Integrated M.Sc.

Programme in Geology Unit I: Photogeology

Course outline & course contents

UCC14: Remote Sensing and GIS
1) Introduction
 What is Remote Sensing?
Unit I
 Types of Remote Sensing
Photogeology  Satellite Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography
 What is photogeology?

Dr. Tejaswi Lakkundi  Purposes of photogeology

Assistant Professor  Advantages of photogeology
Dept. of Geology, SES  Limitations of photogeology
Central University of Karnataka 1 2

1) Introduction Remote Sensing – Basic Fundamentals

a) What is Remote Sensing? (Definitions)
For Remote Sensing (RS), the basic fundamentals are;
 It is a method of obtaining information from distant
objects without direct contact. 1) The properties of the electromagnetic (EM)
radiation, and
 It can also be defined as the method of acquisition
of physical data of an object from a distance without 2) Interaction between EM radiation and the matter.
touching or securing actual contact.
 Remote sensing is the process of detecting and
monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by
measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a
distance from the targeted area.

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 Notes: EM Spectrum in Day-to-Day Life
 EM Spectrum: The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the
range of all types of EM radiation.

Highest energy Lowest energy

(shortest wavelength) (highest wavelength)
The electromagnetic spectrum from lowest energy/longest wavelength (at the right) to highest
5 energy/shortest wavelength (at the left). (Credit: NASA's Imagine the Universe) 6

Notes: Remote Sensing – Basic Working Principles

 Radiation: Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out
as it goes (e.g., the visible light that comes from a lamp in 1) The EM radiation falls on an object.
your house and the radio waves that come from a radio
station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The 2) Radiation is received by sensors on platforms in
other types of EM radiation that make up the analogue or digital form to form an image.
electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, infrared light, 3) This image is subjected to image processing.
ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. )

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Principles of Remote Sensing Remote Sensing – Platforms and Sensors

 Platform: It is a vehicle which carries the remote-

sensing device (sensor).
• Examples include drones, helicopters, airplanes and
satellites.
 Sensor: It is a device that records the EM radiation
reflected or emitted by an object on the earth.
• Examples include cameras and scanners

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Principles of Remote Sensing – Energy Sources Principles of Remote Sensing – Platforms

Energy
Energy emitted by an Energy
emitted Energy artificial reflected
by a reflected source by an
natural by an (sensor) object
source object
(sun)

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Principles of Remote Sensing – Platforms

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Aerial Photography - Introduction

 What is Aerial Photography?
 Aerial photography is a branch of remote sensing that
deals with taking photographs of a part of earth’s
surface from above its surface.

Aerial Photography  What is the purpose of Aerial Photography?

 The broad purpose of aerial photography is to study the
features of the surface of the earth. The features include
both, natural and man-made ones.
 What is an Aerial Photo?
 An aerial photograph is the picture of the ground
surface taken from the air with a camera pointing
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 Main uses of aerial photography
 Advantages of studying aerial photographs
 For pictorial representation using mosaics (photomosaic)
 For preparation of base maps 1) Saves time
 Photo-interpretation, and 2) Provides to observe a larger area (w.r.t field
 Photogrammetric surveys studies)
 Fields of application of aerial photographs 3) Have more detailed ground surface than maps
 Natural resources surveys in the fields of geology, soils, 4) Photographs can be studied anytime and
water resources, forestry etc. anywhere
 LU/LC,
5) Cheaper than field-studies
 Civil Engineering and Town Planning,
 Agriculture and Forestry 6) Easier than field-studies
 Disasters and their management 7) Possible to study inaccessible and difficult terrains
 Archaeology
 Military etc. 21 22

8) They give access to updated information about
surface features (like new roads) than (older) maps.
9) Possible to study features in both Panchromatic
(Black-and-White) and Colour (e.g. natural colour
and Colour IR, CIR) formats.
10) Aerial photos can also provide a historical record
(for studying changes in land use, management,
vegetation, or habitat).
11) Possible to view some features that do not appear /
are not shown on maps (e.g., military features,
nuclear sites).
12) Changes over a period of time (e.g., day to day
changes or seasonal changes) can be studied.
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 Disadvantages of studying aerial photographs
1) Some of the ground-features are difficult to
identify or interpret (e.g., differentiating two
similar rock types, like sedimentary and
metasedimentary rocks)
2) Position location and scale are only approximate.
3) Because of lack of contrasting colours and tone, a
photograph is difficult to use in poor light.
4) Detailed variations in the terrain features are not
readily apparent without overlapping photography
and a stereoscopic viewing instrument.
5) It requires more discipline-specific training to
interpret than a map. 24

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  Types of aerial photographs
 Aerial photographs are classified on the basis of:
 Optical axis position,
Types of  Scale, and
 Film used
Aerial Photographs
 But, what is an optical axis?

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 Background Info – Some definitions  Background Info – Some definitions

1) Optical axis (Photographic axis) (OA): 2) Vertical axis (LP):

It is the line passing through the camera-
lens that is perpendicular to the camera-
film.
OR
The plumb line drawn from the
lens-centre to the photo plane is
known as the photographic-/
optical-axis
It is a line passing through the camera lens
and perpendicular to the ground surface.
OR
The perpendicular dropped from
the centre of the camera lens to the
ground plane is termed as the
vertical-axis.

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 Background Info – Some definitions  Background Info – Some definitions

3) Sighting/pointing angle (S): 4) Nadir (S):

It is the angle between the It is the point on the terrain

optical axis (OA) and the ground- vertically beneath the centre of
surface which is a horizontal plane. the camera lens.

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 Types of aerial photo–on the basis of position of optical axis

1) VERTICAL aerial photographs:
On the basis of position of the optical axis, the aerial
 These are the ones taken by a camera pointing
photographs are grouped as;
vertically downward.

1) Vertical aerial photographs, and  Hence, the optical axis is perpendicular to the
ground surface (i.e., the sighting/pointing angle is
2) Oblique aerial photographs.
90˚; However, the vertical axis is usually not
perfectly vertical but is titled by 1 to 3˚).
 Thus, the optical axis (OA) and the vertical axis (LP)
are one and the same. That is, they merge.

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Vertical aerial photographs: Vertical aerial photographs: An example
Note that the optical axis and
the vertical axis are one and
the same (i.e., OA and LP
overlap each other).

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Vertical aerial photographs: An example

2) OBLIQUE aerial photographs:

 These are the ones taken by a camera whose

optical axis is oblique to the ground surface
(camera is titled intentionally).
 Thus, the sighting/pointing angle (S) ranges from 20
to 60˚.
 There are 2 types of oblique aerial photographs viz.,
a) Low-oblique aerial photo, and
b) High-oblique aerial photo
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2 a) LOW-OBLIQUE aerial photographs:
 These are the aerial photographs taken from a
camera whose optical axis makes (intentionally) an
angle of about 30˚ to the vertical. OR
 A low-oblique aerial photograph is the one taken
with a camera inclined about 30˚ from the vertical.
 Thus, the sighting angle is between 30˚and 60˚.
 Such a photograph does not cover the horizon.
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Vertical aerial photograph & Oblique aerial photograph
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2 b) HIGH-OBLIQUE aerial photographs:
 These are the aerial photographs taken from a
camera whose optical axis makes (intentionally) an
angle of about 60˚ to the vertical. OR
 A low-oblique aerial photograph is the one taken
with a camera inclined about 60˚ from the vertical.
 Thus, the sighting angle is between 20 and 30˚.
 Such a photograph usually covers the horizon.
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Low-Oblique aerial photographs
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 High-Oblique aerial photographs
Vertical aerial photograph & Oblique aerial photographs

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Comparison between vertical and oblique aerial photographs Types of aerial photographs on the basis of their scale
Following is the classification of aerial photographs on the
basis of scale of photos;
1) Large-scale photographs: When the scale of an aerial
photograph is 1:5,000 to 1:10,000, the photography is
classified as large-scale photograph.
2) Medium-scale photographs: Scale between 1:10,000
and 1:20,000.
3) Small-scale photographs: Scale between 1:20,000 &
1:60,000.
4) Very small-scale photographs: Scale less than 1:60,000.
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 Aerial photo scales

 The photographs used mostly are at the scale of 1:35,000 Medium scale
with a size of 18X18 cm. aerial
photograph
 The size of the photograph can not be greater than 25X25
cm, because stereographic viewing is only possible for 1:15,000
these size.

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Small scale Very small

aerial scale aerial
photograph photograph

1:42,000 1:130,000

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 Types of aerial photographs on the basis of film used
Following is the classification of aerial photographs on the
basis of the film used; Panchromatic
Black-&-white
1) Panchromatic black-and-white photographs: Also aerial
photograph
called, conventional black-and-white photographs.
These are mainly used for mapping.
2) Colour photographs
3) Infrared black-and-white photographs
4) Infrared colour photographs

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Comparison of Panchromatic B&W, and IR B&W photos Comparison of black and white, natural colour, and
colour infrared aerial photographs of the same area

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 Information printed on aerial photographs (terminology)
Infrared colour
(CIR) aerial
photograph

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Information printed on aerial photographs (terminology) Location of FIDUCIAL MARKS on an aerial photograph
Aerial photographs contain the following information: Edge of the aerial photo
Corner Edge-centre
1) Fiducial marks: Fiducial marks is a set of marks located in
the corners or edge-centers, or both, of an aerial

Edge of the aerial photo

Edge of the aerial photo
photographic image.
 These marks are exposed within the camera onto the
original film and are used to define the frame of
reference for spatial measurements on aerial
photographs.
 Opposite fiducial marks connected, intersect at
approximately the image centre or principal point of the
aerial photograph.

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 Typical shapes/styles of FIDUCIAL MARKS

• Fiducial marks are located within the camera and

when the photograph is taken, they also appear
on the photograph.

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2) Principal Point (PP): It is the geometric centre of an aerial

Fiducial mark photograph.
It is the intersection point of two straight lines joining
pairs of opposite fiducial marks.

Principal
Point (PP)

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2) Conjugate Principal Points (CPP): Also called Transferred 2) Conjugate Principal Points (CPP):.
Principal Point, it is that principal point that appears on
the neighbouring aerial photo.
Thus, every PP is a CPP since every PP appears on a
neighbouring aerial photo due to the (60%) overlap. PP2
PP1

CPP1

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2) Conjugate Principal Points (CPP):.

3) Film Number and Serial Number: All the photographs
taken from the airplane are numbered separately. These
numbers are called 'film number'.

Serial number and film numbers are recorded side by side

on each photograph.

In a flight index, on the other hand, the serial number is

Flight Line recorded at the end of each strip, while the film numbers
are recorded in brackets on the flight index.

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Film Number and Serial Number 4) Camera Number: It is the number of the camera, which
takes the picture. It is also printed automatically on the
photograph.
5) Clock: It shows the time, when the picture was taken.
The time interval between two successive photographs is
used to determine the speed of the airplane.
6) Date: It shows the day, month and the year when the
photograph was taken.
7) Altimeter: It shows the flight height from the mean sea
level.
8) Spirit level: It shows tilting. The tilt is the deviation of
vertical axis, when the plane is not horizontal because of
some effect, such as wind.
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Scale of aerial photography Scale of aerial photography

 The scale of aerial photograph is a ratio of the photograph
image distance to the ground distance.
 This ratio is same as that of the cameral focal length to the
camera height.

S = Scale
f = Focal length of the camera
H = Flying ht above sea level
h = avg elevation of the terrain Focal length is the distance
above sea level between camera lens and the
H – h = Camera height film, along the optical axis. 68
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 Scale of aerial photography
 An aerial photograph does not have uniform scale.
 However, a vertical aerial photo has a fairly uniform (slightly
varying) scale if the terrain is flat.
 Scale variation is due to;
 Optical photographic deficiencies: These are caused by
optical distortions due to inferior camera lens, faulty
shutters, film shrinkage or failure of film flattening
mechanism in camera focal plane.
 Inclination of optical axis: The inclination of optical axis,
referred to as tilt, is caused by movement of camera
normal to direction of flight.
 Topographic relief of the terrain photographed: All objects
that extend above or below a specified ground datum
have their photographic images displaced.
Preferred scales for different purposes
 Scales generally used in natural resource surveys vary
between 1:5000 and 1:50,000 depending upon the
purpose.
 Two commonly preferred scales are 1:15,000 & 1:
25,000.
 For general mapping purpose in geology, preferred scales
are between 1:50,000 and 1:60,000.
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Aerial photography - Resolution Aerial photography - Resolution

 To make it easy to understand, the following two  Resolution in terms of spatial accuracy is generally
meanings can be given to the word Resolution; described as 1-meter resolution or 3-meter resolution.
 Clarity, and The smaller the denomination is, the higher the quality
 Resolving power and spatial accuracy.
 Thus, resolution of aerial photographs can be expressed
in two different ways viz.,
 DPI (Dots per inch), and
 Spatial accuracy (spatial resolution)
 DPI constitutes the resolution in which the original frame
or film was scanned as well as exported digitally. DPI
resolution of an image will only be as good as the
resolution in which the digital image was first scanned.
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DPI comparison Resolving power test chart (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994).

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