-

Fund~mental of Remote Sensing

,-1.1
--Remote Sensing - Definition ---- ---- ---- ---- ---~
: 1.2 Concept of Remote Sensing

I 1.3 Advantages of Remote Sensing

I
1.4 Limitations of Remote Sensing

1.5 Principles of Remote Sensing

1.6 Elements of Remote Sensing

1.7 Electromagnetic Radiatio n (EMR)

1.8 The Electromagnetic Spectru m

1.9 Energy Interact ion in the Atmosphere

1.10 Energy Interact ion with Earth Surface Features

1.11 Atmospheric Window

1.12 Spectral Reflectance Curve [Spectral Signature]

I 1.13 Types of Remote Sensing

I
I 1.14 Remote Sensors .
I
I 1.15 Remote Sensing Platforms
I
I 1.16 Remote ·Sensing in India
I 1,17 and Swaths
Orbits

1.18 Data Acquisition and Reco rd ing

 Remote Sensing and Gls

2 ;::ndamental of Remote Sensing

(May 2019, Jan. 2021)
1.1 · Remote Sensing - Definition 3. Microwave remote sensing 3
. . . . . formation about an object, area or phenomena, through
4. Earth resource satellites
-_ Remote sensing is the science and ~rt of obta'.mng I~ with the object, area or phenomena under
the analysis of data acquired by a device, that is not m contact t. Photogrammetry and aerial h
P otogrammetry :
investigation. Photogra~metry is the process of obtainin .
Remote sensing is the acquiring of data about an object without touching it. Photogrammetnc procedures can range from obtainin g reliable measurements and maps from photogra hs
·
equipment and geometric concept 10 p . maps andg approximate distances and elevations usmg . . p ·
rec1se re1at1vely simple
Another definition of remote sensing is :
rd' f information from the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and techniques. Although most applications involve aeri:easurements using sophisticated instruments and complex
Remote sensing is the non-contact reco mg O . based cameras) may also be used. photographs. terrestrial photographs (taken from earth
microwave re ions of the electromagnetic spect111m by means of instruments such as cameras, sc~nners, las_ers,
g ed on platforms such as aircraft or spacecraft, and the analysis of acquired T~e uses of photogrammetry are :
linear arrays, and/or area arrays Iocat . . . rocessin
information by means of visual and digital image P g. Preparation of topographic maps

mapping in e ngineering, geograhy, forestry, geology, etc.

1.2 Concept of Remote Sensing
2. Thermal and multispectral scanning :
We perceive the surrounding world through our five senses. Some senses (touch and taste_) require the contact
of our sense organs with the objects. However, we acquire much information about our surrounding through Thermal scanning (thermography) is used to measure the radiant
the senses of sight and hearing which do not require close contact between the sensing organs and the external from a distance by sensisng in the wavelength range to *m. temperature of earth, surface features
3 14
objects. Multipectral scanning eanbles sensing in a wider
the thermal. range of wavelength bands, from the photograph through
Genera_lly, remote sensing refers to the activities of recording / observing / perceiving (sensing) object or
events at far away (remote) piaces. In remote sensing, the sensors are not in direct contact with the objects 3. , Microwave remote sensing :
being observed. The information needs a physical carrier to travel from the objects I events to the sensors through
Microwave re~ote sensing employ microwave radiation. Microwaves are capable of penetrating the
an intervening medium. The electromagnetic radiation is normally used as an information carrier in remote sensing.
atmosphere under virtually all conditions through rain, clouds, snow, haze and smoke.
The technical term 'remote sensing' was first used in the United States in the 1960s. Technical terms like
. Mi~r~wave reflections or emissions from earth materials bear no direct relationship to their counterparts
encompassed photogrammetry, Photo-interpretation and photo-geology also were emerged with remote sensing.
m the V1S1ble or thermal portions of the spectrum.
Since Landsat-I, the first earth observation satellite was launched in 1972, remote sensing has become widely
For example, surfaces that appear ' rough' in the visible portion of the spectrum may appear 'smooth' as
used.
se~n by microwaves. Thus, a markedly different view of the environment may be seen by microwave sensing.
Remote sensing occurs at a distance from the object or area of inter~st.· Int~restingly, there is not clear
... Radar is an active microwave sensor, while the ' microwave radiometer' is the passive microwave sensor.
distinc~ion about this distance. It could be I m, 1000 m or more than 1000 km . from the object or area of
The microwave radiometer responds to the extremely low levels of microwave energy that are naturally emitted
interest. In fact, virtually, all astronomy is based on remote sensing.
and/o_r reflected from terrain features.
The characteristics of an object can be determined using reflected or emitted ele~t;~m·a~netic r~diation from
4. Earth resource satellites :
the object. That is, each object has uniq~e and different characteristics of reflection or emission, depending
,. · In this method space borne sensors mounted on satellites are used to study the earth from space. This
upon different environmen~ c~nditions. ~emote sensing includes aerial photography and satellite imagery. Today,
method is _u~ed for weather forecasting, crop forecasting, mineral exploration, pollution detection etc.
most natural ~source mapping 1s done usmg remote sensing. Aerial photography has been used to produce virtually
~I topographic maps sue~ as fo_rest maps, geological maps, land use maps, and soil ma s. Aerial holography · The LANDS in the USA and the INSAT series in India are examples of this kind of remote sensing.
1s used to prepare detailed city maps. Satellite based p p 't'•· .,·!, _:·1•- i
. . sys Iems can now measure phenomena that change
continuously over time and cover large and inaccessible areas. 1.3 Advantages of Remote. Sensing (April 201s, May 2019, Jan. 2021)

1.2.1 · Methods of Remote Sensing : Remote sensing has the following advantages :
The currently available methods for remote sensing are : ,, \ . . Satellite images are permanent records, provi,ding useful information in various wavelengths.

1. Photogrammetry and aerial photogrammetry 2. Large area coverage enables regional surveys on a variety of themes and identification of large features .

2. Thermal and multispectral scanning 3. Repetitive coverage allows monitoring ~f dynamic themes like water, agriculture etc.
 -------...:.::~~Remote Senstn

~-----------~ ~
4

4.
Easy data acquisition at different scales an
. ~an~edan
d interpreted for different purposes and applicar
~
Pund■ mental of Remote Sensing

The electromagnet' . 5
. ic energy mteracts with the earth' .
s. A single remotely sensed image can recessing using a computer.
soil, grass, water, paved road, forest etc. s surface and various features like buildings, bared
ed data for fast p .
6. Amenability of remotely sens .
r is passive1y
recording the electromagnetic energy r fl
. ( . e CctC(j
. . nobstructive if the sense passive remote sensing using natural The response of ground surface materials to incid . . .
7. Remote sensmg 1s u f interest. 'fhus, . . source by all objects as a functi f h. ent rad1at10n is the reflectance, and the energy emitted
from or emitted by the phenomena~ o rb the object or area of interest. emittance determine the ~n o t e1r temperature and structure is the emittance. The reflectance and
h ) does not d1stu signatures.
of energy, e.g. t e sun thus reducing the amount of field work.
The knowledge of spectral signature is essential .. .
8. The images are analysed in the laboratory ! techniques. This knowled b for explmtmg the potential of the remote sensing
. cales is economical and aster. . ge ena les one to identify and classify objects.
9. Map revision at medium to small s . • h .
three individual band images, wh1c provide better de .
10. Colour composite c3'.1 be produc_ed from .al hotograph. !alls
of the area than a smgle band image or aen p Sun
an be located from above and rescue planning
11. Flods over a large region, or the forest ti re c can be
immediately arrange<!.
The inaccessible areas like volcanic ·eruption, failure of d~m ,over river, etc. can be covered by the
12.
remote sensing techniques to study the intensity of disaster. ,, . .'.

13. The data generated by remote sensing techniques can be used for : land-use planning, forest devel~pment,
geological surveys, urban planning, disaster management, etc.

1.4 Limitations of Remote Sensing (June 2012, Jan. 2021)

The limitations or disadvantages of remote sensing are as follows :

I. Expensive for small areas, particularly for one time analysis.

2. Requires specialized training for analysis of images.

3. Large scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from satellite data. water
Fig. 1.1 : Basic Principia of Remote Sensing
4. Aerial photographs are costly if repetitive h
P otographs are required to study the dynamic featuies.
5. When radiation is incident on a surface, it is reflected, absorbed, scattered and transmitted. All the
Human beings select the most appropriate sensor
data, calibrate the sensor th to collect the data, specify the resolution of the processes are strongly dependent on the wavelength of ·the incide.nt radiation, as well as the atomic
• seIect e platform that w·u
1 carry the senor, determine 'II and molecular structure of the material. In view of these facts, one can identify the material constituting
be collected, and specify how th d . when the data WI
e ata will be proce sed Th y the object from a spectral plot, multiband photograph or any other record, which shows enough details
be introduced. s · us, human method produced error 1118
of its spectral reflection, absorption, scattering or transmission properties.
6. Powerful active remote sens·
. mg system, such as R
(electromagnetic radiation), can be int . radars or lasers that emit their own EM 1.6 Elements of Remote Sensing (May 2018)
. rus1ve and affect the
1.5 Principles of Remote S . phenomenon being . investi~ted. .The remote sensing system consists of the following stages :
. ensrng
The basic principle of r~mote s . (April 2018, Jan, 202 1) 1. Energy source : The sun is the source of energy in passive remote sensing. The sun produces electromagnetic
ensmg is illustrated . energy.
• The sun and various artifi . I in figure below - . " . .. . -
1c1a sources rad" . 2. Propagation or energy through the atmosphere : The energy from the source propagates through the
All objects on the rf iate electromagnet' atmosphere. The atmosphere modifies the wavelength and spectral distribution of energy to some extent.
su ace of the earth h tc energy of variable wavelengths.
ground surface feature is a set of v ave spectra] signat .ect r, 3, Interaction or energy with target : The energy received by the target int_eracts where it is either transmitted,
aloes for the fl ores. A spectral signature of an obJ
re ectance or radiance of the feature. absorbed, scattered, emitted or reflected from the target.
 Remote Sensing and GIS
fundame ntal of Remote Sensing
nd ths.
is set to the senso; which respo s to all waveleng
4. Recording of energy by sensor : The return signal
Sensors are mounted on satellites .
ed, often
energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitt
S. Transmission. Reception and Processing : The
~d processin g station on the ground where the data are processe d into
in electronic form to a receiving
an images.
phic product and digital product.
The data products are mainly two types : photogra
: The processe d i~age are interprete d, visually or _digitally or electroni cally
6. Interpretation and Analysis
.
to extract information about the target of interest. to the
obtained from the remote sensing is made available
7. Application : The information about the target
users in the desired form

Sun
[(energy
f source) Passive sensor
13 wave
(Composed of both ele~t · : Electro_magnetic

1--
another)
and magnetic fields at 90° angle to one
nd characteristics of EMR which are particularly important
Waveleng'.h a frequency are the two important ·
for understanding remote sensing.
of one complete wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between two
Wavelength (A) is the length
th of the EMR depends upon the length of time that the charged particle
~uccessive peaks_(Fig. 1.3). The waveleng
nanometres (nm, 10-• m). micrometres (µm, 10.,. m).
1s accelerated. It 1s measured in metres (m) or as
Elcctromagncric a wave passing a fixed point per unit time. It is denoted
radiation Frequency (v) refers to the number of cycles of
Processing by the Greek letter nu (v).
SUllion
t to one cycle per second.
(Pmcc."-.,;i ng
:rn:1lysis:rnd
It is normally measured in Heartz (Hz), equivalen
:
frequency (v) of EMR is based on the following formula
The relationship between the wavelength (A) and
iruerprcr.uion)

C = A. y
.
Fig. 1.2 : Stages of remote Sensing where,
1
c = velocity of light (3 x 10 mis)
. (April 2018, May 2018)
1.7 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
te the
sensing is to have an e·nergy source to illumina Longer wavelenglh
As stated earlier, the first requirement for remote energy (EMR).
).

This energy is in the form of electromagnetic

target. The sun is the natural source of energy.
g to the Lower Frequency
properties and behaves in predictable ways accordin
All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental
consists of :
basics of wave theory. Electromagnetic radiation
(1) Electrical Field (E) :
travelling .
cular to the direction in which the radiation is
Shorterwawlength
Which varies in magnitude in a direction perpendi ).

(2) Magnetic Field (M) : Higher Frequency

It is oriented at right angles to the electrical field.

EMR as an electromagnetic energy ~r ~ave th~t irav~ls
In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell conceptualized Wavelength with Lower frequency and
x 10 1
mis. Unlike other ·wave types that require a carrier
(e.g. Fl 1 4 • Longer y
through space at the speed of light, which is 3 g. · Shorter wavelength with Higher Frequenc
vacuum (such as in space). Electrom agnetic radiation
water waves). electromagnetic waves can transmit through .1
ed.
is generated whenever an electrical change is accelerat
 Remo te Sensing and Gis
ng
funda ment al of Remote Sensi

1.. = wavelength (m) t.9 Energy Interaction i n ~osphere - 9

Atm 2013, May 2013, Jan. 2021)
. (January
it is pro
v = frequency (Hz) Once EMR is generated, first . .
. This relationship is shown
in Fig. 1.4, the atmos phere iagate d throug h the vacuum almost at the s e
ely proportional to wavelength and then through the earth' s P ed of hght m a vacuum
Note that frequency is invers , the highe r the frequency. When only the speed f . ·. nhke a_ vacuum in which noth'mg happens howe h
wavelength may affect not ver, t e atmosphere
the frequency, the shorter the 0 rad1a1ton b
ut also its wavelength .t .
. '
longer the wavelength, the lower of light and the wavelength change while
the
These effects are caused by
th ' t s intensity, and its spectral
distribution.
m to anoth er, then the speed e two main mechanisms. •
the EMR passes from one mediu
I. Absorption
frequency remains constant. (June 2011)
trum 2. Scattering
1.8 The Electromagnetic Spec X-rays) to the
engths (including gamma and tion and scatterin in .
ranges from the shorter wavel The_ combined effect of absorp incident radiation is called
The electromagnetic spectrum several regions of the g reducing the intensity of the
micro waves and broad cast radio waves). There are attenuation.
longer wavelengths (including Wavelength regions of electromag
netic radiations
are useful for remote sensi~g.
electromagnetic spectrum which iolet (uv), visible ·light, infrared (IR) to
radio wave in
from y-ray, X-ray , ultrav
have different names ranging
lengths.
order from the shorter wave human eye,
the interval detected by the
ding from 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm),
A narrow range of EMR (exten of all wavelengths in the visibl
e region.
n. White light ~onta ins a mix
is known as the visible regio 0.4 µm), visible
are near uv (ultraviolet) (0.3 -
regions used in remote sensing
The electromagnetic radiation µm) and microwave (I mm
- I m) .
and therm al infrared(0.7 - 0.14
(0.4 - 0.7 µm), near short wave

w... 1ong1111n
.:tQ-~-=-- 10·' 1 10 1r/- 10' 104 10
1
10
1
10' 10
1
,
1
10

-10" 10" 10.. 10.. 10.. Absorbed/transmitted

en91gy

I I Fig, 1,6 : Energy interaction

I I I I I I I :II_,:I I I· I I
.1
Mlc:ro-waw
Radio 1. Absorption :
and
· l-1 X-,.yo w f .
absorbed and conve rtedt·nto other ,orms o energy.
Colmlc Gamma &
I IR I TV
I I Absorption is the. proce ss by which radiant energy is · ·
phere and on the terra 1·n. An absorptton
- raya .
I I
The a • . take place in the atmos
1- t energy may
bsorptton of the mc1dent radian
I
Vlllblt Tllonnll b d • um within which radiant energy is absorbed by
IR s in the electromagnetic spectr
an is a range of wavelength the atmosphere to
various constituents can cause
Fig. 1.5 : The Electromagnetic
Spectrum t effect of the absorption by the
a subS ance. The cumulative not desired for remote sensing as
no energy
of the spectrum. This is
n regions
~lose down completely in certai
ent applications :
Different wavelengths for differ is available to be sensed.
gical classification of rock
types. constituents that absorb radiation.
recently been used for geolo vapour are the three main atmospheric
Short wave infrared has more Ozone, Carbon dioxide and water the sun.
remen t. harmful ultrav iolet radiat ion from
used for temperature measu Ozone serves to absorb the
Thermal infrared is primarily strongly in the far infrared (therm
al infrared)
gas) tends to absorb radiation
d for radar and microwave radiometry. - Carbon dioxide (a green house to trap this heat inside the
Microwave is utilize heating - which serves
area associated with thermal
is. given t~ the micro wave
region. ponio n of the spectrum - ing long wave (thermal) infrared and
X band, C band and L band of the incom
A special naming of K band, the atmosphere absorbs much
atmosphere. Water vapour in
Visible region is used for Image
s and
photographs. shon wave microwave radiat
ions.

Remote S & GIS \ 2021 \ 2

 Remote Sensing and G!s
fundamental of Remote Sensing
10
11
2. Scattering : . f diation by atmospheric particles. It occurs
atmos here. is the scattering o ra
One very serious effect of the P h . t ract with and cause the EMR to be redirected
resent in the atmosp ere m e •
when particles or large gas molecu1es P d ds on several factors including the wavelength
h ttering takes place epen
from its original path. How muc sea_ d the distance the radiation tra~els through the atmosphere.
of the radiation, the diameter of the particles or gases an
Types of Scattering
,l.

Non-Selective Scattering
Selective Scattering
,!, Fig. l.7 : Non-Selective Scattering

Non-seiective scattering of equal proportions of blue, green and red light always appears as white light to the
Mie Scattering Raman Scattering
Rayleigh Scattering observer as shown in Fig. 1.7.

Rayleigh Scattering : . .
. atterin also referred to as ~olecular scattering) occurs when the effective diameter of the 1.10 Energy Interaction with Earth Surface Features : (Nov. 2017, May 2018)
Rayleigh Sc g ( d nitrogen in the atmosphere) is many times (usually < 0.1
matter (usually air molecules such as oxygen an
Electromagnetic radiation striking the matter or the earth's surface is called incident radiation . The
times) smaller than the wave length of the incident EMR.
matter may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form. When the EM radiation strikes the matter, there is interaction
I between the two . This interaction may change various characteristics of the incident radiation, such as
Rayleigh Scatter cc "if
I ailed a clear atmosphere scattering. It is responsible intensity, direction , wave length, polarization and phase. The remote sensing systems are designed to detect
It ha ens in the upper part of the atmosphere, a so c .
PP · 1 d blue wavelengths are more effectively scattered than and record these changes in the incident radiation. The data and images obtained are interpreted to determine
for the blue appearance of the sky. The shorter v10 et an . . the characteristics of the matter which produces these changes.
the longer green and red wavelengths.

Mie Scatterln1 : .
Mic scattering (also · referred to u non-molecular scattering) takes place in the lower 4.~ km of the . SatcTiitc
Electro1111anctic
atmosphere, where there may be many essentially spherical particles present_with diameters approximately equal cncray110urcc ,/
Rcflcction
to the size of the wavelength of the incident .energy. The actual size of the particles may range from 0.1 to
IO times the wavelength of the incident energy.

Raman Scattering :
Raman scattering is caused by atmospheric particles, which are larger, smaller or equal to that of the
wavelength of the radiation being sensed. The atmospheric particles may be gaseous molecules, water droplets,
fumes, or dust" particles. These portions have an elastic collision with the atmospheric particles which result
in either loss or gain of energy and thus an increase or decrease in wavelength.

Non-Selective Scattering :

This type of scattering takes place in the lowest portions of the atmosphere where there are particles ~reater
than JO times the wavelength of the incident EMR. This type of scattering is non-selective, that i~,-all wavelengths
of light are scattered, not just blue, green or red. Thus, the water droplets and ice crystals that make up clouds
Fig, 1,8 Interatlon of EM radiation with matter
and fog banks scatter all wavelengths of visible light equally well, · causing the cloud to appear whi_te,
 Remote Sensing and Grs fundam ental of Remote Sensing
---
21!.2----------------::--.:--::-.-==-::=-==-~-
The interaction of EM radiatio n with matter
th
usually consiS t s of e followi ng five
modes : e, =EA+ E-r + E
The geometry of reflected energy R
13

from . . . .
. an obJect is also an tmponant coh .
I. Transmission a function of th e surface roughness Specular refl t· s1deratton which ts primarily
like reflect1 of the object.
manife st mirror from flat surfaces that
2. Absorption angle of reflection equalse:h ton tsl obt~m~d
(Lambertian) is from roughon wfhere the e of incidence Diffuse renect'ton
sur aces that fl ect uniformly tn all de ang .
3. Emission . re
mixed reflecJion ts obtained hav1ng characteristic trect1ons. From most eanh surfaces a
. . the two extremes '
4. Scattering . s somewh at between
Fig. 1.8 illustrates the geom t nc characte r of rf . ·
. fl . e r, near diffuse and
5. Reflection rizes ;u a~e giving specular, near specula
ent of the inciden t radiati on which passes
through the diffuse _re ect1ons . The category that characte .
Transmission : Transmission is that compon Y given surface is dictated by the surface roughness in
1. depend ing upon the density of the compar ison to the wavelength 0 f the energy incident u .
Em radiatio n change s in the matter . pon tt. For example in the visible pon·ton of the
matter. The velocity of the (n). electro magnet ic spectrum (short wave length) a sand b •
ed in terms of the index of refract ion Y each appears rough whereas in the relative! y 1ong
medium. The change in the velocity is measur wavelength of the energy it can appear smooth to incident
.
of incident
velocity in the vacuum
. h . . . energy. Therefore, when the wavelength
energy ts much smaller than the surface eight variation o th . .
. r e pan1cle sizes that make up a surface, the
Index of refraction = velocity in the matter reflect10n from the surface is diffuse.
tion on the c .
Its value is greater than unity. Diffuse reflections contain spectral informa r
absorb ed by the matter. th ' d'ffu olour of th e reflecting surface, whereas specula
ent of the inciden t radiati on which is reflecti ons do not. For remote sensin
d energy is measured to distinguish objects
for
2. Absorpti~n : Absorption is that compon · g, IS I sed reflecte
of the matter . · mappin g purpos es .
The absorbed energy is used in the heating
at longer wave
by the matter. Emissi on usually occurs
3. Emission : Emission is the energy emitted
the matter and its temper ature. 1.11 Atmospheric Window
lengths. It depends upon the structure of
of the inciden t energy in panicular can
esses compa rable to the wave lengths not constant across the spectrum . Absorption
4. Scattering : Surfaces which have roughn b At;osp h:ric .absorpt ion and scattering is
molecu les and particl es which have when compared to other parts.
ed in the atmosp here by of the spectrum
cause scattering. iight waves are scatter . e muc grea er m some parts
on and thus are
sizes comparable to the dimens ions of
the wave length of light. th not severely influenced by atmospheric absorpti
Those areas of e spectrum which are '
of the matter such that heric windows.
Renection : Some of the electro magne
tic energy is reflect ed from the surface useful to remote sensors are called atmosp
S. g radiation, where as,
angle of inciden ce. minimal passage of incoming and/or outgoin
the angle of reflection is equal to the . Grey zones marked in Fig. I.JO shows much with air molecules and
are govern ed by the in which the radiation does not interact
absorp tion are the phenom e~a which white areas denote atmospheric windows,
It may be noted that transm ission and
. The volume charac teristic s such as density and hence, is not absorbed.
mass) of the matter
volume charac teristic s (or
and reflect ion are the
On the other hand, emissio n, scatter ing
conductivity control these phenom ena.
ess, colour.
surface charact eristics such as roughn
phenomena which are govern ed by the
Energy transm itted + Energy reflect ed · 100
Energy incident = Energy absorb ed + AJmospharic Atmospheric Window
transmissivily
(%)
1011 1010 1011 Hertz
Frequency
M1crowave Radio -

~ ~ .·~ ~
=-~SUn 1OO)lm 1nm 10nvn 100mm 1m
.S~~-te
Wavelengths

W~l nfnlr ed
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7µm
BlueGnien~ed .
Microwave radiometer and radar
Photography and mullispeclral scanner
'.\.""'11•-
',,\'!«C-V
......,..._....
NNrpeifec:t ldnldlffulel9tledor Wavele r.gth of H"'{
Fig. 1.10 : Atmospheric Window for Various
ldNI ~ Nearperfect
rwfleclor 1pecuar""ec1or dlffu11rdector ("l.amb tlllan~" )
(1) (b) (c) . (d)
Surface Features
Fig. 1.9 : Spect,ra! Response of Earth
 Remote Sensing· and Gts
~ndament al of Remote Sensing
14 nd 15
mid-IR a all of the far-IR reg ~ The ~pectral reflectance curves t i
Note that the atmosphere is nearly opaque to EMR in the part of the about th .
unimpeded, so radar waves reach of the radiant energy. But because th::ecally provide no information
In the microwave region, by contrast, most of this radiation moves through record reflected energy, thi s informatio _nsor_systems such as cameras
and
5
e absorption and transmittance
is a~sorbed by ozone preventing harmful n IS still quite valuable and can ome m~lll-spectral scanners only
the surface. In the shorter· wave length regions, most of the EMR and assessment. form the basis for object identification
cosmic i;iys and uv rays reaching to the earth's surface.
Spectral response of main i .
eatures of eanh : Ve etat'
(April 2018, May 2019) Vegetation : g ion, soil, water, snow and clouds is discussed below.
1.12 Spectral Reflectance Curve [Spectral Signatures]
(January 2013)
Spectral reflectance of different objects is different and is unique in
way of percentage of energy reflected A chemical compound in leaves called
radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths , but reflects green wavelen c:lorophyll strongly .absorbs
and pattern of reflectance. For any given material, the amount of solar radiation that reflects, absorbs or transmits,
and wavelength for any given material is ~hlorophyll content is at its maximum f s. Leaves appear . 'greenest' to us in the summer when
varies with wavelength. The relationship between percent reflectance IS less absorption and more reflectio .f ~ autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves s~ there
by which an object can be identified the leaves appear red ~r yellow
called spectral reflectance curve or spectral signature. The basic property lnfact, measuring and monitoring th n o t e red wavelength, making
healthy vegetation may be. e near IR-reflectance is one way that scientists can determine ho~
is called signature.
substances or classes and separate
This important property of matter makes it possible to ide~tify different Tree leaves and crop canopy reflect more in the sh
reflect more in the longer wavelengths. oner radar wavelengths, while tree trunks and limbs
them as shown in Fig. I.I I.

There is maximum reflectance at 0.54 µm .

Shcflwavelnfrared
Different crops have different leaf structure and refle t 7
So this range is used to diffe f . . c ance between o. to 1.3 µmis due to leaf structure.
ren 1ate crops m images.
in leaf.
80
~~-1:.~~' ',, /,,,,,---- --.. . Energy more than 1.3 µm wavelength is absorbed by water content
____'O!J-._
'-/ ........... ,, Soil:
. .
l Energy is either reflected or absorbed by soil • It has a1most zero transmittance of energy.
j 40
:eflectance from soil depends on moisture content of soils. Presence
of moisture absorbs energy and
that in wet soil.
tl ecreases reflectance. Thus, in dry soil reflectance is more than
~~---, and high reflectance.
Coarse sandy soils are well drained resulting low moisture content
20

-
waler
Re_flectance decreases with .surface
ox 1de also decreases reflectance.
roughness.

0
It also decreases

Reflectance is low in dark' colour soils compared to light colour

with organic

soils.
content. .Presence of Iron

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.4

With increase in size of soil particles, reflection will decrease.
w-.ge, Cllffl)
Water:
Fig. 1.11 : Spectral Reflectance C~rve
more by water than shorter visible
. ,•· Longer wavelength visible and near-IR radiation is absorbed
As shown in Fig. I.I 1; at some wavelengths dry soil t1 ~tronger reflectance of these shorter
re ects ~ore energy than green vegetation but at wavelengths . Thus, water typically looks blue or blue-green due to
other wavelengths it reflects Jess (absorbs more) th d
diffe an oes the vegetation Fig l l l h wavelengths .
distinguish the five common materials :. . · · · s ows that using reflectance
rences, we can body, then this will allow
If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water
dry soil sediment can be easily confused
better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water. Suspended
wet soil clear water, since these two phenomena appear very similar.
with shallow
turbid river water energy.
Clear water reflects less energy while turbid water reflects more
clear lake water
vegetation.
 Remote Sensing and Gis
fundamental of Remote Sensing
16
t as energy transmitted is reflected ~ The active sensors direct b ·
Sballo; water reflects more energy compared to deep wa er, 17
. a urst of radiation at th
b b · floor of water body. interacts w11h th e ener~y. Most often, the sensor detects th e target and use sensors to measure how the target
Y ottom . . al ae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and or th~ amou nt of time II took for the energy lo return . Acti:ereflect1on of t_he energy, m~asuring the angle reflection
When algae area present m . water, . chlorophyll m ~
nnY time, rega rd 1ess of the llme of the day or season. How::nsors provide the capa~1lity to obtain measurements
reflects the green-making the water appear greener m c~Iour.
large amount of energy to adequate! 'I JI . er, active system requrre the generation of a fairly
• Y ummate targets.
Snow and Cloud : wavelength region of EM spectrum. Syn~hchc Aperture Radar (SAR) is one of the best exa .
Snow has very high reflectance in the visible and near IR operates 1n the microwave region of electromagnetic s mple of active remote sensing. This sensing system
d have same reflectance value. Hence, it is than I mm. pectrum and include radiation with wavelength longer
In wavelength range from 03 to 3.0 µm clouds an snow
difficult to differentiate them, at this range of wavelength. Doppler radar is another example of an active rem .
based system th~t emits radio energy in a radial pattern as t~:et sensi~g technology. A Doppler radar is a ground.
or echoes of this energy off such atmospheric particles as d ransm'.tter rotates. A sens~r measures the reflection
(June 2011, Jan. 2021)
1.13 ·1ypes of Remote Sensing t
plotted on a regional map, assist a meteorologist in determin· US , ramdrops an_d even b1rds. ·These echoes when
the publi~ of the area of potenti ally severe weather. th
In respect to the type of energy resources, remote sensing can be classified into two categories :· mg e exact location of storm centres, and notifying

I. Passive remote sensing Another form of active collection is th t .

lasers, microwaves and radar lo take measur:; mosphenc sou~der, which uses various forms of energy, including
2. Active remote sensing detailed data about a wide variet of ents of the density of atmosphere at certain altitudes, thus providing
1. Passive remote sensing : (Nov. 2018) composition etc. y phenomena that mcludes wind speeds, pollution levels, atmospheric

In remote sensing sun's electromagnetic energy which is reflected by different objects is received by sensors t nd
MoS active a passive remote sensors employ a detecting or sensing system that scans the object a recording
on satellite to create images is known as passh•e remote sensing. t th th
syS em at Slores e information received, and an analysis or display system for giving the de~ired results.
Passive remote sensing makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted EMR from natural sources
like sun. Passive sensors are those which are designed to detect naturally occuring energy. The sun's energy
is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared
wavelengths.

Passive detection can only wort when the naturally occuring energy is available. Detection of reflected
solar energy, for example, can only proceed when the target is illuminated by the sun, thus limiting visible
light sensors ·on satellites from being used during a nigh!-time pass. The amount of solar radiation present at
polar latitudes is often insufficient for visible light sensors, limiting the use of passive detectors .to lower latitudes.

Clouds, dust, smoke and other particles in the atmosphere can block reflected energy from reaching a sensor.
(a)
(b)
The problems associated with passive remote sensing can be overcome 'by designing a remote sensing system
in which a sensor can be used that is capable of detecting radiation in several different portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. For example, by using a combination of visible and thermal infrared channels weather Fig. 1.12 : Passive (a), Active (b) Remote Sensing

satellites can provide imagery of the earth 's cloud patterns during both day and night hours. • ·
(June 2011)
Th~matic ~~pper (TM) is a good example of the passive sensor. This sensor has seven bands or channels, Active remote sensing Passive remote sensing
each bemg sens11_1~e to a different range of EMR. The sensors on the thematic mapper are sensitive to narrow Energy It generates and use its own energy It depends on solar radiation to
portions of the VIS!ble and near infrared portion of the spectrum, with one band sensitive to thermal infrared. Source to illuminate the target and record illuminate the target.•
2. Active remote sensing :
the reflected energy.
. (Nov. 2018)
Active remote sensing makes use of sensors that detect fl led . Region of This system operate in the micro- This system operate· in the visible and infrared region
from artificially generated energy sources such d ~e ec responses from objects that are irracjiated spectrum in of the electro:nagneticspectrum.
, as ra ar. Active remote se · . . wave region of the electromagnetic
for illumination of the object or target. nsmg provides its own energy source which they spectrum.
operate
Remote S & GIS \ 2020 \ 3
 Remote Sensing and
18
~ fundamental of Remote Sensing
Their wavelengths are more than Their wavelengths range from 0.4 to 10 JJm. ----:-:
Wavelength
interacts with the energy. Most often, the sen 19
I mm. or the amount of time it took for the ener sor detects the reflection of th~ ener .
Reliance They do not rely on detection of
Tuey rely on detection of solar emission.
anY time, regardless of the time of the ;1 to return. Active sensors provide the gy, me~unng the angle reflection
large amount of energy to adequate! .ay o'. season. However, active capab1hty to obtain _measurements
on solar solar or terrestrial emissions. system require the generallon of a fairly
. y illuminate targets
irradiance
Capability Active sensors provide the capability Passive sensors can work during day time when - Synthehc Aperture Radar (SAR) is one oft
operates m the microwave region of I
e ectromagnef
·
he best example of active . . .
.
remote sensing. This sensing system
to obtain measurements any time, sunlight is available. than I mm. ic spectrum and include radiation with wavelength longer
to work
Doppler radar _is another example of an active .
regardless of the time of the day
based system that emits radio energy in a radial pattern :mote sensing technology. A Doppler radar is a ground
or season. or echoes of this energy off such atmosphe . . the transmitter rotates. A sensor measures the reflection
Examples Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), Any electromagnetic remote sensing plotted on a regional map, assist a meteorol n_c ~articles as du st . raindrops and even birds. These echoes when
t
Doppler radar. (Camera without flash light) the public of the area of potentially se ogiS '" determining the exact location of storm centres and notifying
vere weather. . ,
Sensors are further classified as :
1.14 Remote Sensors (April 2018, May 2019, Jan. 2021) (a) OIR Sensors
(b) Microwave Sensors
Remote sensors are the instruments that measure the properties of electromagnetic radiation leaving a surface/
medium due to scattering or emission. (c) Imaging Sensors

There are two types of sensors : (d) Non-imaging Sensors

I. Passive Sensors om Sensors :

2. Active Sensors The sensors which are operating in optical and infrared regions are OIR sensors.
Microwave Sensors :
1. Passive Sensors :
Passive sensors senses natural radiation which is either emitted or reflected from the target. The sun's energy These sensors operate for microwave frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum.
is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared Non-imaging Sensors :
wavelengths. These sensors measure t_he intensity of radiation within the field of view and in some cases a function
Passive sensors can only be used to detect naturally occuring energy. There is no reflected energy available of distance along the line of sight of the instrument (spectroradiometer-vertical temperature profile radiometer).
from the sun at night. The amount of solar radiation present at polar latitudes is often insufficient for visible Imaging Sensors :
light sensors limiting the use of passive sensors to lower latitudes. These sensors gives two dimensional spatial distribution of the emitted or reflected intensities of the
The problems associated with passive remote sensing can be overcome by designing a remote sensing system electromagnetic radiations. ·
in which a sensor can be used that is capable of detecting radiation in several different portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. For example, by using a combination of visible and thermal infrared channels, weather 1.15 Remote Sensing Platforms (Decem~r 2011)
satellites can provide imagery of the earth's cloud patterns during both day and night hours.
The vehicles or carriers on which the instrument (sensor) is carried are · called platforms.
Thematic mapper (lM) is a good example of the passive sensor. This sensor has seven bands or channels,
In order for a remote sensor to collect and record energy reflected or emitted from a target or surface,
eac~ being sensit_i~e to a different range of EMR. The sensors on the thematic mapper are sensitive to narrow
it must reside on a suitable platform away from the target or surface being observed. Platforms for remote
portions of the VISlble and near infrared portion of the spectrum, with one band sensitive to thermal infrared.
sensors may be situated on the ground, on an aircraft or balloon, or on a spacecraft or satellite outside the
2. Active Sensors :
earth's atmosphere.
The sensors which produces its own electromagnetic radiation of a 'fi f
. . . . . spec1 1c wave Iength or band o A listing of platforms is given below :
wavelengths and the mteractwn of this rad1at1on with the target · tud· d " • . .
active sensors. is s ie ,or target 1dent1ficat1on are called I. Hand held :
Some field instruments may be carried in the hand and pointed at the target in question.
The active sensors direct a burst of radiation at the ta t d
rge an use sensors to measure how the target
 Remote Sensing and Gts
20 ~damental of Remote Sensing
2. Cherry Picker : Ground based sensors can be placed 21
A platform similar to the one used by electrical w·orkers when servicing lamp lights, etc.
0

elevate the platform . Ground based sensors on tall structures such as towers, scaffolding, or buildin s· to
or satellrte sen sors. are generally less expensive to operate and maintain than ai;craft
It allows a larger region to be viewed with a hand held instrument. ' .1

Thi s type of sensing is mainly carried for laborato .

3. Balloon : work . ry work or some kind of experiments and simulation
It is generally tethered and suspended over a target region and is useful for talcing repeated measurements
(b) Aerial Platforms (Air borne) :
of a small area using either a hand held instrument or an imaging instrument, for example, camera.
Aerial platforms are mostly sensors mounted on fi x . .
4. Radio Control Models : such as balloons, rockets and helicopters can be used ed-wmg aircraft, though othet' airborne platforms,
Both fixed and rotary wing radio control models have been used to carry remote sensing instruments. This
Aircraft are often used to collect very detailed ima · , ..
type of platform has gained recent popularity. Non-piloted vehicles with pre-programmed flight paths that are of data vtrtually over any portio f h , ges of the earth s surface and fac1htate the collection
controlled by GPS have also become available and provide a cheap and extended mission capability for remote above the earth 's surface to · n °.t e earths surface at any time. Aerial systems elevate the sensor
sensing data acquisition . areas of the surface wh . h mcre,ase Its. aerial coverage. They also allow researchers to monitor very large
to visit. • ic wou d be impractical with .ground based sensors or impossible or dangerous
5. Low altitude aircraft :
Ultraflights may be employed up to 5000 ft. with light payloads. Conventional aircraft can extend this These are used for :
to over 15,000 ft. Jets and other pressurised aircraft can fly at higher ·altitudes.
Weather data
6. High altitude aircraft : Archaeological studies
Special planes like the U2 spy plane can fly at altitudes of 20 km in the upper atmosphere. At this alt;tude Generating aerial photographs
the air craft is stable and geometric distortions can be minimised. Operational expenses are higher, however.
Photogrammetry
7. Low altitude spacecraft :
Various air borne platforms include :
The space shuttle has flown many remo;e sensing missions at altitudes of around 250 km .
(I) Ballooons
8. Medium altitude spacecraft :
(2) Aircrafts
. Spot and Landsat orbit at approximately 700 - 900 km above the earth and ca~ provide wide area coverage
(3) Rockets
at hrgh geometric stability and high spatial resolution.

.I
9. High altitude spacecraft : (1) Balloons :
Balloons are rather inexpensive platforms and offer a great variety . of shapes, sizes and performance
Geo~tationary satellites such as those that beam down weather images for television, orbit at 20,000 km
characteristics. They provide large field of view and require very less man power. They have lpw acceleration
and provide broad coverage at a coarse spatial resolution .
and hence delicate instruments can be mounted on it. They also exhibit low vibrations. There are three
Platforms are _broadly classified into three classes : · (December 2010, June 2012)
types of balloon systems :
(a) Ground based platforms (Ground borne)
(i) Free balloons
(b) Aerial platforms (Air borne)
(ii) Tethered balloons
(c) Satellite platforms (Space borne)
(iii) Powered balloons
(a) Ground based platforms (Ground borne) : Free balloons : A free balloon can lift thousands of kilograms of scientific pay loads and can almost
' , . reach the top of the atmosphere. Unless a mobile launching system is developed, the flights can be carried
Remote sensing platforms that position the sensor at th
platforms. These systems are fixed t th h e earth s surface are called ground based out from a fixed launching station, e.g. in India at present, Tata Insti~te of fundamental Research, Bombay .
0 e eart and the ·sensors are 0 ft d
environmental conditions such as . 1 . en stan ard tools used to measure has set up a National Balloon Facility at Hyderabad.
etc. air emperature, wmd·characteristics, water salinity, earthquake intensity
Tethered balloons : These balloons have the capability of keeping the equipments at a fixed position for
any desired length of time and thus useful for many remote sensing programmes.
 Remote Sensing and Gts
22 fundamental of Remote Sensing'
ire utilization of some means of propulsion to maintain or achieve
Powered balloons : These balloons. r~ul t' n Since these can be remotely controlled, guided along a Advantages of space borne sensor·s•~:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ __:2::_3
station over a designated geograph1ca oca ,o . I ~ for remote sensing applications.
pl!,rticular path, they offer good potential as a p at orm Sate II ites permit repetitive coverage of the e ' (June 2011)
orbit. arth s surface on a continuing basis because of their designed
(2) Aircrafts : . . . in the development of remote sensing techniques. Gives high resolution with synoptic view.
Aircrafts have been playing an md1spens1ble role
Can cover large area per second (km'is).
The advantages of using aircrafts as remote sensing platform are : Lower operating cost.
High resolution of data reco rd ed. . Covers area which are inaccessible.
Capability of carrying large pay loads. Consistent ~overage with frequent visit can monitor temporal change.
Capability of imaging large area economically. Not constrained by flying conditions or airport proximity.
Accessibility of remote areas. Disadvantages of space borne sensors :

Convenience of selecting different scales. Cannot cover in cloudy weather except mic~owave.
Adequate control at all time, etc. Initial cost is very high.
However, due to limitations of operating altitudes and range, the aircraft finds its greatest applications Requires atmospheric and radiometric correction.
in
local or regional programmes rather than measurements on global scale. Creates large data for storage.

(3) Rockets :
Requires expensive processing and analysis.
Restricted data cannot be used by public.
Rocket platforms are for one time observations only. The data is collected with continuous change
in range, Cannot be flown anywhere on demand.
direction and illumination conditions. These are not of much use in regular operational systems.
(c) Satellite platforms (Space borne) :
1.16 Remote Sensing in India
In space, remote sensing is conducted from satellites. Satellites are launched for remote sensing,
communication and telemetry (location and_navigation) purposes. Remote sensing technology has evolved in India at a fast pace. For more than 1000 years Indian
astrologers
have claimed that the sun's white light is composed of all colours, which was, after a long
A practical lower limit on satellite altitudes of approximately 300 km is set by atmoshpere drag. time was proved
The by Sir Isaac Newton in 1672. This invention was the backbone of modern optics and photography
upper limit on altitude is set by booster thrust capability and the gravitational field of the earth. or imaging.
1\vo types Remote Sensing matured with space technology in 1950s.
of orbits which have used in earth applications programme are :
I. Geosynchronous or stationary orbit. The Indians might have imagin~d space technology and its application first in the Aryan
era. In the
Mahabharata and Ramayana, there are several imaginative concepts of rockets, space shuttles,
2. Sunsynchronous orbit space war etc.
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, former president of India, in his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture
in Banglore
A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite located in an equatiorial region, west to east orbit with (1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of the world's first war rocket . .
an orbital
period equal to the earth's period of rotation (i.e. 365 * days). · After gaining independence in 1947, India focussed on development of science and technoldgy.
The Indian
The altitude of such an orbit is approximately 35,900 km. The primary adva11tages of committee f~r space research (INCOSPAR) lead by Prof. Sarabhai was a part of Tata Institute
the orbit is that of Fundamental
the satellite is stationary with respect to earch. This allows continuous viewing of that portion Research (TIFR) lead by its director G. K. Menon. Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam was amongst the initial
of the earth team of rocket
within the line of sight of the satellite sensors. Disadvantages associated with this orbit include the engineers forming INCOSPAR.
st extreme
di ance for earth vie~ing, shortage of spacecraft parking space due to orbital requirements In 1962 INCOSPAR took the decision of setting up Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching station
and the need at Thumba
to have several satellites to obtain global coverage. also known ~s Trivendrum in South of India. On '!5th August INCOSPAR was reconstituted
and Indian Space
" The sunsynchronous orbit is an O bI·t I d Research Organisation (ISRO) 'was created unde: the department of Atomic Energy to conduct
space research
. r
track at the same local time each day Th sealecte so that the space craft passes over the same ground
· d and applications. •
. . . · e
Smee the sunsynchronous orbit ts near I · tttu es• of such orbits ranges between 300 and 1000 km- Dr. Vikram 'Sarabhai, the Father of the Indian Space Program gave invaluable contribution
· to the Indian
. . . po ar, 11 provides nearly global coverage. The disadvantage of thtS
type of orbit hes m the fact that diurnal effects t . . Space Program.
a given points along the track are missed.
 Remote Sensing and Gls
24
In 1972 the Indian Government set up space
commission and entrusted Department Of Space
responsibility for conducting India's space activities (D O ~
. While ISRO is the main developer and
satellite system, it is complimented by two launche r of th

Telecommunications) and IRS (Indian Remote

separate projects INSAT (Indian Nationa
l Satellite fo:
Sensing Satellite) for earth observation .
. DOS is also the nodal agency for Physical
Research Laboratory (PRL) which conduct
area of Space Science and National Remote Sensing s research in the
Agency (NRSA estab!ished in 1975) which
deploys modern
remote sensing techniques for natural resource
survey. ·
At present, nine centres of !SRO are responsi
ble for various activities :
VSSC (Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre) :
National natural
resources National
ISRO's single largest facility, near Trivendrum Natlonol
providing the technology base for launche r management remo1a
Mesoopt,en,.
and propulsion system 80nslng
llralcel)llen ,. .
development. (NNRMS) agency
ln)poepho19
(NRSA)
nidwFaclllly
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre : (NMRF)

Located at Banglore and Trivendrom and supporte

d by test facilitie s .at Mahend ragiri for ~iquid
motors
control throster system /1.nd cryogenic engines Regional
.
Remote
Sensing
ISRO Satellite Centre· :. S81Vlce
Contra
Lead centre for the design, fabrication and (RPSSC)
testing of science, . technology and applicat
ion facilities.
SHAR Centre :
.
ISRO's orbital site and largest solid motor
production and test facility at Srihl!fikota.
Vikram
Space Liquid
ISRO's Inertial System Unit : sarabal Application
ISRO ISRO
space population lntemal Tolemelry
cenll9 systems Systems Tracking&
Provides inertial Systems and components centre
(SAC) cenlra
for satellites and J~unchers. (VSSC)
(LPSC)
Unit Command
(IISU) NelWOl1<
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking & Command 0S1RAC)
Network (ISTRAC) :
Headquarter at ~anglor e, operates a network
of ground station to "provide Telemetry,
Trackin g and Fig. 1.13 : Structure of Indian Space Program
command support for launcher and satellite
operations.
■ IRS Series : _(June 2012)
Space Application Centre (SAC) :
Followi ng the successful demonstration of flights
of Bhaskara-1 and Bhaskara-2, India began the
Located at Ahmedabad, SAC is ISRO's. applicat of an indigenous IRS program to support development
sensing and geodesy. ·
ions R & rf centre, . . the national economy in the areas of agricultu
re, water resources,
mcludm g commu nication s, remote forest resources, geology, water sh~s. marine
fisheries and coastal management. ·
INSAT Master Control Facility (MCF) The IRS-lA , i.e . Indian Remote Sensing Satellite,
: by Russian Launcher (1988) India became the
5"
~ountry to join the world remote sensing
program .
Located at Hassan, near Banglore. ,. ..
Launch~d on March-17, 1~88 out of service
since 1995
Development and Educational Communication
s Unit (DECU ) : repeat cycle 22 days
Located at Ahmedabad.
orbit height 904 km
It has two push broom scanners i.e. LISS-I
and LISS-II with the ground resolution of
72.5 m
and 36.25 m respectively.
Remote S & GIS \ 2020 \ 4
 Remote Sensing and Gls
21
b ds as given below :
This satellite operated in four spectra1 an ---- fundamental of Remote Sensing

It is used for - Cartographic aipp;pl:ic:at:io:ns;-------------- ---2~7

Wavelength
Band - Cadastra) ma .
0.46 - 0.52 µm - Land use pp1ng and updating
Band-I
Band-2 0.52 - 0.59 µm
- Other GIS applications
Band-3 0.62 - 0.68 µm MATSAT (Kalpana-1) :

Band-4 0.77 - 0.86 µm The MATSAT is the first exclusive meteorolo . . (January 2013)
satellite that was launched by a gical satellite built by- ISRO. MATSAT is a geostationary
In 1991 , IRS-lB was l~;nched. _It has all the specifications, identical with .IRS-IA. n upgraded four-stage PSLV C4
MATSAT weights 1060 k . - rocket from SHAR in September-2002.
IRS-IC ·and IRS-ID are identical-and were launched in 1995 and 1997 respectively. They carry three g. earned a very high r I . •
for weather applications. eso ution radiometer for three b~nd images useful
cameras. ASTROSAT:
panchromatic camera (PAN)
The ASTROSAT is a full - fledged astrono . . .
linear imaging self scan~er ~S-lll) 0
f th I t . my satelhte by India. It has telescopes that view a large area
e e_e~ ro~a~neuc_spectrum. ASTROSAT mission conceived as a national project involving several
wide field sensor (WiFS). academic mst1tut1ons m the country.

IRS-P3 was launched using PSLV-D3 in 1996. It w~s put in ~ polar sun synchronous orbit at an ~e ASTROSAT enables multi-wavelength studies of a variety of celestial sources and phenomena
altitude of 817 km. It has an X-ray astronomy and two remote sensing payloads, namely WlFS and usmg a cluS ter of X-ray astronomy instruments and ultraviolet (UV) imaging telescope.
MOS. The mission caters to oceanography applications. Cha~drayan :
(January 2013) ..
IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT-1) was launched in 1999, which is the first Indian Satellite dedicated fully for
The ISRO calls the first moon flight project Chandrayan Pratham which has been translated as first
the study of oceans. It carries the ocean colour monitor (OCM) and the multi-frequency scanning journey to the moon.
microwave radiometer (MSMR). The satellite is helpful in the study of oceanographic phenomena such
The 1157 lbs Chandrayan-1 was launched on one of India's own PSLV space rockets.
as sea temperature, sea surface height and rain over oceans.
The mission objectives are high resolution of the moon in the visible. low-energy X-ray and high
IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-1) It is the heaviest earth observati_on space craft launched into an 817
energy X-ray regions for preparing three dimensional atlas of regions of scientific interest with a high
km Sun-synchronous polar orbit in 2003. It is the most advanced satellite, carrying three sensors that
spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m.
deliver and array spectral bands and resolutions ranging from 5.8 to 60 m.
The payloads of Chandrayan-1 designed and developed in India are : Terrain. mapping camera, a hyper
Data from IRS satellites are received and processed by the NRSA (National Remote Sensing spectral imager, a lunar laser ranging instrument, a high energy X-ray spectro~eter, a moon impact
Agency) in Hydrabad. Space Imaging (now Geo Eye) also receives and markets IRS data worldwide probe.
under a commercial contract with Antrix Corporation (a commercial arm of ISRO).
■ NRsA:
IRS-PS (CARTOSAT-1) :
(January 2013) ·. NRSA ·( National Remote Sensing Agency) established in 1975 _at Hyderabad deploys modem remote sensing
IRS-PS is launched _by PSLV in 2005. ·The satellite is primarily intended for advanced cartographic techniques for natural resource survey. Data from IRS satellites are received and processed by the NRSA.
applications. ·
The NRSA is an autonomous organization under the DOS, Government of India, engaged in operationa'.
It will have two panchromatic cameras with a spatial resolution .of 2.5 m and a swath of 30 km each. remote sensing activities. .
These c3'.11eras _are mounted with a tilt of+ 26° and - 5° along the track with respect to the nadir to provide
,. The cheif activities are :
stereo parrs of rmages needed for the generation of digital terrain model (DTM) / d" ·ta! I f odel
(DEM) globally. 1g1 e eva 1~n m satellite and aerial data capturing
data processing .
The satellite is placed in a sun-synchronous polar orbit of 617 km It· w,. h • . bi·1·ty
of 5 days. . · 11 ave a revlSI1 capa 1 data dissemin~tion
applications for providing value added services and t_raining.
 Remote Sensing
28 rund ■ ment■ I of Remote Sensing
. . and Glg
During its operational phase, say between \986-'93, NRSA geared_Itself for handling m a n y ~ orb~tal plane .and the earth 's equatorial plane . H
O
the national level, covering fields like land use / land cover, waste land inventory, fishery, drought, floods , ,,:' orbatal plane IS O • When the inclination . ~s termed lhe inclination of the . . . .
north pole and south pole lie in th . is 90 ' the satellite move onb1t. lnclmat1on of equatorial
In the expansive phase from 1993 till date, NRSA has matured into ·a fully operational remote sen . · e orbnat pl s over the poles· that is centre of th earth
. . . sing it is called near polar orbit. ane. TMs is called polar orbit. If th~ inclin~tion is closecto 900•
services provider. It helped in the establishement of 13 international ground st attons (IGS) alt over the World
Pole<
besides three mobile stations. '
· ' At present, two modem aircrafts (Beach craft 200) having INS, K-GPS fitted with MSS, photogrammetric
~

~•!~ al
cameras, SAR, and electromagnetic sensors are available at NRSA for aerial remote sensing.
PSLV and GSLV : (June 2012, January 2013)
/1\ /!L\ ~

♦---♦
PSLV : India joined a selected group of six nations on October 15, 1994, when the PSLV (Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle) successfully accomplished its mission of placing the 800 kg remote sensing satellite, IRS-P2
in the intended orbit.
The success of PSLV is an important milestone for the Indian space industry. India has achieved self.
sufficiency in launching its operational satellites. The PSLV is a unique vehicle that employs both liquid and
solid ·fuel engines, and it is ISRO's workhorse. The PSLV can place a saiellite weighing about 3000 kg in low
"' \~--~-~
Fig, 1.14 : (a) Different types of orbits (b) N (b) <•>
earth orbit, at a height of 400 - 600 km. It can also deploy satellites weighing up to 1500 kg in polar sun- on-sun synchronous orbit (c) Sun-synchro- orlllt

synchronous orbit at a height of 750 km from the earth surface.

~atellite orbits a_re m~tched to the capability and objective of the sensor(s) they carry. Orbit selection can
Indian PSLV successfully launched several satellites for other nations as well, like BIRD for Germany, vary m terms of their altttude, orientation and rotation relative to the earth.
KITSAT-3 for Korea, PROBA for Belgium, LAPAN-TUBSAT for Indonesia, AGILE for Itly etc: '' ,·.
The oribital peirod CD of a satellite can be calculated from the following equation (Newton's form of
GSLV: Kepler's third law) :
GSLV (Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle) is the most important rocket developed by !SRO. GSLV 4. it 2 . R3
presented the Indian space program with its most demanding technological test. It embodies decades of struggle T =
G·M ccntral
in the development of propulsion fuels, engines, avionics and other electronic and control systems by teams where,
of dedicated ISRO research scieutists. The need for a heavy lift booster. was felt by India in the early l 980s
R = earth's radius (6.38 x 106 m) + oribital altitude from the earth's surface
as the PSLV was inadequate to place heavy payloads in geosynchronous orbit. The purpose of the program
was to satisfy India's need for telecommunications, environmental monitoring, disaster warning and other systems. G = universal gravitational constant ·

Space Plane - Avtar : = 6.67 x 10 11 N • m2/kg2

The ISRO has designed a space plane, Avtar (aerobic vehicle for hypersonic aerospace transportation) which
is planned to be used for launching satellites. It is capable of reaching JOO km orbit in a single stage and
can launch satellite weighing 1 tonne. The plane talces off like any conventional aircraft. Once the mission is
over, the plane deorbits and reenters the earth's atmosphere negotiating the dense atmospheric regime and lands
on its own power. This amazing space plane can perform around JOO such missions at a fraction of the cost
of a similar plane being developed by western nations, Japan and China. Apart from lifting satellites the Avtar
will be used primarily to transport passengers, who do not need special training like the regular cosmonauts.
M""'"'' = Mass of the central body (earth) about which the satellite orbits
= 5.98 X 1024 kg
As seen fro~ the above equation, if the altitude of the orbit increases, the time taken for one revolution
(orbital period) also increases. At about 35,786 km height above mean sea level, the orbital period is equal
to one sideral day (Z 3 hours 56 min 4.091 sec) - sideral day refers to the. ti_me taken ~y cart~ to rotate -~
relative to the stars. This orbit is called geosynchronous orbit, means the orb,~ 1s synchromzed wnh _the _rot~t,onal
period of the earth. Geosynchronous orbit may be circular or elliptical with zero or non-zero mchnallon.

1.17 Orbits and Swaths . . . s cial kind of geosynchronous orbit. If any geosynchronous orbit is circular
(June 2011) _A ~eostat1onary orbit IS _a . pe d tationary orbit. In this case the relative movement between the
• Orbits: and Its inclination is 00 • then it ts calle geo.s ars stationary with respect to the earth. ..
earth and the satellite is zero, and the satelh~e appe
- · - · · . • th absence of distressing forces, the angle between the sun-
. The path followed by a satellite•in space is refe~d to as its orbit. The plane in which the satellites move
1s known as orbital plane. ' S~nce the orbit is fixed in inertial sp~ce, : th: earth move~ around the sun. [Fig. l.14(b)l This will give
earth hne and orbital plane goes on changing ·
The orbital plane containing the equator is termed as equatorial plane. The angle between the satellite's
 'Remote Sensing •nd Gts
fundamental of Remote Sensing
. 30 . .sits that area, and hence it is a problem for temporal
• . . . n over an area when the satelhte rev_1 lane to exaclly compensate for the movement rhe orbit which will trace designated path . J1
varying solar 11lummat1o h ve to rotate the orbital P . f orbital plane is the same th th
•d chis problem, we a . for rotation o 118 c data may be captured using reference sc~e~ e e path 15
known then it is possible to find out day on which
studies. To avoi [Fi 1 14(c}]. If the precessto 0 . rhe same local sun time. Such orbits
of rhe earth around the sun ig. . es the equaror at precise1y Hence, orbital calender can be used r .
rth's rolation, then the satellire always _cross . f rhe sntell ile and to · capture the d or analysis of temporal changes after knowing the path and timings
:e referred to as sun-synchronous orbits, o ata for temporal analysis.

■ Concept of Swath :
· t.18 Data Acquisition and Recording :
- certam portion of th~ earth's surface. In a satellite
3
. 1 around the earth, the sensor sees ·s called the swath or width of lhc Remote Sensing Techniques :
As a satelhte ~vo ves area the ground co,-ered by the scanner I
system, the tolal width of the 011
Remote sensing_utilizes satellite a nd /or airborne based sensors to collect information about a given object
toral field view (FOV}. nerall vary between tens and hundreds of kilom~ters wi_de. or are~. Remote s~n~mg data collection methods can be passive or active. Passive sensors (e.g., spectral imagers)
rad th
Imaging swaths for spac:c borne scnsros ge :,ors are there in the sensor, spatial resolution, orb1tal derecl natural iat,~n at is emitted or reflected by the object or area being ohserved. In active remote sensing
Swarh depends on various features m..-e how many detbe observed by the sensor, useful for measuring ground (e.g., radar) energy IS emitted and the resultant signal that is reflected back is measured.
altilude, CIC. Higher altitude means larger areas ~ • (a) Active remote sensors provide their own energy source ; they emit- a beam of energy directed toward
fearures providing with what is knoWn as synoptic new.
a target of interest and then measure the reflected or backscattered signal. The time it takes for the signal
to return is measured as well as the signals amplitude and wavelength. By measuring the time delay between
the signal emission and return the location, speed, and direction of a target can be determined.
Radar and LiDAR are the most commonly used active remote sensing techniques.
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is an active remote sensing technology that uses optical
measuremenls of scattered light to find range. Measurements can be made from aircraft- or land-based sensors.
Distance to an object is determined by the time delay between transmission and detection of a laser pulse.
· It is accurate to within 0. 1 m (at 1-m resolution, 0.3 m at 3-m resolution) and has the ability to measure the
land surface elevation beneath the vegetation canopy.
Radar is an aclive-sensor remote sensing tool used tlJ detect small chang~ in ground movement at geothermal
locations .
· RAdio Detection And Ranging (RADAR) is used in a wide variety of applications. In remote sensing
applications, the source of the radio waves is from satellites, and the signals are bounce~ off_of the earth's
surface to determine the precise distance from the satellite to the ground. The amount of nme it takes for the
radio signal to return to the satellite is measured and lhen the distance can be calculated. By taking a number
of measurements over a period of time precise ground movement can be determined. . .
(bl Passive remote sensors detect energy that occurs narurally in the environment, a vast ma1onty of the energy
is in the form of electromagnetic waves refl ected Off Of the earth from the sun · Photographs taken fromf
,. satellites, which are essentially measurements of reflected sunlight, are the most common source o
f. electromagnetic waves measured by passive sensr,rs.

Aerial Photography : ted platforms such as manned or remote controlled

Aerial photography involves taking photos from e1eva
Fig. 1.15 : Geometry of image technique
aircrafts or helicopters .

■ · Orbital Calender : FUR : ' cameras typically used on military and civilian aircraft, use an imaging
Forward looking infrared (FLIR) ' h between 3-12 micrometers.
technology that senses infrared radiation at wavelengt s .
Orbital calender gives information about satellite's parth and its timings. Since satellite rota\es with different
path on different days, it is essential to know the position of the satellite at particular day. For example in Hyper spectr1d Imaging : · 'd of the spectrum (VNIR-LWIR, plus TIR) at small
II t data across a w1 e range . t
case of RESOURCESAT-1; it has 34I _orbits in 24 day~ cycle. Hence on any given day it is possibl~ to determine · Hyper spectral sensors co ec . . (\- m). This allows • detailed spectral signatures o
spectrnl resolution (5-15 nm) and high spatial resolutton_ 5 - ·
,• I 1 _,rf1
 Remote Sensing •nd Gls
fundamental of Remote Sensing

: -3 2 . ·- . m le hyper spectral i~aging can be ~sed to identi fy specific 33

be identified. for- different imaged materials_- for_exa p the resence of clay minerals m general. '
Lt9 Remote Sensing Dat~p;;~
roducts : :--------------~
clay minerals; multispectral imaging can identify only p There are two. types of data used in geoinform . .

. Long-Wave Infrared : . and h r spectral data ~ollected in the 8 to 15 µm wavelength talk of re~otel ;enstng data, we always mean raster d:;c5; O.ne i~ raster data and the other is vector data. When we
Long Wave Infrared (LWIR) refers to m:':: as "t~:Ual imaging" and can be used to identify relatively a matrix o ce s or pixel s organized into rows and 1 a. n its simplest form, a raster data means data consisting of
range. LWIR surveys are sometimes referre LWIR can also be used to map the ~istributiori information, _5uch .as reflected electromagnetic radi:~i~:ns (or a grid) where each cell contains a value representing
1
warm features such as hot springs, fumaroles, and snow me I. include d1g1t,1I aen al phmographs, imagery from satellit~EMR), temperature, or height values. Raster data products
of certain minerals related to hydrothermal alterations. The data from various .sensors are presented in a f~!gttal pictures, or even scanned maps.

Multispectral Imagin~ : the earth in an average of ten wide bands over a wide spectral range. accurncy which can be readil y used by various application s:ind format with .specified radiometric and geometric
sts
senstng da'.a can be pro~ured by a number of users for vari enti for specific th~mes of their interest. Remote
~ulti~ul:1::=~~u;::~i:::1e ctromagnetic spectrum in discrete, discontin~otis _bands (unlike the continuous
form of a data product . This may be in the form of hot ous a~phcat1ons and. information extraction, in the
h r ~ tral image). Multispectral sensors are capable of relative material dehneat1on. The therm.al wavelength format amenable for further computer processing. P ographic output for visual processing or in a digital
H
r:.:;e o';;he multispectral survey senses heat energy from the Earth's surface. can be used to sense surface
There are varieties of remote sensing data which are . .
t
temperature, including anomalies associated with active geothermal or volcanic syS ems. reaching to users, the data undergo some processing ste s acquired by different sensors and satellites. Before
Remote Sensing Data : . their interests and project objectives, hence there are variou~ ~ Reqmrem_ents of users may vary depe~ding upon
Remotely sensed satellite data comes in two basic types, passively collected data and actively collected variety of data products in different formats. mote sensing data prov1ders/supphers which prepare
data. Passive data collection focuses on acquiring intensities of electromagnetic radiation generated by the sun . .
.Remote sensi ng data products are generated in cenain 'data formats'
and reflected off the surface of the planet. Active data collection is largely restricted to devices that send and of, for various practical reaso ns. Pre-processed re . about which the users must be aware
generate a pulse of energy to that is reflected back to the satellite to be recorded. Most of the readily avai lable like hard copy prints on various types of a ers mote sensing data. are generated into a number of products,
data is passively collected and is limited to energy not absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Satellite imagery like tapes, compact discs (CDs) DVDs an:/ . ' digital data on various types of computer compatible media,
based on passive reflectivity comes in 4 basic types, which are visible, infrared, multispectral, and hyper is in hard copy print then ii is
im o~sible anous other computer compatible storage devices. lf the data product
, . . . . . P to carry out any further processing or conversion before use. But
spectral, rod
tf the P ucl ts 10
digital form, it may be possible to convert the data into a processed digital image. It may
The type and resolution of the data that is collected is generally keyed to the mission c,f the satellite.
Visible data consists of pixels composed of color values of red, green, and blue to make three bands of data be fur th er required to carry out certain processing before any image analysis operation is performed. Types
on a raster image. Infrared imagery usually consists of the j mages that include the visible channels as well of data Prod ucts may vary from country to country and/or from one data provider to another. Here an account
is given about the various data products made available in India to users by the National Data C~nter (NDC)
as some range of the infra-red spectrum. Multispectral data include up to 7-12 channels of data and hyper spectral
can be up to 50 bands or more of data collectei:f over discrete bandwidths of the electromagnetic spectrum. of National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) of the Indian Space Research Organization (!SRO), situated at
Hyderabad .
Data obtained during airborne remote sensing missions can be retrie':'ed once the aircraft lands. It can then
The di gital image data must be stored in an organized manner for easy and fast retrieval for analysis.
be processed and delivered to the end user. However, data acquired from satellite platforms need to be
Digital remote sensing data can be stored in any one of the following three formats to store data:
electronically transmitted to Earth, since the satellite continues . to stay in orbit during its operational lifetime.
(i) Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP)
The technologies designed to accomplish this can also be used by an aerial platform i.f the data are urgently
(ii) Band Interleaved by Line (BIL)
. needed on the surface.
(iii) Band Sequential (BSQ)
There· are .three main options for transmitting data acquired by satellites to the surface. The data can be
Index Number for Data products :
directly transmitted to Earth if a Ground Receiving Station (GRS) is in the line of sight of the sa;ellite
All remote sensing data products carry a specific index number. This index number is generated using
(A) If this is not the case, the data can be recorded on board the satellite
the satellite path which runs from North Pole to South Pole of Earth . This pole to pole coverage on the Earth
• .:. - ·,CB) for transmission to a GRS at a later lime. Data can also be relayed to the GRS through the. ;racking
· for each pass of the satellite is given a specific number, called path number or track number. In case of coverage
and Data Relay Satellite System (IDRSS)
of India, path numbers range from 88 to I J6 from west to east for LISS sensor of IRS (Indian Remote Sensing)
(C) which consists of a series of communications satellites in geosynchronous orbit. ·T he data are.transmi;;~d
· satellites.
• from one satellite to another until they reach the appropriate GRS.: .
The data a_re received_at the GRS in a raw digital format. They may then, if required, be process~. to 1,19.I Types of Data products :
correct systematic, geo~etnc and atmospheric distortions to the imagery, and be translated into .a standardized The types of remote sensing data products depend on:
fonnat. The data are wntten to some ~ f · ·
h ' ed . . orm O st0rage medium $UCh as tape, disk or CD. The data are typically level of processing
·are '" at.most rece1vmg and processing stations and f II l'b . .
IJ . . I' u rancs of data are managed by government agencies output media/scale
as we as commercial companies respon~ible for each sensor's archives. .
Remote 5 & GIS \ 2020 \ S

l ·
 :~ '.,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _R_e_m_ot_e_s_e_n_,1..;ng;._;:•nd Gts
-34

(I) Products Based on Level_of Processingrod: ts arc classified into following three types:
--....;;:, fundamental of Remote Sensing

(Iv) Gcorcferenced Products .

35
Based on level of processing, the data P uc Oeoreferencing is lhe proceu of,tran
system . This means, all th . •forming the re ,
(a) standard products
value added products and location in lerms of longitu: ob1cc1s/efemcn1s in re:'7 sensing data or a map lo• coordinate and projccli
(b)
(v) Basic S tereo Products••. and latitudes. Thus. geo:e:ns,ng data and lhe map ge1 specific geograp:
(c) derived products.
A stereo- pai r comprises tw O . · erenced prOducts are north-eas1 orienled products.
(a) Standard Data Products ed: . . c , ·on received directly from the satellites and by applyin 1h
angles. These products are •:ges of e ••me area. acqu· ed .
These products are genera! using 1n,onna I g
Cartosal- 1 mission provide~s alo~or generating digital ele::tio:nm:fferen1 dates or _""n:ie day: from diffen:nt
necessary radiometric and geometric corTCCtions. ps or JD v,suahzahon of the study 11.fCll.
(b) Value Added Products : g track stereo images.
The various standard products a\'ailable arc:
(I) Path-Row Based Standard Products : . When sla~dard products are processed accordi .
Ac!Ually, the data are recorded by the senson along the track/path of the satellite covering a specific widlh gel converted tnlo value added products. ng lo specifications and requirements of users, lhese products
(across the satellite track/path). The user specifies path and row of the scene, sensor, sub-scene, number These products are basically of four ty s v
Geocoded products pe 12·
of scenes, date of pass of the S3lellitc, band numbers/band combination (for photographic products) and •
the product code (specified by the data provider) as necessary information to procure the desired products Merged products
Ortho product and
from the providci-
(ii) Shift Along Track (SAn Products : Template registered products.
(i) Geocoded Products :
ln case a user's a.ru of intercs1 falls between two successive scenes of the same path (one below the
. .
other), !he data can be supplied by sliding !he scene in along-the-track direction . These products are called
Shift-Along-Traclc Produces.
These products are also known as georeferenced roducts
Geocoding can be performed with reference 10 bo;h
10
11
<7
oned m one or lhe preceding paragraphs).

(Iii) Quadrant ProdlldS : products are of two types viz. topographical map::: icr::ps and Ooatmg points. Thus. geocoded
topographical maps) based products. P IS, and noa11ng point (not hued on
ln IRS series of satellites, USS ID full scene (path/ row based products) data has been divided into 4
(ii} Merged Products :
nominal quadrants designated by letter A. B, C & D. Each of these quadrants is one full scene of PAN
data (B & W data), and is furthci- divided into 9 quadrants. These are given numbers from I to 9 which Remote sen_sing satellites record mul1iband/multispec1ral (MSSJ data and single-band/panchromatic data.
. are nothing but PAN sub scenes. While placing a request for these products, users need to specify
the Panc_h romat_ic/ mono-~and data contains higher spatial resolution and multi-band data have comparatively
quadrant munbci- in additioo to the details specified for path/row based products. low m spatial _resolution . When MSS data area is merged with panchromatic data, we gel MSS data with
spatial resolution of panchromatic data. Data can be merged only when both MSS and PAN data have
been registered with the same georeferencing system.
Path!?5 Path 95
I
~LISSltl (iii) Ortho Products : . I
I Centre Geometrically corrected products, with corrections for displacement caused by tilt and relief, are called
Path 95. Row Ort ho Products . Therefore, ortho images show ground objects in their true planimetric positions. like the
Sub-scene A1 positions of objects in a map. The basic inputs required for ortbo-image generation are:
I. Digita l Elevation Model,
Row 2. Ground Control Points,
:3. Satell ite ephemeris (orbit and altitude infonnation),
61 4. Radiometrically corrected satellite data.
(iv) Template Registered Products : . . .
I
In specific cases, such as the study of crops and their monitoring, data of the same area having ~1m1lar
, geometric fidelity and temporally registered are required. Such data sets are called template registered
' PAN Scene Centre ----'-·-- LISS mScene
products .
- - PAN Full Scenes
•--~~~, PAN Sub-Scones (c) Derived Products : . d t ·s also provided as useful products by data providers. For
I
Information extracted from remote sensing a a fil t acted from various remote sensing data
I
example, vegetation index map or sea surface temperature pro es ex r
Fig, 1.16 Detailed Indexing Method of IRS·lC USS III _and PAN data products
 36 Remote Sensing and Gts

· d
products are called derived products. These denve produc ts are generated by further. processing / a ~
Ys1ng the
fundamental of Remote Sensing
data, and are readily usable by the user. Based on output media, data products are a_vailable on bo th Photographic
as well as digital media. Photographic products can be supplied as fil~s or pnnts. · (b) Fast Format :
In this format , instead of many numbe 37
(Ill Products Based on Output Media/Scale
NRSC provides remote sensing products in two types of media: two tiles are provided in CD-ROM or DV rs of files as in lhe LSGOW
(a) Header file D. The files provided in . G or super structured format, only
photographic media 1
(b) Image file(s) his format are as foll ows:
• digital media. .
Photographic products are supplied on film or paper prints. The scale of these photographic products can
1,20 Microwave Remote Sensing
range from l: lmillion to 1:5000.
Digital Data Products : •. ' · Microwaves are electromagn r . . (Jan. 2021)
e ic rad1at1on wh. h h
The data for all the sensors of IRS-JC/ID are supplied on digital media like computer compatible tapes wavelengths from I mm to I m. ,c as frequency range from 0.3 GHz to 40 GHz and
(CC1), CD-ROM, Cartridge, and 8 mm Exabyte tape based on user request.
Microwave remote sensing employ microwave radiation w .
Standards of Data Formats : without any. restncllon by cloud or rain. This is an advanta · hich e~ables obse:'ation in all weather conditions
There are certain standards when the data are supplied as softcopy in digital form . Digital data are commonly remote sensmg. ge which is not possible with the visible or infrared
supplied in the following formats:
Microwaves have longer wavelengths compared to the v . .
LGSOWG (Landsat Ground Statjon Operators Working Group) or Super Structured Format 1s1
cloud cover, dust, haze because the longer wavelen hs ble and mfrared. They can penetrate through
Fast Format affects shorter optical wavelengths. gt are not susceptible to atmospheric scattering, which
The data may be arranged in band sequential (BSQ), band interleaved by line (BIL) or band interleaved
pixel (BII>) formats . AU digital data in LGSOWG format are provided in BIL OR BSQ modes. However, in . Microwave remote s~nsing provide unique information on some aspects that can not be observed by visible
and mfrared sensors, for instance :
Fast format, data is supplied in BSQ format only.
(a) LGSOWG or Superstructure Format : sea wind and wave direction

When the digital data are provided in this format in a CD-ROM or. DVD, the data contain following five doppler effect
files: polarization
(a) volume directory file backscattering, etc.
(b) leader file
However, the necessity for sophisticated data analysis is the disadvantage in using microwave remote sensing.
(c) image file ·
(d) trailer file 1.20.1 Types of Microwave Remote Sensing
(e) null volume directory file
(a) Volume directory file is the first file of the media containing the data product. It contains information There are two types of microwave remote sensing :
on file format record length, number of records, etc. 1. Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
(b) Leader file is composed of a file descriptor record and three types of data record types i.e., header, 2. Active Microwave Remote Sensing
ancillary and annotation. Header contains information (such as about mission, sensor, processing
1. Passive Microwave Remote Sensing :
parameters, etc. Ancillary information consists about information related to ephemeris, attitude,
Passive microwave remote sensing is similar in concept to thennal remote sensing. All objects emit
calibration, histogram, map projection and ground control points (GCP's), for image geometric
microwave energy of very Jess magnitude. A passive microwave sensor detects the natur~lly emitted ~icrowave
correction, radiometric calibration data, etc.
energy within its field of view. This emitted energy is related to temperature and moisture prop~rttes of the
(c) Image file contains the actual raw or processed data as requested by the user: It consists of file descriptor emittin ob.ect or surface. Passive remote sensors are typically radiometers or scanner, operate m much the
records giving information regarding. band number, bite per pixel, etc. and image data records. Image g ~ t that in this case an antenna ts used to detect and record
same manner as in ordinary remote sensing, excep '
data record contains the video data in band interleaved by line (BIL) format or band sequential format
(BSQ). the- microwave energy. ) fl d fr
• a assive sensor can be emitted by the atmosphere (A ' re ecte om
(d) Trailer file provides information about the mode of reading the file and contains information about The microwave energy reco rded by P . d from the subsurface (D) . Because the wavelengths
rface (C) or transm1 11e
cloud coverage, etc. This file follows the image data file. the surface (B), emitted from t he su ' d tical wavelengths. Thus the instantaneous field of
. . . ·1e small compare to op . .
are so long, the energy available 1s qm to record a signal. Thereiore, most passive microwave sensors
(e) Null volume directory file marks the end of logical volume. It is referred to as 'null ' because it defin~
view (IFOV) must be large to detect enough energy
a non-existent (empty) logical volume. File contains a volume descriptor record.
are characterized by low spatial resolution.
- 38

o~n Satellite
Remote Sensing and Gls
,.,ndarnental of Remote Sensing

•
It does not require sunlight,
It is ·highly sensitive to roughness.
\
~ 41

• ~ii:r:_~ :v::n:~t~v:et:e:a~~s::r:ugh mater ~~ :..

material can be obtained. ials and vegetation to some e~tent, so mformatto
J,illlltatlons :
It is not multiband like optic.
It receives angular reflection which .
t I' k . is a function of fr .
same large I e soil or crop at differe t equency. This can create various signatures for
n angles creating f •
Due to angular reflection, there is . con us10n.
more d1stonion com .
fig. 1.17 : Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Sophisticated data analysis is necessary. pare to optic band.

Applications of Microwaves :
Communication, television, broadcasting system.
Radar system
2. Active Microwave Remote Sensing : Scientific research
Active remote sensors create their own electromagnetic energy. The
Agricultural applications like heating plants, heating com fields, drying cotton seeds etc.
electromagnetic energy transmitted by he sensors interact with the terrain In microwave oven, remote control.
producing a backscatter of energy and is recorded by the remote sensor's
Medical diagnosis, therapeutic use.
receiver. The strength of the backscattering signal is measured to
discriminate between different targets. and the time .delay between the Detection of cracks in tyres, metals.
transmitted and reflected signals determines the distance to the target.
Fig. 1.18 : Active Microwave Remote 1.21 Applications of Remote Sensing :
Sensing
With the launching of Landsat-I, in 1972 by NASA, U.SA. SPOT by France and IRS by India (1988),
Active Microwave Sensors remote sensing technology has opened new vistas in the field of planning, surveying, monitoring and management
land,
of natural resources. It has provided easier techniques to undenake effective and effecient mapping of
water, soil, forest, agriculture, urban area growth, flood plain mapping, crop acerage estimation, etc.
Imaging sensors Non-imaging sensors Some of the main applications of remote sensing are :
e.g. RADAR e.g. 1. Land use and land cover mapping
altimeters 2. Agriculture
scatterometers 3. Forestry
4. Urban growth studies
1.20.2 Advantages and Limi~tions of Microwaves : 5. Ground water mapping
·6. Flood plain mapping
Advantages :
7. Hydrology
Microwave remote sensing employ microwave radiation, which. enables observation in all weather 8. Geology and Geomorphology
conditions without any restriction by cloud or rain. 9. Oceans and coastal monitoring
, 10. Disaster management (Nov. 2018)
Microwaves have longer wavelengths compared to the visible or infrared. They can penetrate through
, 1. Land use and land cover mapping : . . , ation regarding land cover and land use is of
clo_ud cover, dust, haze, etc. because longer wavelengths are not susceptible to atmospheric scattering, . . ity detailed m,orm
which affects shorter optical wavelength. For the success of any planning acttv ' h . condition of the ground surface, for example,
s onds of the p ys1ca1
Paramount importance. Land cover corre p
 38 Remot e Sensln '
. 9 aind Q1s
Jcest, grassland, etc. while land~se re fl ec ts human activities such as the use of the land, for example, agr· fundam ental of Remote Sensing
. d strial zones, residentral zones, etc. icu1turn1
fields, m u . . . . Watershed protection
Identifying, delmeatmg an d mapping land cover is important for global momon nng studies
re
management and planning activities. ' sourct Forest health and vigour
41
Land use applications of remote sensing 4, Urban growth studies :
includes :
· Urban development and . .
Natural resource management ,
of urban area is a crucial pr:ralton
Wildlife habitat protection . . from rural to urb · ,
em, ,.
sensing data ~llh its unique characteand if an areas are c
ristic not tackled properly can ~:mon global
Urban expansion phenomena. The expansion
immense poss1b1hty for urban area ma
Planning for seismidexploration/resource i~ of synoptic view, repetitived ;o haphazard
Urban sprawl refers urban growth. Remote
extraction the r PP g.
10 overage , and reliability has opened
Damage delineation (Volcanic, seismic ecosystems. Satellite images pertain i: OCes~
, tornadoes, fire, etc.) whereby urban develo
Legal boundaries for tax and propert urban sprawl. g to winter season, at the interv!ments spread
y evaluation. out and .interfere with the
2. Agriculture : 5, Groun d water mapping : ~~~ ~ are~~~ ~~
Agriculture plays a significant role in Ground water is one of the most importan
almost every nation' s econom y. The t
to everyone and producing food in a produc tion of food is important India is depend ent on ground water R
cost-effective manne r is the goal of _ sources of water. Almost 85 % of th
every farmer.
Remote sensing tool aids in understanding water occura nce for detailed explora·tionemote sensing la . e rura 1 .
the health of the crop, extent of stress , th _ P Y a vital role in delineating_ potential water supply 10
or infestation damage · Ground water occurs in porous and• us reducing the cost . _ areas f d
or potential yield and soil conditions. Comm o groun
odity brokers are also very interes ted and hme mvolvcd in ground water explorat
as yield estimates conttol the prices in how well farms are producing movement of water beneath the earth ion.
of other products. . su~erme able r~ k formatio ns called aquifers. which facilitate storage
directly. The cl~e to ground water search ace. Potenhal ground w and
Agriculture applications of remote is the fact that the _ ater areas cannot be seen on satellite images
sensing includes : surface express ions, which can be detect
Crop type mapping d b aquifers beneath the ground have almost invariab
palaeochannels, etc. are the structural e Y remote sensmg tech · le
~ssess ment of crop condition (health 6. Flood plain mappin g :
featu h _ _ mques. vaII ey fi11!s, alluvial
.
fans, dykes,
) res t at are md1cators for potential ground
Estimation of crop yield water zones.
Floodi ng is the natural phenomenon in
the h d I .
Mappi ng of soil characteristics. every year in the Indian states of Assam (Nov. 2018, Jan. 2021)
B" y ro og1cal cycle. Floods have become
_ _ an unfailing event almost
Mappi ng si;iil moistu re conditi ons nd • ihar, Unar Pradesh, North Bengal, etc.
_are mu ated, especia lly by Brahamputra, Millions of hectares of land
Monito ring of farm practic es Ganga and its tributaries, resulting in damage
of rupees. s to crop worth millions
3. Forestry : Some of the flood control measures
are :
Forestr y are one of the most valuabl Constr uction of detention storages
e ecological resources of global interes
of our essential require ments such t. They are the source of many .
as timber, fuelwood, raw materia l for paper, Constr uction of embankments and drainage
an import ant role in balanc ing the earth's etc. In additio n forest plays channels
CO2 supply and exchan ge. Forests also River training and protection works
animal species. provid e habitat for numerous
Waters hed afforestation
Sustainable forest manag ement require
s reliabl e inform ation on the type, density Soil conserv ation
wood volume and biomass, forest fire, and extent of forest cover,
pest and disease induce d losses, encroa
chmen t, etc. Flood hazard zoning
Forestry applications of remote sensin
g includes :
Flood forecas ting
Mappi ng types of forest cover
Disast er preparedness, etc.
Agro forestr y mappin g
Remot e sensin g techniques are used to
measure and monitor the real extent of the
Monito ring deforestation . target resure efforts and to provide fl~ed areas, to efficiently
quantifiable estimates of the ~mount of
lan!i and mfrastructure affected . ..
Monito ring reforestation and manag Incorp orating remote ly sensed data into
ing GIS allows for quick calcula!tons and assessm
en~s of wale~ levels, damage
Detection of forest fire and areas facin o~ential flood danger. Remote sensing data
. is ~sed by flood forecastmg agencies, hy~ropo
g p ., . nin departm wer
Bioma ss estima tion compa mes, conser vation authonttes, ents, emergency response departments, and msuran
city P1an g , ce
·
compa nies:
Specie s invento ry

Remote S & GIS \ 2021 \ 6

 Remote Sensing •nd Gts
---..;. fund•me~t•I of Remote Sensing
42
ocean applications_ of rernote sensing are . 43
lculation and distribution of water upon , over
H drology : . h Ihe occurance, ca .
7. Y . which deals wit ther applications of remote sensmg, particular y Ocean pattern identification _ currents r; . .
H d logy is the science I red 10 many o 1
Y ro rt ce Hydrology is re a . omponent in each of these disciplines. Storm forecasting • wind and wave r ' . g1onal circulation patterns, frontal zones, waves, eddies etc.
and beneath the earth su a d. cover, since water is a v11a1 c ctncvat, water temperature monitoring, water quality, fish stock
assessment.
agriculture, forestry, and I~ licadons of remote sens.Ing : Oil spill mapping
Examples of hydrological •PP . .
Wetlands mapping and monrtonng Shipping . Navigation routing, near shore bath .
Coastal vegetation mapping h .. Yrnetry mapping
Water quality monitoring ' uman activity
Sea ice mapping
Soil moisture estimation
Flood mapping and monitoring 10. Disaster Management :
Measuring snow thickness · In case of natural disasters like flood, cyclones, eanh uak . . .
10 inpoint the area where immediate attention is . q es, landshde, forest fires etc. 1t becomes difficult
River and lake ice monitoring
pd dem techniques like . required. because .of the physical obstructions. So, satellite
Glacier dynamics monitoring base mo remote sensing and GIS are highly useful and technically accurate.
Irrigation canal leakage detection . Satellite technology can help in the disaster preparedness by providing repetitive and synoptic up to date
th
Drainage basin mapping information on e locally available resources and by facilitating the forecast of the event in time so that alternate
arrangement could be provided. Disaster prevention measures can be improved through satellite technology in
River change detection, etc.
three ways :
(Nov. 2018)
I. Geology ud GeomorpboloCY : (I) mapping the disaster prone areas
Geology involves the study of landfonns, structures and the subsurface to understand the physical processes
. . .. (2) prediction / forecasting of immediate disasters
creating and modifying the earth's crust.
'·' , (3) monitoring the phenomena to predict their onset and progress.
Geological applications of remote sensing are :
Satellite data can help in disaster relief operations by providing the infonnation on the extent of areas
Mapping of surfacial rock / bedrock
affected, magnitude of the damages, and the needs of the local population. For an effective disaster management
Structural mapping time is a crucial factor, and hence information on a near real time should be available. Many a time low spatial
Lithological of sand and aggregate but high temporal resolution data are valuable in cenain.phenomena like drought and floods. Geostationary satellite
Mineral exploration ,,,.-- data is capable of provinding information every half an hour and are useful in monitoring short_term _d!sasters :
Environmental geology like cyclones and tornadoes.

- Geo-hazard mapping
Geomorphology is the study of the shape of the eanh's solid surface, above and below ocean level, involving
the classification of landforms and the processes by which they develop.
Geomorphology includes :
Volcanism
Plate tectonics
Folding, faulting, warping
Weathering
Erosion, transportation, deposition processes
,. ' Oceans and coastaJ Monitoring :
Oceans are very crucial in the formadon of weather syst~m: and are an important li~k in th_e earth:S
hydrological balance. They provide valuable food and biophysical resources Understanding ocean dynamics 15
important for fish stock assessment, ship routing, forecasting and monitoring storms, predicting gl~bal circulatiOII
consequences of phenomena such as EI Nino, etc. Studies of ocean dynamics include wind and waves (direction,
·speed and height), water temperature, depth of water (bathymetry), etc.
 44
- - - - - - - - - - - - ~..=-=-=-=-=_:_:_:_:_;::..::,_:_:_:.:----.:R:em:;o:t•:..=S•~n~sl~ng~Ind G~
-~
Review Questions
1. Explain basic concepts and principles of remote sensing. (April 2018, Jan. )
2021
1. Explain air borne and space borne sensors. (May 2013, Jan. 2021)
3. What are the atmospheric windows ? Write their significance.
4. What do you understand by spectral signature ? (May 2013)
5. Compare active and passive system of remote sensing. (Nov. 2018, Jan, 2021) r-·
6. Draw a sketch to explain how a remote sensing system works to capture data and transfer it to the user. · I 2
I
State the specific application of the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. (June 2011) I 2
I
7. What are the seven elements in_remote sensing ? (Nov. 2018) I
I 2
8. Explain platforms of remote sensing. (Dec. 2011)
I
9. Define remote sensing. Explain its advantages and limitations. (April 2018, May 2019, Jan. 2021)
I 2
I
10. What do you know about IRS series ? Explain in brief. (June 2012) I 2.
I
11. Give a brief idea about GSLV and PSLV. (June 2012, Jan, 2013) l 2.
12. Explain various interaction of incident of electromagnetic energy with the atmosphere in detail. 21) I
(Jan. 2013, May 2013, Jan. 20 I
(June 2QOJ. Dec, 2013) I
13. Defin\ swath, explain t~e concept of orbital calender. I
(May 2019) I
14. Write short note on : Active and Passive Remote sensors. I
(Nov. 2018, May 2019) I
I 2.'.
15• Explain spectral reflectance curve.
I
list various applications of remote sensing and describe any two. I
16. En
17, Explain application of remote sensing in landuse and land cover mapping. I
(Jan, 2021) I
I
18. Explain microwave remote sensing. I
I
I
•••••••••
••• I
I
I
I
I ~