Vectors 1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector (5) Zero vector : A vector having zero
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a
and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. zero vector.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, (6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, is a unit vector. Unit vector for is (read as A cap or
angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
A hat).
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction
both, then it does not always imply that it is a vector. Since, .
For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws
of vector algebra has to be satisfied. Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the
Example : The physical quantity current has both direction.
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors and are
disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
called orthogonal unit vectors. y
Types of Vector These vectors must form a Right
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors and are said Handed Triad (It is a coordinate ĵ
system such that when we Curl x
to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same k̂
the fingers of right hand from x to
direction.
y then we must get the direction
î
z
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors and are of z along thumb). The Fig. 0.1
said to be parallel when
, ,
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero
 , ,
multiple of another vector.
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors and
point of application . Example displacement and force
are said to be anti-parallel when etc.
(i) Both have opposite direction. (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational
effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple
accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity,
of another vector.
torque and angular momentum, etc., are example of
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under physical quantities of this type.
consideration can share the same support or have a Axial vector Axis of rotation
common support then the considered vectors are
collinear.

Anticlock wise Clock wise rotation

rotation
Axis of rotation Axial vector
 2 Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the resultant
is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
Fig. 0.2 through the point of intersection of the two vectors.
(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors (1) Magnitude
are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane.
Since,
Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two
sides of a triangle taken B
in same order then the
resultant is given by the R  A B
B C
closing side of triangle in
B
opposite order. i.e.
O A R  AB
A B B sin
Fig. 0.3 B
  

O A N
A B cos
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector
Fig. 0.5

In Special cases : when  = 0o

when  = 180o

when  = 90o

In we have (2) Direction

B

R
B B sin
  Polygon Law of Vector Addition
O A A N
If a number of non zero vectors are represented
B by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
Fig. 0.4 cos
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of
the polygon taken in opposite order. So,

D D C

E C

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If is E B

angle between and then

If makes an angle  with then in O A

A
Fig. 0.6
Note :  Resultant of two unequal vectors can
not be zero.
 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may
or may not be zero
 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition can not be zero.
 Vectors 3
Subtraction of vectors Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and
(iii) give the magnitude of the components of along
Since, and x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved
into its components, the components themselves can be
used to specify the vector as

(1) The magnitude of the vector is obtained by

Since,
squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.

R sum  A  B
(2) The direction of the vector is obtained by
B dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.

 1 or
2 A
180 –  Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
B
or
Y
R diff  A  ( B)
Fig. 0.7

Ry R
Rx

Rz
X

and Z
Fig. 0.9
But and
If makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis
and with z axis, then

Resolution of Vector Into Components

Consider a vector in X-Y
Y
plane as shown in fig. If we draw
orthogonal vectors and
Ry R
along x and axes respectively,
by law of vector addition, 
X
Rx
Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the
Fig. 0.8
Now as for any vector vector and
so, and

so
…(i)

But from figure

…(ii) Note : When a point P have coordinate
(x, y, z) then its position vector
and …(iii)
 4 Vectors
 When a particle moves from point (x1, (x) In terms of components
y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector

Scalar Product of Two Vectors (3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot force work is defined as,
product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the …(i)
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
them.

Thus if there are two vectors and having …(ii)

angle between them, then their scalar product So from eqn (i) and (ii) i.e. work is the
written as is defined as scalar product of force with displacement.

(2) Properties : (i) It is always (ii) Power P :

B
a scalar which is positive if angle
between the vectors is acute (i.e., < As or
90°) and negative if angle between 
them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°). [As is constant]

(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A or i.e., power is the scalar product of

Fig. 0.10

(iii) It is distributive, i.e.


force with velocity. ds 
B
(iv) As by definition

The angle between the vectors (iii) Magnetic Flux :
O
Magnetic flux through an
area is given by
…(i) Fig. 0.11
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum
But by definition of scalar product
when i.e. i.e., vectors are
...(ii)
parallel
So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum or

when i.e. (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric
dipole of moment is situated in an electric field
or a magnetic dipole of moment in a field of
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors
vanishes the vectors are orthogonal. induction the potential energy of the dipole is given
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is by :
termed as self dot product and is given by and

Vector Product of Two Vectors

i.e.
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross
(viii) In case of unit vector product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of
so two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors and
 Vectors 5
Thus, if and are two vectors, then their (v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be
minimum when minimum = 0, i.e.,
vector product written as is a vector defined
by or

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors

vanishes, the vectors are collinear.
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector
by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector

(vii) In case of unit vector so that

Fig. 0.12

The direction of i.e. is perpendicular (viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors,

to the plane containing vectors and and in the in accordance with right hand screw rule :
sense of advance of a right handed screw rotated from
(first vector) to (second vector) through the ĵ ĵ
smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed
screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed
k̂
by and is rotated from to through the î
î
smaller angle between them, then the direction of
advancement of the screw gives the direction of
k̂ Fig. 0.13
i.e.
and
(2) Properties
And as cross product is not commutative,
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a
vector perpendicular to the plane containing these two , and
vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors and
(x) In terms of components
though the vectors and may or may not be
orthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not
commutative, i.e., [but

Here it is worthy to note that

i.e. in case of vector and (3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors
magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite. is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
representing rotational effects) like torque, angular
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a
order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e. magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector
product of two vectors. It is well – established in physics
that :
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be
(i) Torque
maximum when i.e.,
(ii) Angular momentum

(iii) Velocity
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are
orthogonal. (iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with
velocity in a magnetic field is given by
 6 Vectors
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field and (1) Introduction : When we consider the motion
of a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which
the given particle is in motion. For example, if we say
that water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is
Lami's Theorem running with a speed v, we mean that these all are
In any with sides relative to the earth (which we have assumed to be
fixed).
Y
Y P

180 – 
r
PS'
 r
PS
X
c b S
r S' S
S X
  180 – 
Fig. 0.15
180 –  a Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative
to another moving object, consider a particle P whose
Fig. 0.14
i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the position relative to frame S is while relative to
angle containing the side to the length of the side is a
constant. is .
For a triangle whose three sides are in the same
order we establish the Lami's theorem in the following If the position of frames relative to S at any
manner. For the triangle shown
time is then from figure,
[All three sides are taken in order]
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
…(i)
…(ii)

Pre-multiplying both sides by

or [as

…(iii) ]

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by or

(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a

particle P1 moving with velocity with respect to

…(iv)
another particle P2 moving with velocity is given by,
From (iii) and (iv), we get

Taking magnitude, we get = –

v1
v2
P2

Dividing through out by abc, we have Fig. 0.16 P1

(i) If both the particles are moving in the same

direction then :

Relative Velocity
 Vectors 7
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite (5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can
direction, then :
swim relative to water with velocity and water is

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually flowing relative to ground with velocity velocity of
perpendicular directions, then:
man relative to ground will be given by:

i.e.,
(iv) If the angle between and be , then
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of
. water,

(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of

moving in equatorial plane with velocity and a point water,

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is

on the surface of earth with relative to the centre of
flowing with velocity . A man can swim in still water
earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface of
earth with velocity . He is standing on one bank of the
river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise.

(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That

is to cross the river straight, the man should swim
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the
making angle  with the upstream as shown.
direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity

A vr B
relative to earth's surface will be

And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e.,  
vr
opposite to the motion of earth, w  v
vm


(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling Upstream O Downstrea
m
vertically with a velocity and an observer is moving Fig. 0.18
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which
horizontally with speed the velocity of rain relative Their resultant is given by

. The direction of swimming makes angle  with

to observer will be
upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find,

which by law of vector addition has magnitude

Also

Where  is the angle made by the direction of

direction with the vertical as swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
shown in fig. river.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of
 – vM 
vR the river, then time taken to cross the river will be given
vR
 
vR  by
vM vM

Fig. 0.17
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time :
The man should swim perpendicular to the bank.
 8 Vectors
The time taken to cross the river will be: cannot be divided.
 Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.

A vr B  Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of
an object is 5 ms–1 due East.

 i.e. due east.

w vr

Upstream O Downstrea
m So unit vector has no unit as East is not a physical
Fig. 0.19 quantity.
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank
 Unit vector has no dimensions.
at a distance AB down stream. This distance will be
given by: 

or


 . Also But

Because and is collinear with

 All physical quantities having direction are not  Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its
vectors. For example, the electric current possesses
direction.
direction but it is a scalar quantity because it can not
be added or multiplied according to the rules of If , then A = B and .
vector algebra.
If , then A = B but .
 A vector can have only two rectangular
components in plane and only three rectangular  Minimum number of collinear vectors whose
components in space. resultant can be zero is two.
 A vector can have any number, even infinite  Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose
components. (minimum 2 components) resultant is zero is three.
 Following quantities are neither vectors nor  Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose
scalars : Relative density, density, viscosity, resultant is zero is four.
frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if
heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, .
resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance,
permittivity, dielectric constant, permeability,
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if
susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant, Gas
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and
constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant,
force are polar vectors.
Planck’s constant etc.
 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.  Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and
angular momentum are axial vectors.
 The displacement is a vector quantity.
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided not possible to divide with a direction.
algebraically.
 Distance covered is always positive quantity.
 Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions than that of the vector itself.
 Vectors 9

 The rectangular components cannot have resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the
magnitude greater than that of the vector itself. minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
whose resultant can be zero is two.
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product  Angle between two vectors and is given
becomes a null vector.
by
 The resultant of two vectors of unequal
magnitude can never be a null vector.
 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add
up to give a null vector.  Projection of a vector in the direction of
vector
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not
necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric
current. These quantities have magnitude and
direction but they are scalar. This is because they do
not obey the laws of vector addition.  Projection of a vector in the direction of
vector
 A physical quantity which has different values in
different directions is called a tensor. For example :
Moment of inertia has different values in different
directions. Hence moment of inertia is a tensor. Other
examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,  If vectors are represented by
density etc. three sides ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a
order, then
 The magnitude of rectangular components of a
vector is always less than the magnitude of the vector

 If , then and
.  The vectors is equally inclined to the
coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
 If . Or if , then  If , then .
and lie in one plane.
 If , then and are
 If , then is perpendicular to as coplanar.

well as .  If angle between and is 45°,

then
 If , then angle between
and is 90°.  If and

 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  then the adjacent vector
= 0° i.e. vectors are parallel. are inclined to each other at angle .
 If and , then the angle
 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  between and is 90°. Also A, B and C can have
= 180° i.e. vectors are anti-parallel. the following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.
is equal to the difference of their magnitude.
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two
vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal,
then

Thus, two vectors and having different

magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
resultant. From here, we conclude that the minimum
number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose