Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Notes: EM Spectrum in Day-to-Day Life
EM Spectrum: The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the
range of all types of EM radiation.
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Principles of Remote Sensing Remote Sensing – Platforms and Sensors
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Energy
Energy emitted by an Energy
emitted Energy artificial reflected
by a reflected source by an
natural by an (sensor) object
source object
(sun)
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Principles of Remote Sensing – Platforms
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Main uses of aerial photography
Advantages of studying aerial photographs
For pictorial representation using mosaics (photomosaic)
For preparation of base maps 1) Saves time
Photo-interpretation, and 2) Provides to observe a larger area (w.r.t field
Photogrammetric surveys studies)
Fields of application of aerial photographs 3) Have more detailed ground surface than maps
Natural resources surveys in the fields of geology, soils, 4) Photographs can be studied anytime and
water resources, forestry etc. anywhere
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5) Cheaper than field-studies
Civil Engineering and Town Planning,
Agriculture and Forestry 6) Easier than field-studies
Disasters and their management 7) Possible to study inaccessible and difficult terrains
Archaeology
Military etc. 21 22
8) They give access to updated information about surface Disadvantages of studying aerial photographs
features (like new roads) than (older) topographic maps.
1) Some of the ground-features are difficult to identify
9) Possible to study features in both Panchromatic (Black- or interpret (e.g., differentiating two similar rock
and-White) and Colour (e.g. natural colour and Colour IR, types, like sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks)
CIR) formats.
2) Position location and scale are only approximate.
10) Aerial photos can also provide a historical record (for
studying changes in land use, management, vegetation, 3) Because of lack of contrasting colours and tone, a
or habitat). photograph is difficult to use in poor light.
11) Possible to view some features that do not appear / are 4) Detailed variations in the terrain features are not
not shown on maps (e.g., military features, nuclear sites). readily apparent without overlapping photography
and a stereoscopic viewing instrument.
12) Changes over a period of time (e.g., day to day changes
or seasonal changes) can be studied. 5) It requires more discipline-specific training to
interpret than a map.
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Types of aerial photographs
Aerial photographs are classified on the basis of:
Optical axis position,
Types of Scale, and
Film used
Aerial Photographs
But, what is an optical axis?
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It is the line passing through the camera- It is a line passing through the camera lens
lens that is perpendicular to the camera- and perpendicular to the ground surface.
film.
OR
OR Vertical
Optical axis
The perpendicular dropped from axis
The plumb line drawn from the the centre of the camera lens to the
lens-centre to the photo plane is ground plane is termed as the
known as the photographic-/ vertical-axis.
optical-axis
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Background Info – Some definitions Background Info – Some definitions
Optical axis
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1) Vertical aerial photographs, and Hence, the optical axis is perpendicular to the
ground surface (i.e., the sighting/pointing angle is
2) Oblique aerial photographs.
90˚; However, the vertical axis is usually not
perfectly vertical but is titled by 1 to 3˚).
Thus, the optical axis (OA) and the vertical axis (LP)
are one and the same. That is, they merge.
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Vertical aerial photographs: An example
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2 a) LOW-OBLIQUE aerial photographs: 2 b) HIGH-OBLIQUE aerial photographs:
These are the aerial photographs taken from a These are the aerial photographs taken from a
camera whose optical axis makes (intentionally) an camera whose optical axis makes (intentionally) an
angle of about 30˚ to the vertical. OR angle of about 60˚ to the vertical. OR
A low-oblique aerial photograph is the one taken A low-oblique aerial photograph is the one taken
with a camera inclined about 30˚ from the vertical. with a camera inclined about 60˚ from the vertical.
Thus, the sighting angle is between 30˚and 60˚. Thus, the sighting angle is between 20 and 30˚.
Such a photograph does not cover the horizon. Such a photograph usually covers the horizon.
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High-Oblique aerial photographs
Vertical aerial photograph & Oblique aerial photographs
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Comparison between vertical and oblique aerial photographs Types of aerial photographs on the basis of their scale
Following is the classification of aerial photographs on the
basis of scale of photos;
1) Large-scale photographs: When the scale of an aerial
photograph is 1:5,000 to 1:10,000, the photography is
classified as large-scale photograph.
2) Medium-scale photographs: Scale between 1:10,000
and 1:20,000.
3) Small-scale photographs: Scale between 1:20,000 &
1:60,000.
4) Very small-scale photographs: Scale less than 1:60,000.
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Aerial photo scales
The photographs used mostly are at the scale of 1:35,000 Medium scale
with a size of 18X18 cm. aerial
photograph
The size of the photograph can not be greater than 25X25
cm, because stereographic viewing is only possible for 1:15,000
these size.
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1:42,000 1:130,000
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Types of aerial photographs on the basis of film used
Following is the classification of aerial photographs on the
basis of the film used; Panchromatic
Black-&-white
1) Panchromatic black-and-white photographs: Also aerial
photograph
called, conventional black-and-white photographs.
These are mainly used for mapping.
2) Colour photographs
3) Infrared black-and-white photographs
4) Infrared colour photographs
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Comparison of Panchromatic B&W, and IR B&W photos Comparison of black and white, natural colour, and
colour infrared aerial photographs of the same area
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Information printed on aerial photographs (terminology)
Infrared colour
(CIR) aerial
photograph
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Information printed on aerial photographs (terminology) Location of FIDUCIAL MARKS on an aerial photograph
Aerial photographs contain the following information: Edge of the aerial photo
Corner Edge-centre
1) Fiducial marks: Fiducial marks is a set of marks located in
the corners or edge-centers, or both, of an aerial
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Typical shapes/styles of FIDUCIAL MARKS
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Principal
Point (PP)
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2) Conjugate Principal Points (CPP): Also called Transferred
Principal Point, it is that principal point that appears on
the neighbouring aerial photo also.
Thus, every PP is a CPP since every PP appears on a
neighbouring aerial photo due to the (60%) overlap.
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PP2
PP1
Flight Line
CPP1
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Film Number and Serial Number
3) Film Number and Serial Number: All the photographs
taken from the airplane are numbered separately. These
numbers are called 'film number'.
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Scale of aerial photography Scale of aerial photography
An aerial photograph does not have uniform scale.
However, a vertical aerial photo has a fairly uniform (slightly
varying) scale if the terrain is flat.
Scale variation is due to;
Optical photographic deficiencies: These are caused by
optical distortions due to inferior camera lens, faulty
shutters, film shrinkage or failure of film flattening
mechanism in camera focal plane.
Inclination of optical axis: The inclination of optical axis,
S = Scale referred to as tilt, is caused by movement of camera
f = Focal length of the camera normal to direction of flight.
H = Flying ht above sea level
h = avg elevation of the terrain Focal length is the distance Topographic relief of the terrain photographed: All objects
above sea level between camera lens and the that extend above or below a specified ground datum
H – h = Camera height film, along the optical axis. 69 have their photographic images displaced. 70
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Aerial photography - Resolution DPI comparison
Resolution in terms of spatial accuracy is generally
described as 1-meter resolution or 3-meter resolution.
The smaller the denomination is, the higher the quality
and spatial accuracy.
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Resolving power test chart (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). Geometry of Aerial Photographs
Optic axis
Vertical axis
Angle of sight
Nadir or Nadir Point
Flight Line and its characters
Overlap / Forward lap
Side lap
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Aerial Photographs - MOSAICS
What is a mosaic (definition)
Types of a mosaic
Uncontrolled mosaic
Controlled mosaic
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