝑁 = −𝑣𝑒 ; tension will develop and the heel of the wall ges lifted

up.

𝑣 4 𝑅
Therefore, maximum stress = 3 [𝑏−2ⅇ ]
Design Procedures of Retaining Wall

According to The Structural World (2019) when designing a cantilever retaining

wall, there are ten steps to be considered.

1. Analytical geometry and variables. In this step, the designer must know the

design parameters and the parts of the retaining wall to be used.

Where:

H: Height of the retaining wall

L: Width of the base

D: Thickness of the base

B: Width of the toe

C: Stem thickness at the bottom

T: stem thickness at the top

2. Approximate proportions of a cantilever retaining wall. In this step, the

designer makes assumptions for the geometric proportions for the retaining

wall.

Base width: L = 0.5H to (2/3)H

 Thickness of base: D = 0.10H

Stem thickness at the bottom: C = 0.10H

Width of the toe: B = 0.25L to 0.33L

Stem thickness at the top: t = 250mm (minimum)

3. Analytical model. In this step, the designer must make a representation of

the retaining wall including the forces to be considered for the design.
1
Equation 1: 𝑃𝑎1 = 2 𝛾𝐾𝑎 𝐻 2 , where H is the height of the retained soil

1
Equation 2: 𝑃𝑎2 = 2 𝛾𝐻𝑤2 , where Hw is the height of the ground water level

Equation 3: 𝑃𝑎3 = 𝜔𝐾𝑎 ℎ, where h is the height of the surcharge

1
Equation 4: 𝑃𝑝 = 2 𝛾𝑘𝑝𝐻𝑝2 , where Pp is the passive pressure

Values of coefficient of pressure, ka and kp. In this step, the designer must

determine the coefficient of pressure from Rankine and Coulomb formula.

(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)
𝐾𝑎 =
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)
𝐾𝑝 =
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙)

4. Stability check. In this step, the designer considers the stability of the

retaining wall by checking for overturning moment and sliding. The factors

that affect the performance of a retaining wall in stability check is the weight

of the retaining wall.

4.1. Check for overturning moment:

𝑅𝑀
> 2.0
𝑂𝑀

where:

RM = righting moment due to the weight of the retaining

wall
 OM = overturning moment due to lateral earth pressure

4.2. Check for sliding:

𝑅𝐹
> 1.5
𝑆𝐹

where:

RF = resisting force

SF = sliding force

5. Check the wall thickness for shear. In this step, the designer neglects the

effect of passive pressure and the nominal shear must be equal to the lateral

forces on the retaining wall.

For safe wall thickness for shear:

𝑉𝑈 = 1.6𝑉𝑛

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜙𝑉𝑐 ; 𝜙 = 0.75

𝑉𝐶 = 0.17√𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑤 𝑑

𝑉𝑈 < 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤

6. Design the wall stem for flexure. In this step, the designer uses the nominal

moment, Mn, and the ultimate moment, Mu, for the design of the stem.

𝑀𝑢 = 𝜙𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜔(1 − 0.59𝜔); 𝜙 = 0.90

𝜔𝑓𝑐 ′
𝜌=
𝑓𝑦

𝐴𝑠 = 𝜌𝑏𝑑

This step will determine the required horizontal and vertical bars for the

stem.

7. Check for bearing pressure under footing. In this step, the designer checks

if the retaining wall is safe in soil pressure.

 𝑃 6𝑀
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + ≤ 𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 2

Compute the ultimate bearing pressure using ultimate moment, ultimate

shear, and factored loads

𝑃 6𝑀
𝑞𝑢 = ±
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 2

8. Check the required length of the base. In this step, the designer check if the

qumin is in tension or compression. If qumin is in tension (+), the value of the

length of the base must be computed as:

Eccentricity:

𝑀
𝑒=
𝑃

then:

1
𝑃 = 𝑎𝑞ⅇ 𝑏
2

where:

a = length of pressure

qe = qumax

b = 1 meter strip
 𝑎
𝐿 = 2 (𝑒 + )
3

9. Check the adequacy of footing thickness for wide beam shear.

9.1. When qumin is in compression

𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑦

Solve y using similar triangle.

1
𝑉𝑈 = (𝑞𝑐 + 𝑞𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝐿′ 𝑏
2

9.2. When qumin is in tension

Solve y using similar triangle.

1
𝑉𝑈 = (𝑞𝑐 + 𝑞𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝐿′ 𝑏
2

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜙𝑉𝑐

𝑉𝐶 = 0.17√𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑤 𝑑

𝑉𝑈 < 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤

10. Check the wall thickness for flexure.

 10.1. When qumin is in compression

𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑦

Solve y using similar triangle then use the area of trapezoid multiplied by

lever arm to determine the ultimate moment.

10.2. When qumin is in compression

𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑦

Solve y using similar triangle then use the area of trapezoid multiplied by

lever arm to determine the ultimate moment. Use the resulting ultimate

moment to determine the required vertical and horizontal bar.

11. Reinforcement details of the retaining wall. After all the steps above, the

designer must create a presentation of the retaining wall including the

reinforcement detail for the stem and base.

 METHODOLOGY

Materials

To determine the elevation of points along the length of the riverside where the

proposed design of retaining wall will be theoretically placed, surveying equipment will

be used such as Measuring tape, Stadia rod, Marking pins, and Engineers transit.

Methods

The design and analysis along with the detailed cost estimate of the proposed

cantilever retaining wall will be carried out by means of manual computations.

Illustrations and figures presented will be done using AutoCAD. Moreover, the

elevations needed for the design will be determined through the use of surveying

techniques specifically profile leveling method.

Gathering of technical data

The current and past conditions of the riverside will be identified by interviewing

the people residing in the area. Also, images will be taken to verify the existing

conditions in the site area. An engineer from the city engineering’s office will also be

interviewed to identify if a retaining wall is really needed in the riverside. Moreover, the

exact length and height of the proposed retaining wall will be established through

surveying. In addition to these, the basis of parameters and design will be gathered

through primary sources such as books, journals and related research studies.

Furthermore, soil type in the area will be identified to determine the design parameters

such as the angle of friction, soil bearing capacity, safety factors against sliding and

overturning and etc. in accordance to the NSCP 2015.

Preliminary Survey

A site inspection will be conducted and elevation of points will be determined

through the use of profile leveling. Profile leveling is the process of determining

differences in elevation along a fixed line at designated short measured intervals. To

be able to determine the elevations, stations that will serve as turning points exactly

along the length of the proposed retaining walls will be established at measured

intervals. After this, the engineer transit will be set up on a convenient location also at

measured intervals on the other side of the river. Moreover, an elevation of 100m will

be assumed for the first benchmark. Backsight and foresights readings will be

established from the start up until the end of the length of the proposed retaining wall

and thus the elevations of points will be determined through the use of the following

formulas:

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝑅𝑅𝑓

𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 − 𝑅𝑅𝑏

Where:

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 = 100𝑚 (𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑)

𝐻𝐼 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝑅𝑓 = 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑅𝑅𝑏 = 𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Structural Design of Cantilever Retaining Wall

The structural analysis of the proposed cantilever retaining wall will be

performed using the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) based on the
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2015). The ultimate moment of the

factored moment will be acquired by obtaining the moment at the bottom of the stem.

Moreover, the moment at the top and mid height of the stem will be computed and the

values obtained will be used for the determination of the most economical design of

the proposed retaining wall.

Design Analysis

The design criteria and specifications that will be used in this study will be based

on the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2015) and American

Concrete Institute (ACI). The stability for the proposed retaining wall will be analyzed

using the following values of safety factors:

𝐹𝑆𝑜𝑣ⅇ𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ≥ 2.0

𝐹𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ≥ 1.5

Design procedure

This will involve the step-by-step manual computation for the analysis and

design of the proposed retaining wall. The design of retaining wall will vary along its

length with regards to the different height that will be obtained using the profile leveling

method. Thus, the procedures listed below will be repeated to be able to design the

proposed retaining wall at each wall height required.

 Figure 1. Assumed proportions of the proposed design of cantilever retaining wall

The following proportions of the proposed retaining wall will be assumed:

Base Width: L = 0.4H – 0.7H

Thickness of Base Slab: D = 0.07H – 0.10H

Stem Thickness at the Bottom: C = 0.10H

Stem Thickness at the Top: W = 250mm – 500mm

Width of the Toe = 0.25L – 0.33L

Length of Heel = Base Width – (Toe Width + Thickness of Bottom Stem)

Factor of loads that will be used in accordance to the NSCP 2015:

Dead load = 1.2

Live load = 1.6

Lateral Earth Pressure = 1.6

Stability of Retaining Wall

1. Solve for Rankine Coefficient

1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝑘𝑎 =
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

2. Determine Vertical Loads

𝑊 = 𝛾ℎ𝑤(1𝑚)

3. Determine Vertical Resultant

𝑅𝑣 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + ⋯ 𝑊𝑛

4. Determine the Moment Arm

𝑋1 , 𝑋1 , … 𝑋𝑛

5. Compute the Horizontal Earth Force on Full Height of the Wall

𝛾𝑘𝑎𝐻 2 (1𝑚)
𝐹1 =
2

𝐹2 = 𝛾𝑘𝑎𝐻(1𝑚)

6. Compute the Righting Moment

𝑅. 𝑀. = 𝑋1 𝑊1 + 𝑋2 𝑊2 + ⋯ 𝑋𝑛 𝑊𝑛

7. Compute the Overturning Moment

 𝐻 𝐻
𝑂. 𝑀. = 𝐹1 ( ) + 𝐹2 ( )
3 2

8. Factor of Safety against Overturning

𝑅. 𝑀.
𝐹𝑆𝑜𝑣ⅇ𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥ 2.0
𝑂. 𝑀.

9. Factor of Safety against Sliding

𝜇𝑅𝑣
𝐹𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥ 1.5
(𝑃1 + 𝑃2 ) − 𝑃3

Design of Base (Adequacy of the Bearing Capacity of the Soil)

1. Compute the location of the resultant force

𝑅. 𝑀. −𝑂. 𝑀. 𝐵 𝐵
𝑥̅ = ; > 𝑥̅ >
𝑅𝑣 2 3

2. Compute the value of eccentricity

𝐵
𝑒= − 𝑥̅
2

3. Compute the actual soil pressure

𝑅𝑣 6𝑒
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + )
𝐿 𝐿

𝑅𝑣 6𝑒
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 − )
𝐿 𝐿

4. Check Bearing Capacity

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 150 𝑘𝑝𝑎

Design of Toe

1. Determine the value of y

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑦
=
𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑒

2. Compute the upward soil pressure acting on toe

𝑃1 = 𝑏ℎ(1𝑚)

1
𝑃2 = 𝑏ℎ(1𝑚)
2

3. Compute the downward force acting on toe

𝑊 = 𝛾𝑙𝑤ℎ

4. Compute the ultimate shear

𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝑉𝑢 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2

𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒: 𝑉𝑢 = 𝑊1 (1.20) + 𝑊2 (1.20)

5. Determine the effective depth

𝑑𝑡𝑜ⅇ = 𝐿𝑡𝑜ⅇ − 𝑐𝑐

6. Shear check

(∅√𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑)
∅𝑉𝑛 = ∅𝑉𝑐 =
6

7. Compute the maximum moment, 𝑀𝑢

𝐿𝑡𝑜ⅇ 2𝐿𝑡𝑜ⅇ
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑃1 ( ) + 𝑃2 ( ) ; 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2 3
 𝐿𝑡𝑜ⅇ 2𝐿𝑡𝑜ⅇ
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑊1 ( ) (1.20) + 𝑊2 ( ) (1.20); 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2 3

8. Determine value of 𝜔

𝑀𝑢 = ∅𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜔 (1 − 0.59𝜔)

9. Compute steel ratio, 𝜌

𝜌𝑓𝑦
𝜔=
𝑓𝑐′

1.4
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑓𝑦

10. Compute the area required, 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞

𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = 𝜌𝑏𝑑

11. Determine the reinforcements at the toe

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4

1000
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: (𝐴𝑠 ) = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞
𝑠

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: +1
𝑠

Design of Heel

1. Compute the downward pressure acting on heel

𝑤 = 𝛾ℎ

2. Determine the net pressure acting on the base slab

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑦1
=
𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑒
 𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑒 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦1

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑦1
=
𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐿ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑓ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦2

𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛@ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 − 𝑓ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥@ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑓ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛@𝑡𝑜𝑒 = 𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑒 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑒

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥@ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑒

3. Determine the ultimate negative moment in the heel slab

𝑤𝑙 2
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑢 =
12

4. Determine the ultimate positive moment at the midspan

𝑤𝑙 2
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑢 =
16

5. Compute the factored moment.

𝑤𝑙 2
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑢 = (1.6)
12

𝑤𝑙 2
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑢 = (1.6)
16

6. Compute steel ratio, 𝜌

0.85𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝛽600
𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙 =
𝑓𝑦(600 + 𝑓𝑦)

𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙
 𝜌 = 0.5𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥

1.4
𝜌 min =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌 max ; 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜌

7. Determine value of 𝜔

𝜌𝑓𝑦
𝜔=
𝑓𝑐′

8. Determine the effective depth, 𝑑

𝑀𝑢 = ∅𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜔 (1 − 0.59𝜔)

9. Determine the ultimate shear at heel

𝑤𝑙 2
𝑉𝑢 =
2

10. Shear check

(∅√𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑)
∅𝑉𝑛 = ∅𝑉𝑐 =
6

11. Compute the area required, 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞

𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = 𝜌𝑏𝑑

11. Determine the reinforcements at the heel

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4

1000
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: (𝐴𝑠 ) = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞
𝑠
 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: +1
𝑠

Design of Stem

1. Solve for factored loads

𝛾𝑘𝑎𝐻 2 (1𝑚)
𝑃1 =
2

𝑃2 = 𝛾𝑘𝑎𝐻(1𝑚)

𝛾𝑘𝑎ℎ2 (1𝑚)
𝑃3 =
2

2. Determine the ultimate moment

𝐻 𝐻 ℎ
𝑀𝑢 = [𝑃1 ( ) + 𝑃2 ( )] (1.6) − 𝑃3 ( ) (1.6)
3 2 3

3. Determine the ultimate shear

𝑉𝑢 = 1.6𝑃1 + 1.6𝑃2 + 1.6𝑃3

4. Determine the value of 𝜔

0.85𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝛽600
𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙 =
𝑓𝑦(600 + 𝑓𝑦)

𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝜌𝑏𝑎𝑙

𝜌 = 0.5𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥

1.4
𝜌 min =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌 max ; 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜌

𝜌𝑓𝑦
𝜔=
𝑓𝑐′
5. Determine the effective depth, 𝑑

𝑀𝑢 = ∅𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜔 (1 − 0.59𝜔)

6. Shear check

(∅√𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑑)
∅𝑉𝑛 = ∅𝑉𝑐 =
6

7. Solve for vertical reinforcement (rear face)

𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = 𝜌𝑏𝑑

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4

1000
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: (𝐴𝑠 ) = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞
𝑠

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: +1
𝑠

8. Solve for vertical reinforcement (front face)

2
𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = 0.0012𝜌𝑏𝑑 ; 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
3

1000 2
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: (𝐴𝑠 ) = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 ( )
𝑠 3

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: +1
𝑠

9. Check development length, 𝐿𝑑

0.02𝐴𝑏 𝑓𝑦
𝐿𝑑 =
√𝑓𝑐 ′

min 𝐿𝑑 = 0.06 𝑑𝑏 𝑓𝑦
10. Solve for horizontal reinforcements (rear and front)

1 2
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
3 3

𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = 0.0025𝑏𝑑

@𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞1 = 0.0025𝑏𝑤1

@𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞2 = 0.0025𝑏𝑤2

𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞1 + 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 =
2

2
𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 ) ; 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
3

1
𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞 ) ; 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
3

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 =
4

1000
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: (𝐴𝑠 ) = 𝐴𝑟ⅇ𝑞
𝑠

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠: +1
𝑠

Detailed Cost Estimate

In the estimation of the material cost, the researchers have used different

methods such as the unit area method and unit volume method. Cost estimates that

were not attainable using the two methods aforementioned was done using the direct

counting method.

A. Earthworks

𝑉 = 𝐿𝑊𝐻
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

B. Concrete works

1. Volume of the proposed retaining will be determined

2. Concrete proportions will be computed to identify the quantity of concrete, sand

and gravel needed for the construction of the proposed retaining wall.

C. Steel Reinforcements

1. The total length of bars used will be determined through direct inspection

2. The length and total numbers of lateral ties will be computed

3. Total numbers of steel bars will be determined by direct counting method.

D. Tie wires

1. The number of steel bars intersection will be determined

2. The total number of ties will be determined.

3. The length of each tie wire will be multiplied to the total number of ties.

4. The total length will be divided by 1kg which is 53m in length.

E. Pipes (for weep holes)

Quantity of pipes needed will be estimated through direct counting method as it was

placed every:

𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 1.20𝑚
 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1.50𝑚

The total quantity of the materials that will be computed will be multiplied to the

current prices in the market. Also, labor costs will be added to finally obtain the total

project cost.
References:

Harden, C., 2001. Soil Erosion and Sustainable Mountain Development. Mountain

Research and Development, 21(1), pp.77-83.

Diwalkar, A., 2020. Analysis and Design of Retaining Wall: A Review. SSRN Electronic

Journal,.

Brooks, H. and Nielsen, J., 2018. Basics of retaining wall design. 10th ed.

HBAPublications.

Ferolino, H.E. (2005). Design of Reinforce Concrete Retaining Wall along Lulungisan

road at Tambo Malaki, Indang, Cavite (thesis)

Abellar, L. M., & Amparo, R. F. (2017). Design and analysis of cantilever retaining wall

along Santa Clara Subdivision Riverside at Barangay Santa Clara, General Trias City,

Cavite (thesis). Cavite State University, Indang.

Frencillo, M. J. R., & Ramos, P. A. G. (2018). Proposed design of a counterforted

retaining wall along Amuntay River in Dasmariñas City, Cavite (thesis). Cavite State

University, Indang.

Retaining Wall
https://www.asdipsoft.com/cantilever-retaining-walls/
https://www.aboutcivil.org/retaining-wall-definition-types-uses-retaining-walls.html
Purpose of retaining walls
https://tangentmaterials.com/the-main-purposes-of-a-retaining-wall/
Types of Retaining Walls
https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/types-of-retaining-wall
https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/what-is-a-reinforced-soil-wall
Cantilever Retaining Walls
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/cantilever-retaining-wall/1991/
Reinforce Concrete
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/reinforced-concrete-uses-benefits-
advantages/35976/
Advantages of Using Reinforce Concrete
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/advantages-disadvantages-reinforced-concrete-reza-
din#:~:text=Advantages%20of%20Reinforced%20Concrete,of%20reinforced%20con
crete%20is%20fair.
Components of cantilever retaining wall
https://www.civilconcept.com/cantilever-retaining-wall/
Lateral Earth Pressure
https://www.reviewcivilpe.com/lateral-earth-pressure/
Soil Bearing Capacity
https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/what-is-the-bearing-capacity-of-
soil#:~:text=In%20a%20nutshell%2C%20bearing%20capacity,the%20greater%20th
e%20bearing%20capacity.
Angle of internal friction
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_16-1#auth-
Jeffrey_R_-Keaton
http://www.geotechnicalinfo.com/angle_of_internal_friction.html
Surcharge
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/surcharge-8
Proper soil for retaining wall
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-best-soil-for-backfilling-a-concrete-retaining-wall
Cohesive and non-cohesive soils
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-73568-9_60
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-73568-9_212
https://www.earthworksenv.com/posts/soils-cohesive-versus-cohesionless
Loads and forces acting on retaining wall
https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/loads-forces-acting-on-retaining-
wall/14106/
Failure of retaining walls
https://www.slideshare.net/riteshac1/modes-of-failure-of-retaining-walls
Drainage of retaining wall
https://diyretainingwall.com/how-to-properly-add-drainage-to-your-retaining-wall/
Design consideration of retaining wall
https://absolutescapes.com/5-things-to-consider-when-designing-a-retaining-wall/
Stability analysis of retaining wall
https://abhashacharya.com.np/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Stability-Analysis-of-
Retaining-Structures.pdf
Design of Cantilever Retaining Wall
https://www.thestructuralworld.com/2019/03/04/design-of-retaining-wall/