5 ( AD ,1 G

5 ( AD ,1 G 3 A 66 AG ( 1
YRu shRuOG sSHQG DERuW 20 PiQuWHs RQ 4XHVWiRQV 1–13, whiFh DrH EDsHG RQ 5HDGiQJ 3DssDJH 1
EHORw.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

IQ ODWH 1946 RU HDUOy 1947, WKUHH %HGRuiQ WHHQDJHUV ZHUH WHQGiQJ WKHiU JRDWV DQG VKHHS
QHDU WKH DQFiHQW VHWWOHPHQW RI 4uPUDQ, ORFDWHG RQ WKH QRUWKZHVW VKRUH RI WKH DHDG 6HD
iQ ZKDW iV QRZ NQRZQ DV WKH :HVW %DQN. 2QH RI WKHVH yRuQJ VKHSKHUGV WRVVHG D URFN
iQWR DQ RSHQiQJ RQ WKH ViGH RI D FOiII DQG ZDV VuUSUiVHG WR KHDU D VKDWWHUiQJ VRuQG. HH DQG
KiV FRPSDQiRQV ODWHU HQWHUHG WKH FDYH DQG VWuPEOHG DFURVV D FROOHFWiRQ RI ODUJH FODy jDUV,
VHYHQ RI ZKiFK FRQWDiQHG VFUROOV ZiWK ZUiWiQJ RQ WKHP. 7KH WHHQDJHUV WRRN WKH VHYHQ
VFUROOV WR D QHDUEy WRZQ ZKHUH WKHy ZHUH VROG IRU D VPDOO VuP WR D ORFDO
antiquities dealer. Word of the �nd spread, and Bedouins and archaeologists eventually uQHDUWKHG
WHQV RI WKRuVDQGV RI DGGiWiRQDO VFUROO IUDJPHQWV IURP 10 QHDUEy FDYHV; WRJHWKHU WKHy PDNH
uS EHWZHHQ 800 DQG 900 PDQuVFUiSWV. IW VRRQ EHFDPH FOHDU WKDW WKiV ZDV RQH RI WKH JUHDWHVW
DUFKDHRORJiFDO GiVFRYHUiHV HYHU PDGH.

7KH RUiJiQ RI WKH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV, ZKiFK ZHUH ZUiWWHQ DURuQG 2,000 yHDUV DJR EHWZHHQ
150 %&( DQG 70 &(, iV VWiOO WKH VuEjHFW RI VFKRODUOy GHEDWH HYHQ WRGDy. AFFRUGiQJ WR WKH
SUHYDiOiQJ WKHRUy, WKHy DUH WKH ZRUN RI D SRSuODWiRQ WKDW iQKDEiWHG WKH DUHD uQWiO 5RPDQ
WURRSV GHVWURyHG WKH VHWWOHPHQW DURuQG 70 &(. 7KH DUHD ZDV NQRZQ DV JuGHD DW WKDW WiPH,
DQG WKH SHRSOH DUH WKRuJKW WR KDYH EHORQJHG WR D JURuS FDOOHG WKH (VVHQHV, D GHYRuW JHZiVK
VHFW.

7KH PDjRUiWy RI WKH WH[WV RQ WKH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV DUH iQ HHEUHZ, ZiWK VRPH IUDJPHQWV
written in an ancient version of its alphabet thought to have fallen out of use in the �fth FHQWuUy
%&(. %uW WKHUH DUH RWKHU ODQJuDJHV DV ZHOO. 6RPH VFUROOV DUH iQ AUDPDiF, WKH ODQJuDJH
VSRNHQ Ey PDQy iQKDEiWDQWV RI WKH UHJiRQ IURP WKH Vi[WK FHQWuUy %&( WR WKH ViHJH RI
JHUuVDOHP iQ 70 &(. IQ DGGiWiRQ, VHYHUDO WH[WV IHDWuUH WUDQVODWiRQV RI WKH HHEUHZ
%iEOH iQWR *UHHN.

7KH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV iQFOuGH IUDJPHQWV IURP HYHUy ERRN RI WKH 2OG 7HVWDPHQW RI WKH
%iEOH H[FHSW IRU WKH %RRN RI (VWKHU. 7KH RQOy HQWiUH ERRN RI WKH HHEUHZ %iEOH SUHVHUYHG
among the manuscripts from Qumran is Isaiah; this copy, dated to the �rst century BCE, iV
FRQViGHUHG WKH HDUOiHVW EiEOiFDO PDQuVFUiSW VWiOO iQ H[iVWHQFH. AORQJ ZiWK EiEOiFDO WH[WV, WKH
VFUROOV iQFOuGH GRFuPHQWV DERuW VHFWDUiDQ UHJuODWiRQV DQG UHOiJiRuV ZUiWiQJV WKDW GR QRW
DSSHDU iQ WKH 2OG 7HVWDPHQW.

37
7HsW 2

7KH ZUiWiQJ RQ WKH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV iV PRVWOy iQ EODFN RU RFFDViRQDOOy UHG iQN, DQG WKH
VFUROOV WKHPVHOYHV DUH QHDUOy DOO PDGH RI HiWKHU SDUFKPHQW (DQiPDO VNiQ) RU DQ
early form of paper called ‘papyrus’. The only exception is the scroll numbered 3Q15, ZKiFK
ZDV FUHDWHG RuW RI D FRPEiQDWiRQ RI FRSSHU DQG WiQ. KQRZQ DV WKH &RSSHU 6FUROO, WKiV
FuUiRuV GRFuPHQW IHDWuUHV OHWWHUV FKiVHOOHG RQWR PHWDO – SHUKDSV, DV VRPH KDYH
WKHRUi]HG, WR EHWWHU ZiWKVWDQG WKH SDVVDJH RI WiPH. 2QH RI WKH PRVW iQWUiJuiQJ
PDQuVFUiSWV IURP 4uPUDQ, WKiV iV D VRUW RI DQFiHQW WUHDVuUH PDS WKDW OiVWV GR]HQV RI JROG
DQG ViOYHU FDFKHV. 8ViQJ DQ uQFRQYHQWiRQDO YRFDEuODUy DQG RGG VSHOOiQJ, iW GHVFUiEHV 64
uQGHUJURuQG KiGiQJ SODFHV WKDW VuSSRVHGOy FRQWDiQ UiFKHV EuUiHG IRU VDIHNHHSiQJ. 1RQH RI
WKHVH KRDUGV KDYH EHHQ UHFRYHUHG, SRVViEOy EHFDuVH WKH 5RPDQV SiOODJHG JuGHD
during the �rst century CE. According to various hypotheses, the treasure belonged to ORFDO
SHRSOH, RU ZDV UHVFuHG IURP WKH 6HFRQG 7HPSOH EHIRUH iWV GHVWUuFWiRQ RU QHYHU H[iVWHG WR
EHJiQ ZiWK.

6RPH RI WKH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV KDYH EHHQ RQ iQWHUHVWiQJ jRuUQHyV. IQ 1948, D 6yUiDQ
Orthodox archbishop known as Mar Samuel acquired four of the original seven scrolls from a
Jerusalem shoemaker and part-time antiquity dealer, paying less than $100
IRU WKHP. HH WKHQ WUDYHOOHG WR WKH 8QiWHG 6WDWHV DQG uQVuFFHVVIuOOy RIIHUHG WKHP WR D QuPEHU
RI uQiYHUViWiHV, iQFOuGiQJ YDOH. )iQDOOy, iQ 1954, KH SODFHG DQ DGYHUWiVHPHQW iQ
WKH EuViQHVV QHZVSDSHU 7hH :DOO 6WrHHW JRurQDO – under the category ‘Miscellaneous Items
for Sale’ – that read: ‘Biblical Manuscripts dating back to at least 200 B.C. are for VDOH. 7KiV
ZRuOG EH DQ iGHDO JiIW WR DQ HGuFDWiRQDO RU UHOiJiRuV iQVWiWuWiRQ Ey DQ iQGiYiGuDO RU JURuS.’
)RUWuQDWHOy, IVUDHOi DUFKDHRORJiVW DQG VWDWHVPDQ YiJDHO YDGiQ QHJRWiDWHG WKHiU SuUFKDVH
DQG EURuJKW WKH VFUROOV EDFN WR JHUuVDOHP, ZKHUH WKHy UHPDiQ WR WKiV GDy.

IQ 2017, UHVHDUFKHUV IURP WKH 8QiYHUViWy RI HDiID UHVWRUHG DQG GHFiSKHUHG RQH RI WKH ODVW
uQWUDQVODWHG VFUROOV. 7KH uQiYHUViWy’V (VKEDO 5DWVRQ DQG JRQDWKDQ %HQ-DRY VSHQW RQH yHDU
UHDVVHPEOiQJ WKH 60 IUDJPHQWV WKDW PDNH uS WKH VFUROO. DHFiSKHUHG IURP D EDQG
of coded text on parchment, the �nd provides insight into the community of people who ZURWH iW DQG
WKH 364-GDy FDOHQGDU WKHy ZRuOG KDYH uVHG. 7KH VFUROO QDPHV FHOHEUDWiRQV WKDW iQGiFDWH
VKiIWV iQ VHDVRQV DQG GHWDiOV WZR yHDUOy UHOiJiRuV HYHQWV NQRZQ IURP DQRWKHU DHDG 6HD
6FUROO. 2QOy RQH PRUH NQRZQ VFUROO UHPDiQV uQWUDQVODWHG.

38
 5HDGi

4uHsWiRQs 1–5

CRPSOHWH WhH QRWHs EHORw.

ChRRsH 21E :2RD 21/Y IrRP WhH SDssDJH IRr HDFh DQswHr.

:riWH yRur DQswHrs iQ ERxHs 1–5 RQ yRur DQswHr shHHW.

7KH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV

DiVFRYHUy

4uPUDQ, 1946/7

• WKUHH %HGRuiQ VKHSKHUGV iQ WKHiU WHHQV ZHUH QHDU DQ RSHQiQJ RQ ViGH RI FO

• KHDUG D QRiVH RI EUHDNiQJ ZKHQ RQH WHHQDJHU WKUHZ D 1

• WHHQDJHUV ZHQW iQWR WKH 2 DQG IRuQG D QuPEHU RI FRQWDiQHUV

PDGH RI 3

7KH VFUROOV

• GDWH IURP EHWZHHQ 150 %&( DQG 70 &(

• WKRuJKW WR KDYH EHHQ ZUiWWHQ Ey JURuS RI SHRSOH NQRZQ DV WKH

4

• ZUiWWHQ PDiQOy iQ WKH 5 ODQJuDJH

• PRVW DUH RQ UHOiJiRuV WRSiFV, ZUiWWHQ uViQJ iQN RQ SDUFKPHQW RU SDSyUuV

39
7HsW 2

4uHsWiRQs 6–13

DR WKH IROORZiQJ VWDWHPHQWV DJUHH ZiWK WKH iQIRUPDWiRQ JiYHQ iQ 5HDGiQJ 3DVVDJH 1?

IQ ERxHs 6–13 RQ yRur DQswHr shHHW, wriWH

7R8E iI WhH sWDWHPHQW DJrHHs wiWh WhH iQIRrPDWiRQ

FA/6E iI WhH sWDWHPHQW FRQWrDGiFWs WhH iQIRrPDWiRQ
127 GI9E1 iI WhHrH is QR iQIRrPDWiRQ RQ Whis
6 7KH %HGRuiQ WHHQDJHUV ZKR IRuQG WKH VFUROOV ZHUH GiVDSSRiQWHG Ey KRZ OiWWOH
PRQHy WKHy UHFHiYHG IRU WKHP.
7 7KHUH iV DJUHHPHQW DPRQJ DFDGHPiFV DERuW WKH RUiJiQ RI WKH DHDG 6HD 6FUROOV.
8 0RVW RI WKH ERRNV RI WKH %iEOH ZUiWWHQ RQ WKH VFUROOV DUH iQFRPSOHWH.
9 7KH iQIRUPDWiRQ RQ WKH &RSSHU 6FUROO iV ZUiWWHQ iQ DQ uQuVuDO ZDy.
10 0DU 6DPuHO ZDV JiYHQ VRPH RI WKH VFUROOV DV D JiIW.
11 IQ WKH HDUOy 1950V, D QuPEHU RI HGuFDWiRQDO HVWDEOiVKPHQWV iQ WKH 86 ZHUH NHHQ WR
Euy VFUROOV IURP 0DU 6DPuHO.
12 7KH VFUROO WKDW ZDV SiHFHG WRJHWKHU iQ 2017 FRQWDiQV iQIRUPDWiRQ DERuW DQQuDO
RFFDViRQV iQ WKH 4uPUDQ DUHD 2,000 yHDUV DJR.
13 AFDGHPiFV DW WKH 8QiYHUViWy RI HDiID DUH FuUUHQWOy UHVHDUFKiQJ KRZ WR GHFiSKHU WKH
�nal scroll.

40 p. 122
 5HDGi

5 ( AD ,1 G 3 A 66 AG ( 2
YRu shRuOG sSHQG DERuW 20 PiQuWHs RQ 4XHVWiRQV 14–26, whiFh DrH EDsHG RQ 5HDGiQJ
3DssDJH 2 EHORw.

A second attempt at domesticating the tomato

A IW WRRN DW OHDVW 3,000 yHDUV IRU KuPDQV WR OHDUQ KRZ WR GRPHVWiFDWH WKH ZiOG WRPDWR DQG
FuOWiYDWH iW IRU IRRG. 1RZ WZR VHSDUDWH WHDPV iQ %UD]iO DQG &KiQD KDYH GRQH iW DOO RYHU
DJDiQ iQ OHVV WKDQ WKUHH yHDUV. AQG WKHy KDYH GRQH iW EHWWHU iQ VRPH ZDyV, DV WKH UH-
GRPHVWiFDWHG WRPDWRHV DUH PRUH QuWUiWiRuV WKDQ WKH RQHV ZH HDW DW SUHVHQW.
This approach relies on the revolutionary CRISPR genome editing technique, in
ZKiFK FKDQJHV DUH GHOiEHUDWHOy PDGH WR WKH D1A RI D OiYiQJ FHOO, DOORZiQJ JHQHWiF
material to be added, removed or altered. The technique could not only improve H[iVWiQJ
FURSV, EuW FRuOG DOVR EH uVHG WR WuUQ WKRuVDQGV RI ZiOG SODQWV iQWR uVHIuO DQG
DSSHDOiQJ IRRGV. IQ IDFW, D WKiUG WHDP iQ WKH 86 KDV DOUHDGy EHJuQ WR GR WKiV ZiWK D
UHODWiYH RI WKH WRPDWR FDOOHG WKH JURuQGFKHUUy.

7KiV IDVW-WUDFN GRPHVWiFDWiRQ FRuOG KHOS PDNH WKH ZRUOG’V IRRG VuSSOy KHDOWKiHU DQG IDU
PRUH UHViVWDQW WR GiVHDVHV, VuFK DV WKH UuVW IuQJuV GHYDVWDWiQJ ZKHDW FURSV.
‘This could transform what we eat,’ says Jorg Kudla at the University of Munster in
Germany, a member of the Brazilian team. ‘There are 50,000 edible plants in the ZRUOG, EuW
90 SHUFHQW RI RuU HQHUJy FRPHV IURP juVW 15 FURSV.’

‘We can now mimic the known domestication course of major crops like rice, maize,
VRUJKuP RU RWKHUV,’ VDyV &Di[iD *DR RI WKH &KiQHVH AFDGHPy RI 6FiHQFHV iQ %HijiQJ.
‘Then we might try to domesticate plants that have never been domesticated.’

B :iOG WRPDWRHV, ZKiFK DUH QDWiYH WR WKH AQGHV UHJiRQ iQ 6RuWK APHUiFD, SURGuFH
SHD-Vi]HG IUuiWV. 2YHU PDQy JHQHUDWiRQV, SHRSOHV VuFK DV WKH A]WHFV DQG IQFDV
WUDQVIRUPHG WKH SODQW Ey VHOHFWiQJ DQG EUHHGiQJ SODQWV ZiWK PuWDWiRQV* iQ WKHiU
JHQHWiF VWUuFWuUH, ZKiFK UHVuOWHG iQ GHViUDEOH WUDiWV VuFK DV ODUJHU IUuiW.

%uW HYHUy WiPH D ViQJOH SODQW ZiWK D PuWDWiRQ iV WDNHQ IURP D ODUJHU SRSuODWiRQ IRU
EUHHGiQJ, PuFK JHQHWiF GiYHUViWy iV ORVW. AQG VRPHWiPHV WKH GHViUDEOH PuWDWiRQV FRPH
ZiWK OHVV GHViUDEOH WUDiWV. )RU iQVWDQFH, WKH WRPDWR VWUDiQV JURZQ IRU
supermarkets have lost much of their flavour.

%y FRPSDUiQJ WKH JHQRPHV RI PRGHUQ SODQWV WR WKRVH RI WKHiU ZiOG UHODWiYHV, EiRORJiVWV
KDYH EHHQ ZRUNiQJ RuW ZKDW JHQHWiF FKDQJHV RFFuUUHG DV SODQWV ZHUH GRPHVWiFDWHG.
7KH WHDPV iQ %UD]iO DQG &KiQD KDYH QRZ uVHG WKiV NQRZOHGJH WR UHiQWURGuFH WKHVH
FKDQJHV IURP VFUDWFK ZKiOH PDiQWDiQiQJ RU HYHQ HQKDQFiQJ WKH GHViUDEOH WUDiWV RI ZiOG
VWUDiQV.

* PuWDWiRQV: FKDQJHV iQ DQ RUJDQiVP’V JHQHWiF VWUuFWuUH WKDW FDQ EH SDVVHG GRZQ WR ODWHU JHQHUDWiRQV

41
7HsW 2

& KuGOD’V WHDP PDGH Vi[ FKDQJHV DOWRJHWKHU. )RU iQVWDQFH, WKHy WUiSOHG WKH Vi]H
RI IUuiW Ey HGiWiQJ D JHQH FDOOHG )58I7 :(I*H7, DQG iQFUHDVHG WKH QuPEHU RI
WRPDWRHV SHU WUuVV Ey HGiWiQJ DQRWKHU FDOOHG 08/7I)/25A.

:KiOH WKH KiVWRUiFDO GRPHVWiFDWiRQ RI WRPDWRHV UHGuFHG OHYHOV RI WKH UHG SiJPHQW
lycopene – thought to have potential health bene�ts – the team in Brazil managed
WR ERRVW iW iQVWHDG. 7KH ZiOG WRPDWR KDV WZiFH DV PuFK OyFRSHQH DV FuOWiYDWHG RQHV;
the newly domesticated one has �ve times as much.

‘They are quite tasty,’ says Kudla. ‘A little bit strong. And very aromatic.’

7KH WHDP iQ &KiQD UH-GRPHVWiFDWHG VHYHUDO VWUDiQV RI ZiOG WRPDWRHV ZiWK GHViUDEOH
WUDiWV ORVW iQ GRPHVWiFDWHG WRPDWRHV. IQ WKiV ZDy WKHy PDQDJHG WR FUHDWH D VWUDiQ
UHViVWDQW WR D FRPPRQ GiVHDVH FDOOHG EDFWHUiDO VSRW UDFH, ZKiFK FDQ GHYDVWDWH
yiHOGV. 7KHy DOVR FUHDWHG DQRWKHU VWUDiQ WKDW iV PRUH VDOW WROHUDQW – DQG KDV KiJKHU
OHYHOV RI YiWDPiQ &.

D 0HDQZKiOH, JRyFH 9DQ (FN DW WKH %RyFH 7KRPSVRQ IQVWiWuWH iQ 1HZ YRUN VWDWH
GHFiGHG WR uVH WKH VDPH DSSURDFK WR GRPHVWiFDWH WKH JURuQGFKHUUy RU JROGHQEHUUy
(3hysDOis SruiQRsD) for the �rst time. This fruit looks similar to the closely related
&DSH JRRVHEHUUy (3hysDOis SHruYiDQD).

*URuQGFKHUUiHV DUH DOUHDGy VROG WR D OiPiWHG H[WHQW iQ WKH 86 EuW WKHy DUH KDUG WR
SURGuFH EHFDuVH WKH SODQW KDV D VSUDZOiQJ JURZWK KDEiW DQG WKH VPDOO IUuiWV IDOO RII
WKH EUDQFKHV ZKHQ UiSH. 9DQ (FN’V WHDP KDV HGiWHG WKH SODQWV WR iQFUHDVH IUuiW
size, make their growth more compact and to stop fruits dropping. ‘There’s potential
IRU WKiV WR EH D FRPPHUFiDO FURS,’ VDyV 9DQ (FN. %uW VKH DGGV WKDW WDNiQJ WKH ZRUN
IuUWKHU ZRuOG EH H[SHQViYH EHFDuVH RI WKH QHHG WR SDy IRU D OiFHQFH IRU WKH
&5I635 WHFKQRORJy DQG JHW UHJuODWRUy DSSURYDO.

( 7KiV DSSURDFK FRuOG ERRVW WKH uVH RI PDQy REVFuUH SODQWV, VDyV JRQDWKDQ JRQHV RI
WKH 6DiQVEuUy /DE iQ WKH 8K. %uW iW ZiOO EH KDUG IRU QHZ IRRGV WR JURZ VR SRSuODU ZiWK
IDUPHUV DQG FRQVuPHUV WKDW WKHy EHFRPH QHZ VWDSOH FURSV, KH WKiQNV.

The three teams already have their eye on other plants that could be ‘catapulted iQWR WKH
PDiQVWUHDP’, iQFOuGiQJ IR[WDiO, RDW-JUDVV DQG FRZSHD. %y FKRRViQJ ZiOG SODQWV WKDW
DUH GURuJKW RU KHDW WROHUDQW, VDyV *DR, ZH FRuOG FUHDWH FURSV WKDW ZiOO WKUiYH HYHQ DV
WKH SODQHW ZDUPV.

%uW KuGOD GiGQ’W ZDQW WR UHYHDO ZKiFK VSHFiHV ZHUH iQ KiV WHDP’V ViJKWV, EHFDuVH
CRISPR has made the process so easy. ‘Any one with the right skills could go to
WKHiU ODE DQG GR WKiV.’

42
 5HDGi

4uHsWiRQs 14–18

Reading Passage 2 has �ve sections, A–(.

:KiFK VHFWiRQ FRQWDiQV WKH IROORZiQJ iQIRUPDWiRQ?

:riWH WhH FRrrHFW OHWWHr, A–E, iQ ERxHs 14–18 RQ yRur DQswHr shHHW.

1B YRu PDy usH DQy OHWWHr PRrH WhDQ RQFH.

14 D UHIHUHQFH WR D WySH RI WRPDWR WKDW FDQ UHViVW D GDQJHURuV iQIHFWiRQ

15 DQ H[SODQDWiRQ RI KRZ SUREOHPV FDQ DUiVH IURP IRFuViQJ RQOy RQ D FHUWDiQ WySH RI
WRPDWR SODQW.
16 D QuPEHU RI H[DPSOHV RI SODQWV WKDW DUH QRW FuOWiYDWHG DW SUHVHQW EuW FRuOG EH
uVHIuO DV IRRG VRuUFHV
17 D FRPSDUiVRQ EHWZHHQ WKH HDUOy GRPHVWiFDWiRQ RI WKH WRPDWR DQG PRUH UHFHQW UHVHDUFK
18 a personal reaction to the flavour of a tomato that has been genetically edited

4uHsWiRQs 19–23

/RRN DW WhH IROORwiQJ sWDWHPHQWs (4uHsWiRQs 19–23) DQG WhH OisW RI rHsHDrFhHrs EHORw. 0DWFh

HDFh sWDWHPHQW wiWh WhH FRrrHFW rHsHDrFhHr, A–D.

:riWH WhH FRrrHFW OHWWHr, A–D, iQ ERxHs 19–23 RQ yRur DQswHr shHHW.

1B YRu PDy usH DQy OHWWHr PRrH WhDQ RQFH.

19 DRPHVWiFDWiRQ RI FHUWDiQ SODQWV FRuOG DOORZ WKHP WR DGDSW WR IuWuUH HQYiURQPHQWDO

FKDOOHQJHV.
20 7KH iGHD RI JURZiQJ DQG HDWiQJ uQuVuDO SODQWV PDy QRW EH DFFHSWHG RQ D ODUJH VFDOH.
21 IW iV QRW DGYiVDEOH IRU WKH IuWuUH GiUHFWiRQ RI FHUWDiQ UHVHDUFK WR EH PDGH SuEOiF.
22 3UHVHQW HIIRUWV WR GRPHVWiFDWH RQH ZiOG IUuiW DUH OiPiWHG Ey WKH FRVWV iQYROYHG.
23 HuPDQV RQOy PDNH uVH RI D VPDOO SURSRUWiRQ RI WKH SODQW IRRG DYDiODEOH RQ (DUWK.

/iVW RI
5HVHDUFKHUV A
JRUJ KuGOD
B &Di[iD *DR
43
& JRyFH 9DQ (FN
7HsW 2

4uHsWiRQs 24–26

CRPSOHWH WhH sHQWHQFHs EHORw.

ChRRsH 21E :2RD 21/Y IrRP WhH SDssDJH IRr HDFh DQswHr.

:riWH yRur DQswHrs iQ ERxHs 24–26 RQ yRur DQswHr shHHW.

24 AQ uQGHViUDEOH WUDiW VuFK DV ORVV RI PDy EH FDuVHG Ey D PuWDWiRQ

iQ D WRPDWR JHQH.
25 %y PRGiIyiQJ RQH JHQH iQ D WRPDWR SODQW, UHVHDUFKHUV PDGH WKH WRPDWR WKUHH WiPHV iWV
RUiJiQDO .
26 A WySH RI WRPDWR ZKiFK ZDV QRW EDGOy DIIHFWHG Ey , DQG ZDV UiFK
iQ YiWDPiQ &, ZDV SURGuFHG Ey D WHDP RI UHVHDUFKHUV iQ &KiQD.

44 p. 122
 5HDGi

5 ( AD ,1 G 3 A 66 AG ( 3
YRu shRuOG sSHQG DERuW 20 PiQuWHs RQ 4XHVWiRQV 27–40, whiFh DrH EDsHG RQ 5HDGiQJ
3DssDJH 3 EHORw.

Insight or evolution?
Two scientists consider the origins of discoveries and other innovative behavior
Scientific discovery is popularly believed to result from the sheer genius of such intellectual
stars as naturalist Charles Darwin and theoretical physicist Albert Einstein. Our view of such
unique contributions to science often disregards the person’s prior experience and the efforts of
their lesser-known predecessors. Conventional wisdom also places great weight on insight in
promoting breakthrough scientific achievements, as if ideas spontaneously pop into someone’s
head – fully formed and functional.

There may be some limited truth to this view. However, we believe that it largely misrepresents
the real nature of scientific discovery, as well as that of creativity and innovation in many other
realms of human endeavor.

Setting aside such greats as Darwin and Einstein – whose monumental contributions are duly
celebrated – we suggest that innovation is more a process of trial and error, where two steps
forward may sometimes come with one step back, as well as one or more steps to the right or
left. This evolutionary view of human innovation undermines the notion of creative genius and
recognizes the cumulative nature of scientific progress.

Consider one unheralded scientist: John Nicholson, a mathematical physicist working in the
1910s who postulated the existence of ‘proto-elements’ in outer space. By combining different
numbers of weights of these proto-elements’ atoms, Nicholson could recover the weights of all
the elements in the then-known periodic table. These successes are all the more noteworthy given
the fact that Nicholson was wrong about the presence of proto-elements: they do not actually
exist. Yet, amid his often fanciful theories and wild speculations, Nicholson also proposed a novel
theory about the structure of atoms. Niels Bohr, the Nobel prize-winning father of modern atomic
theory, jumped off from this interesting idea to conceive his now-famous model of the atom.

What are we to make of this story? One might simply conclude that science is a collective and
cumulative enterprise. That may be true, but there may be a deeper insight to be gleaned. We
propose that science is constantly evolving, much as species of animals do. In biological
systems, organisms may display new characteristics that result from random genetic mutations. In
the same way, random, arbitrary or accidental mutations of ideas may help pave the way for
advances in science. If mutations prove beneficial, then the animal or the scientific theory will
continue to thrive and perhaps reproduce.

45
7HsW 2

Support for this evolutionary view of behavioral innovation comes from many domains. Consider
one example of an influential innovation in US horseracing. The so-called ‘acey-deucy’ stirrup
placement, in which the rider’s foot in his left stirrup is placed as much as 25 centimeters lower
than the right, is believed to confer important speed advantages when turning on oval tracks. It
was developed by a relatively unknown jockey named Jackie Westrope. Had Westrope conducted
methodical investigations or examined extensive film records in a shrewd plan to outrun his
rivals? Had he foreseen the speed advantage that would be conferred by riding acey-deucy? No.
He suffered a leg injury, which left him unable to fully bend his left knee. His modification just
happened to coincide with enhanced left-hand turning performance. This led to the rapid and
widespread adoption of riding acey-deucy by many riders, a racing style which continues in
today’s thoroughbred racing.

Plenty of other stories show that fresh advances can arise from error, misadventure, and also
pure serendipity – a happy accident. For example, in the early 1970s, two employees of the
company 3M each had a problem: Spencer Silver had a product – a glue which was only
slightly sticky – and no use for it, while his colleague Art Fry was trying to figure out how to affix
temporary bookmarks in his hymn book without damaging its pages. The solution to both these
problems was the invention of the brilliantly simple yet phenomenally successful Post-It note.
Such examples give lie to the claim that ingenious, designing minds are responsible for human
creativity and invention. Far more banal and mechanical forces may be at work; forces that are
fundamentally connected to the laws of science.

The notions of insight, creativity and genius are often invoked, but they remain vague and of
doubtful scientific utility, especially when one considers the diverse and enduring contributions of
individuals such as Plato, Leonardo da Vinci, Shakespeare, Beethoven, Galileo, Newton, Kepler,
Curie, Pasteur and Edison. These notions merely label rather than explain the evolution of human
innovations. We need another approach, and there is a promising candidate.

The Law of Effect was advanced by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1898, some 40 years
after Charles Darwin published his groundbreaking work on biological evolution, On the Origin
of Species. This simple law holds that organisms tend to repeat successful behaviors and to
refrain from performing unsuccessful ones. Just like Darwin’s Law of Natural Selection, the Law
of Effect involves an entirely mechanical process of variation and selection, without any end
objective in sight.

Of course, the origin of human innovation demands much further study. In particular, the
provenance of the raw material on which the Law of Effect operates is not as clearly known as
that of the genetic mutations on which the Law of Natural Selection operates. The generation of
novel ideas and behaviors may not be entirely random, but constrained by prior successes and
failures – of the current individual (such as Bohr) or of predecessors (such as Nicholson).

The time seems right for abandoning the naive notions of intelligent design and genius, and for
scientifically exploring the true origins of creative behavior.

46
 5HDGi

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A established his reputation as an influential scientist.
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47
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scienti�c reason why creativity occurs.
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DQG JHQiuV.

48
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S. 122 49