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Unit 4: Managing People at Work

JOB ANALYSIS

The purpose of a job analysis is simple. The analyst wants to understand what the important
tasks of the job are, how they are carried out, and what human attributes are necessary to carry
them out successfully. In short, job analysis is an attempt to develop a theory of human behavior
about the job in question. This theory will include performance expectations (properties of the
job in the context of the organization's expectations) as well as the required abilities, knowledge,
experience, skill, and personal characteristics necessary to meet those expectations.

JOB ANALYSIS
Process that determines the important tasks of a job and the human attributes necessary to successfully perform
those tasks.

The results of a job analysis can be used for many different purposes, including:
1) Job Description: This is a description of the job in relatively simple terms, listing the type
of tasks that are carried out, the required worker attributes, and training and experience
requirements. Job descriptions are very useful for recruiting purposes.
2) Recruiting: If we know what the job requires and we know which human attributes are
necessary to fulfill those requirements, we can target our recruiting efforts to specific
groups of potential candidates. For technical jobs, these groups might be defined by
credentials (a bachelor's degree in engineering) or experience (five years of programming
in C++).
3) Selection: Once we know the attributes most likely to predict success, we can identify
and choose (or develop) the actual assessment tools. Based on the job analysis, we may
choose a personality test that measures the Big 5, a commercially available test of general
mental ability or reasoning or develop an interview format intended to get at some subtle
aspects of technical knowledge or experience.
4) Training: A job analysis helps us to identify the areas of performance that create the
greatest challenge for incumbents; based on this, we can provide pre-assignment or post-
assignment training opportunities.
5) Compensation: Since a job analysis identifies the major performance components and
expectations for each job, management can place a monetary value to the organizational
mission on each of those components. Management can also determine the level of
performance expected on each of those components for each job in the organization as

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a way of identifying the comparative value of each job. These components and levels of
performance can then help set the budget for the organization's human resources
6) Promotion/Job Assignment: The concept of a job ladder or job family is based on the
observation that a particular job may have closer connections to a subset of other jobs
than to a job chosen at random. Accounting jobs are closer to budgeting and invoicing
positions than they are to engineering or production positions. Job analysis permits the
identification of clusters of positions that are similar, either in terms of the human
attributes needed to be successful at them or in terms of the tasks carried out in those
jobs. This in turn allows the organization to identify logical career paths and the possibility
of transfer from one career ladder to another.
7) Workforce Reduction/Restructuring: Mergers, acquisitions, downsizing, and rightsizing
are all terms that imply job changes-often involuntary ones on the part of the employees.
Mergers and acquisitions call for the identification of duplicative positions and
centralizing functions. In both the merger/acquisition and the downsizing / rightsizing
scenarios, management's key role is deciding which tasks to fold into which positions;
detailed job analyses provide a template for making these decisions rationally.
8) Criterion Development: The criterion is the behavior that constitutes or defines
successful performance of a given task. It is the dependent variable in criterion-related
validity studies. Independent variables such as scores on a test of mental ability are
correlated with criterion measures to demonstrate that those scores are valid predictors
of probable job success. It is the job analysis that provides the raw material for criterion
development.
9) Performance Assessment: An extension of the use of job analysis for criterion
development is the development of performance assessment systems. Once the job
analyst identifies critical performance components of a job, it is possible to develop a
system for evaluating the extent to which an individual worker has fallen short of, met,
or exceeded the standards set by the organization for performance on those components.
10) Litigation: When tests or other assessment practices are challenged in court, the
employer is required to provide evidence that the test or assessment practice is valid or
job related regardless of what validity model (e.g., criterion/content/construct) is
adopted for that demonstration. Job analysis information is the easiest way to
demonstrate that knowledge base.

JOB LADDER OR JOB FAMILY

Cluster of positions that are similar in terms of the human attributes needed to be successful in those
positions or in terms of the tasks that are carried out.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF JOB ANALYSIS

One of the first I-0 psychologists to introduce standardized job analysis was Morris Viteles. As
early as 1922, he used job analysis to select employees for a trolley car company. The analyst first
described the duties of the incumbent, then the nature
and conditions of work, and finally some basic
qualifications. Having done that, the analyst then
completed a form called a job psychograph, which
displayed the mental requirements of the job (see image).
We present these artifacts to show that the purpose of job
analysis has not changed in over 85 years: It remains one
of understanding the behavioral requirements of work. It
was then and is now the analyst's best attempt at
developing a theory of work performance.

JOB PSYCHOGRAPH
Early form used in a job analysis to display the mental requirements of the
job.

TYPES OF JOB ANALYSIS

The purpose of a job analysis is to combine the task demands of a job with our knowledge of
human attributes and produce a theory of behavior for the job in question. There are two ways
to approach building that theory. One is called the task-oriented job-analysis, this approach
begins with a statement of the actual tasks, as well as what is accomplished by those tasks. A
second method is called the worker-oriented job analysis; this approach begins by focusing on
the attributes of Approach the worker necessary to accomplish the tasks.

Regardless of which approach is taken, the next step in the job analysis is to identify the attributes
the KSAOs. Incumbent needs for either performing the tasks or executing the human behaviors
described by the job analysis., KSAOs can be defined as follows:

 Knowledge: "A collection of discrete but related facts and information about a particular
domain... acquired through formal education or training, or accumulated through specific
experiences" (Peterson et al., 1999, p. 71).
 Skill: a practiced act.
 Ability: the stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior.
 Other characteristics: personality variables, interests, training, and experience.

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Finally, when the appropriate KSAOs are identified, tests and other, assessment techniques can
be chosen to measure those KSAOs. Job analysis methods have evolved using both task-oriented
and worker-oriented systems. Since both approaches end up in the same place -a statement of
KSAOs neither can be considered the "right" way to conduct a job analysis. For practical purposes,
since worker-oriented job analyses tend to provide more generalized descriptions of human
behavior and behavior patterns and are less tied to the technological aspects of a particular job,
they produce data more useful tor structuring training programs and giving feedback to
employees in the form of performance appraisal information. In addition, as we have seen, the
volatility that exists in today's typical workplace can make specific task statements less valuable
in isolation. Tasks move from job to job, are made obsolete by technology changes, or are
assumed by teams rather than individuals. For all these reasons, employers are significantly more
likely to use worker-oriented approaches to job analysis today than they-did-in the past.

TASK-ORIENTED JOB ANALYSIS

Approach that begins with a statement of the actual tasks as well as what is accomplished by those tasks

WORKER-ORIENTED JOB ANALYSIS

Approach that focuses on the attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish the tasks.

KSAOS
Individual attributes of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that are required to successfully perform
job tasks

JOB DESCRIPTION: HOW JOB ANALYSIS IS DONE

Regardless of the approach the job analyst decides to use, information about the job is the
backbone of the analysis, and there are many ways to get it. The more information and
the more ways the analyst can collect that information, the better the understanding of the
job. Some common methods include:
1. Observation: This was perhaps the first method of job analysis I-O psychologists used.
They simply watched incumbents perform their jobs and took notes. Sometimes they
asked questions while watching, and not infrequently they even performed job tasks
themselves. Near the end of the Second World War, Morris Viteles studied the job of
navigator on a submarine. He attempted to steer the submarine toward the island of
Bermuda. After five not-so-near-misses of 100 miles in one direction or another, one
frustrated officer suggested that Viteles raise the periscope, look for clouds, and steer
toward them (since clouds tend to form above or near land masses). The vessel "found"
Bermuda shortly thereafter.

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2. Interviews: It is important to supplement observation by talking with incumbents, either

at the worksite or in a separate location. These interviews are most effective when
structured with a specific set of questions based on observations, other analyses of the
types of jobs in questions, or prior discussions with HR reps, trainers, or managers
knowledgeable about the jobs.

3. Critical Incidents and Work Diaries: I-O

psychologists have used other techniques to CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE
capture important information about jobs. The Approach in which subject matter experts are
critical incident technique asks SMEs to identify asked to identify critical aspects of behavior or
critical aspects of behavior or performance in a performance in a particular job that led to
particular job that led to success or failure. The success or failure.
supervisor of an electric utility repair person
might report that in a very time-urgent project, the repair person failed to check a
blueprint and as a result cut a line, causing a massive power loss. The second method- a
work diary- asks workers and/or supervisors to
keep a log of their activities over a prescribed WORK DIARY
period of time. They may be asked to simply jot Job analysis approach that requires workers
down what they were doing at 15 minutes after and/or supervisors to keep a log of their
the hour for each hour of their workday. Or they activities over a prescribed period of time.
may list everything that they have done up to a
lunch break.

4. Questionnaires/Surveys: Expert incumbents or supervisors (SMEs) often respond to

questionnaires or surveys as part of a job analysis. These questionnaires include task
statements in the form of worker behaviors. SMEs
SUBJECT MATTER EXPERT (SME)
are asked to rate each statement from their Employee (incumbent) who provides
experience on several dimensions such as information about a job in a job analysis
frequency of performance, importance to overall interview, or survey.
job success, and whether the task or behavior
must be performed on the first day of work or can
be learned gradually on the job. Questionnaires also ask SMEs to rate the importance of
various KSAOs for performing tasks or task groups and may ask the SMEs to rate work
context. Unlike the results of observations or interviews, the questionnaire responses can
be statistically analyzed to provide a more objective record of the components of the job.
To a greater and greater extent, these questionnaires and surveys are being administered
on-line to SMEs.
Over the years, several commercially available job analysis surveys have been popular
Perhaps the best known and most widely used of these instruments is the Position
Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by McCormick et al (1972).
A book published by the National Research Council (1999) provides an excellent
description of several of these commercially available systems. Most commercial
consulting companies have web-based expert job analysis systems that match the

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essential functions of jobs with the human attributes required to complete those essential
functions.

RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION

An important step in selecting employees is recruitment:

attracting people with the right qualifications (as Recruitment
determined in the job analysis) to apply for the job. The The process of attracting employees to an
first decision is whether to promote someone from organization.
within the organization (internal recruitment) or to hire
someone from outside the organization (external recruitment). Many organizations first
advertise employment openings for two weeks to current employees. If no qualified applicants
are found, the organizations then advertise outside. To enhance employee morale and
motivation, it is often good to give current employees an advantage in obtaining new internal
positions.
Internal promotions can be a great source of motivation, but if an organization always promotes
employees from within, it runs the risk of having a stale workforce that is devoid of the many
ideas that new employees bring with them from their previous employment settings. Heavy
reliance on internal sources is thought to perpetuate the racial, gender, and age composition of
the workforce. Thus, a balance between promoting current employees and hiring outside
applicants is needed.
Recruitments can be announced and conducted in several ways, some of which are mentioned
below:
 Media Advertisements
 Newspaper ads- includes Respond by calling ads, Apply-in-person ads, Send-
résumé ads, Blind-box ads, etc.
 Electronic Media ads- via Television, Radio, etc.
 Situation-Wanted Ads
 Point-of-Purchase Methods
 Recruiters
 Campus Recruiters
 Outside Recruiters
 Employment Agencies and Search Firms
 Employment Agencies
 Executive Search Firms
 Public Employment Agencies
 Employee Referrals
 Direct Mail
 Internet
 Employer-Based Websites
 Internet Recruiters

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 Job Fairs
 Incentives
 Increasing Applicant Diversity
 Nontraditional Populations

AN OVERVIEW OF THE SELECTION OF PROCESS

Proper selection methodology involves more that placing an ad in a newspaper or with an online
search service, having people come to the office to fill out an application blank, and conducting
a brief interview. A successful selection program includes several additional procedures.

Job and Worker Analysis

Ideally, the first step is for I-O psychologists to investigate the nature of the job. The organization
will not know what abilities potential employees should have unless it can describe in detail what
they are expected to do to perform the job effectively. I-O psychologists undertake a process
called job analysis to determine the specific skills necessary to the job. From the job analysis, a
profile of worker qualifications can be developed.
Once these abilities have been specified, the human resources manager must determine the
most effective means of identifying these characteristics in potential employees. The necessary
background characteristics and aptitudes, as revealed by the job and worker analyses, must be
assessed, or evaluated in each applicant.

Recruitment Decisions
The number of potential employees attracted by these efforts affects the caliber of those
ultimately offered jobs. If ads and referrals bring in only 250 applicants for the 200 jobs, the
company must be less selective in hiring than if there were 400 applicants to choose from. I-O
psychologists call this the selection ratio, the relationship between the number of people to be
hired and the number who are available to be hired. Thus, the potential labor supply directly
affects the strictness of the requirements established for the job. If there is a shortage of
applicants and the jobs must be filled within a few weeks, some requirements (perhaps the cutoff
score on a test of cognitive abilities) may be lowered.
A shortage of job applicants may also force the company to expand its recruiting campaign and
to offer higher wages, enhanced benefits, or improved working conditions to attract and retain
new employees. Thus, the size of the labor supply can greatly influence not only recruitment and
selection procedures but also features of the job itself.

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Selection Techniques
Selecting the new employees and classifying them as suitable or unsuitable for the job are
accomplished by a variety of techniques, including application blanks, interviews, letters of
recommendation, assessment centers, and psychological tests. Hiring decisions typically are
based not on a single technique but on a combination of methods. In addition, testing for drug
use is now widespread for many types of jobs. Some jobs also have physical requirements and
may require tests of strength and endurance.

The next step in the selection process is to

test the selection procedures to determine if
they succeeded in identifying the best
workers for the jobs. Every new selection
program must be investigated to determine
its predictive accuracy or validity. This is done
by evaluating the performance of the
employees selected by the new procedures.
For example, after the new workers are on
the job for 6 months, their supervisors can be
asked to rate their job performance. By
comparing these ratings with performance on
the selection techniques, we can determine how the two measures correlate. We want to know
whether the selection techniques were able to predict which of the applicants turned out to be
the better workers.

GEARING FOR SELECTION

INTERVIEWS
The personal interview is a widely used employee selection technique. Regardless of any other
techniques that are part of an organization's selection program, almost every prospective
employer wants the chance to meet an applicant in person before offering a job. The
employment interview, like the college recruiting interview, is a two-way process. Its purpose is
to allow a company to evaluate a candidate's suitability for employment. But it also offers the
opportunity for candidates, if they ask the right questions, to determine whether the company
and the job are right for them. Research has shown that job applicants have more favorable
attitudes toward interviews than toward any other selection technique, including biodata
inventories and psychological tests.

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Interviews, if conducted properly, can supply a great deal of information to employers, including
feedback on social skills, the ability to work with others, team focus, job knowledge, and specific
job skills.
Making a Good Impression
The impression you make during an interview will be a decisive factor in whether the organization
offers you a job. I-O psychology research has shown that interviewers' assessments of job
applicants are often influenced more by their subjective impressions of the applicants than by
such specifics work history, academic qualifications, or extracurricular activities. Personal
qualities, such as perceived attractiveness, sociability, and skill at self-promotion, are often key
factors in an interviewer hiring recommendations.
It is possible to act deliberately as to make the right impression, that is, to present yourself in the
most favorable light. I-0 psychologists call this skill impression management and have noted two
approaches job applicants can take ingratiation and self-promotion. Ingratiation refers to ways
of behaving that attempt to persuade the interviewer to like you. For example, you may
compliment the interviewer's style of dress or appear agree with his or her opinions and
attitudes. Self-promotion tactics include praising your accomplishments, character traits, and
goals. Self-promotion tactics are used more frequently than ingratiation behaviors and result in
higher rating from interviewers.
Psychologists have identified another construct, called self-monitoring that influences to image
people present to others. Self-monitor refers to the extent to which people observe, relate, and
control the image of themselves to choose to display in a public setting (a diagram on impression
management has been already discussed in Chapter 1).

Those who are high self-monitors present themselves in whatever way best fits the social climate
around them. Low self-monitors remain truer to themselves and behave much the same way in
all situations. They do not try to present a different self, according to the situation.
There is also the matter of deliberately distorting or faking answers during an interview-what we
might otherwise call lying. In a study of 1,346 college seniors interviewing for jobs, investigators
found that more than 90% of the seniors admitted they had faked or embellished their answers
to the interviewers' questions (Levashina & Campion, 2007)

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TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Following types of interviews common in the business:
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
The unstructured interview can be little more than a general conversation. There is little advance
planning or formal structure. The format and questions are left to the discretion of the
interviewer. Therefore, it is possible that interviewers conducting separate unstructured sessions
with the same applicant will receive completely different impressions. Thus, a basic weakness of
the unstructured interview is its lack of consistency in assessing candidates. Interviewers may be
interested in different aspects of an applicant's background, experience, or attitudes.
Recommendations of the interviewers may then reflect more of the biases and prejudices of the
interviewers than the objective qualifications of the applicants.

Training interviewers in the kinds of questions to ask and how to ask them can improve the
usefulness of the unstructured interview. Trained interviewers are far less likely to digress into
conversation about non-job-related issues than are untrained interviewers. In addition, trained
interviewers can elicit more pertinent information from the job applicant information that can
be used as the basis for deciding whether to offer an applicant a job.
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS

The structured interview uses a predetermined list of questions that are asked of every applicant.
Thus, the interview procedure is standardized so that the resulting assessment of job candidates
is less open to interviewer bias. In conducting a structured interview, the interviewer follows a
printed form that contains the questions to be asked. The applicant responses are recorded on
the same form. The interview session has been described as an elaborate application blank that
the interviewer completes based on what the applicant says.
Because all applicants are asked the questions in the same sequence, there is a more reliable
basis for comparison of the candidates than with the random questioning procedures of the
unstructured interview.
Structured interviews are a considerable improvement over unstructured interviews and have
the potential for higher predictive validity. Research has shown that structured interviews can be
as valid predictors of job success as cognitive ability tests. Structured interviews are high in
reliability as well. If used properly, structured interviews have the potential for making hiring
decisions much easier.

SITUATIONAL INTERVIEWS
A situational interview is developed specifically to meet the requirement of a particular job.
Interview questions are not designed to inquire about general work experience or personal
characteristics and abilities but rather, about the specific behaviors needed for successful

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performance of the job in question. These behaviors are determined by a job analysis conducted
by the critical-incidents technique.
The first step in developing the situational interview is to prepare a list of critical incidents that
differentiate between successful and unsuccessful employees currently on the job. These
incidents are typically identified
by supervisors who have a
comprehensive knowledge of the
job. The supervisors determine
benchmarks for scoring the
incidents, assigning a score of 5 to
those behaviors displayed by
successful employees, 3 to
behaviors displayed by average
employees, and 1 to behaviors
displayed by poor employees. The
incidents are rephrased as
questions to be asked in the situational interview: therefore, they represent issues directly
related to how an applicant would behave on the job. The numerical benchmarks make it possible
to score the interview objectively.
Once constructed, situational interviews are easy to administer and interpret. Because the
interview questions are clearly and directly related to job behaviors, they can increase the
motivation of job applicants to answer accurately and completely.
PUZZLE INTERVIEWS
Puzzle interviews, as you probably guessed from the name, involve asking job applicants to solve
puzzles such as these: Why are manhole covers round? How do you weigh an airplane without a
scale? This type of interview question, popularized by Microsoft in the 1990s, is assumed to be a
way of determining an applicant's ability in such areas as critical thinking, creativity, flexibility of
thought, and ability to reason under pressure. The technique has become popular in many
companies, including law firms, banks, insurance companies, airlines -advertising agencies, and
the military. Despite widespread use of the puzzle interview, there has been little research to
validate the approach.
ONLINE INTERVIEWS

In online interviewing, computer software is used conduct the initial interview. Applicants answer
fixed sequence of multiple-choice questions. All applicants for a specific position are asked the
same questions in the same order. Questions on sensitive issues, if appropriate, can be included
in an online interview; in contrast, many interviewers are hesitant to ask about personal matters
in the traditional Lace-to-face interview situation. Corporate users of online interviews report

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that most applicants are comfortable with this type of screening and are willing to respond with
honesty and candor.

JOB SEARCH SKILLS

SUCCESSFULLY SURVIVING THE INTERVIEW PROCESS
Even though the unstructured employment interview has many problems, the odds are high that
a person being considered for a job will undergo such an interview. Research and experience
both indicate that applicants can take several steps to increase their interview scores. Receiving
interview training and practicing interviewing skills are good ways to reduce interview anxiety,
Reducing anxiety is important, as research indicates that there is a negative correlation between
interviewee anxiety and interview performance.
1. Scheduling the interview
Neither day of week nor time of day affect interview scores. What will affect the score, however,
is when applicants arrive for the interview. If they arrive late, the score will be drastically lower.
Therefore, the interview can be scheduled for any time of the day or week, but the applicant
must not be late!
2. Before the Interview
Learn about the company; one of the most commonly asked unstructured interview questions
("What do you know about Our company?") is used to determine the applicant's knowledge of
the organization. Not only does this advice make sense, but research has found that an
applicant's knowledge significantly correlates with the interview rating and that interview
preparation significantly correlates with being asked back for a second interview. Organizations
are especially impressed if an applicant knows its products and services future needs major
problems faced, and philosophy or mission. Statistics such as market share and sales volume are
not as valuable.
On the day of the interview dress neatly and professionally and adjust your style as necessary to
fit the situation. Avoid wearing accessories such as flashy large earrings and brightly colored ties,
hair should be worn conservatively— avoid "big hair” and colors such as purple and green.
3. During the Interview

Most suggestions about how best to behave in an interview— take advantage of the interviewer
biases. Nonverbal behaviors should include a firm handshake, eye contact, smiling, and head
nodding. Desired verbal behaviors include asking questions, subtly pointing out how you are
similar to the interviewer, not asking about the salary, not speaking slowly, and not hesitating
before answering questions. Keep in mind that first impressions are the most important.

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As a method of saving travel expenses associated with face-to-face interviews, many

organizations interview applicants through a videoconference in which an applicant goes to a
local office (or similar location) or gets on to Skype from their own home and is interviewed by
employers hundreds or thousands of miles away. Although the previous interview advice still
holds for video conference interviews, some additional advice includes speaking loudly, keeping
hand and arm movements to a minimum, looking directly at the camera, and dressing in
conservative, solid colors.
4. After the Interview
Immediately following the interview, write a brief letter thanking the interviewer for her time.
Although research evidence supports all of the suggestions offered so far, no research has been
on the effects of thank-you letters. Still, this nice touch certainly cannot hurt.

WRITING COVER LETTERS

Cover letters tell an employer that you are enclosing
Cover letters
your résumé and would like to apply for a job. Cover
letters should never be longer than one page; cover A letter that accompanies a resume or job
letters contain a salutation, four basic paragraphs, and a application.
closing signature.
1. Salutation

If possible, get the name of the person to whom you want to direct the letter. If you aren't sure
of the person's name, call the company and simply ask for the name of the person (have it
spelled) to whom you should send your résumé. If the first name leaves doubt about the person's
gender, ask if the person is male or female so that you can properly address the letter to Mr.
Smith or Ms. Smith. Do not refer to the person by his or her first name. If you can't get the
person's name, a safe salutation is "Dear Human Resource Director." Avoid phrases such as "Dear
Sir or Madam" or "To Whom It May Concern.”
2. Paragraphs
The opening paragraph should be one or two sentences long and communicate three pieces of
information the fact that your résumé is enclosed, the name of the job you are applying for, and
how you know about the job opening (such as a newspaper ad or from a friend). The second
paragraph states that you are qualified for the job and provides about three reasons why. This
paragraph should be only four or five sentences in length and should not rehash the content of
your résumé. The third paragraph explains why you are interested in the particular company to
which you are applying. The final paragraph closes your letter and provides information on how
you can best be reached. Though your phone number will be on your résumé, this paragraph is a
good place to tell the employer the best days and times to reach you.

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3. Signature
Above your signature, use words such as "cordially" or "sincerely." "Yours truly" is not advised,
and words such as "Love," "Peace," or "Hugs and snuggles" are strongly discouraged. Personally
sign each cover letter, and type your name, address, and phone number below your signature
Here are a few tips about cover letters:

 Avoid sounding desperate and don’t beg

 Avoid grammar and spelling errors
 Avoid officious words or phrases
 Don't discuss personal circumstances. Employers are interested in only your qualifications
 If possible, tailor your letter to each company. Standard cover letters are efficient but not
as effective as those written specifically for each job you are applying for.
 Don't write your cover letter on the stationery of your current employer. Ensure that you
have used the correct name of the organization throughout the letter. It is not uncommon
when sending out large numbers of cover letters to change the company name in the
address but forget to change it in the body of the letter.

WRITING A RESUME

Résumés are summaries of an applicant's professional

Resume
and educational background. Although résumés are
commonly requested by employers, little is known A formal summary of an applicant’s professional
about their value in predicting employee performance. and educational background
Contrary to popular belief, there is no one best way to
write a résumé. Because people have such different backgrounds, a format that works for one
individual may not work for another. Therefore, this section will provide only general advice
about writing a résumé:
1. Views of Resumes
Résumés can be viewed in one of two ways: as a history of your life or as an advertisement of
your skills. Résumés written as a history of one's life tend to be long and to list every job ever
worked, as well as personal information such as hobbies, marital status, and personal health.
Résumés written as an advertisement of skills tend to be shorter and contain only information
that is both positive and relevant to a job seeker's desired career. This latter view of résumés is
the most used today.

2. Characteristics of Effective Résumés

Though there are many preferences, there are really, only three rules that must be followed in
writing résumés:

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a. The résumé must be attractive and easy to read. To achieve this, try to leave at
least a 1-inch margin on all sides, and allow plenty of white space, that is, do not
"pack" information into the résumé. Personnel directors do not spend much time
reading résumés. A résumé can have great content, but if the "package" is not
attractive, few employers will want to read it. This rule is hardly surprising, as
physical attractiveness provides a first impression for many activities, such as
interviewing, dating, and purchasing products. White is probably the best paper
color, as it scans. copies, and faxes more clearly than other colors.
b. The résumé cannot contain typing spelling, grammatical or factual mistakes. Do
not make any careless mistakes especially when it comes to grammar and typing!
c. The résumé should make the applicant look as qualified as possible-without lying.
This is an important rule in determining what information should be included. If
including hobbies, summer jobs, and lists of courses will make you look more
qualified for this particular job, then by all means, include them.
If a résumé follows the above three rules- it looks nice, it doesn't contain mistakes, and it makes
the applicant look as good as possible- then it is an effective résumé. Opinions to the contrary
(such as "use boldface type instead of underlining or "outline your duties instead of putting them
in a paragraph") probably represent differences in individual preferences rather than any major
problem with the résumé.
3. Types of Résumés
There are three main types of résumés: chronological, functional, and psychological.
Chronological résumé list previous jobs in order from the most to the least recent. This type of
resume is useful for applicants whose previous jobs were related to their future plans and whose
work histories do not contain gaps.
The Functional résumé organizes jobs based on the skills required to perform them rather than
the order in which they were worked. Functional résumés are especially useful for applicants who
are either changing careers or have gaps in their work histories. The problem with this type of
résumé is that it takes employers longer to read and comprehend than the other résumé types—
this problem makes functional résumés the least popular with employers.
The Psychological résumé contains the strengths of both the chronological and functional styles
and is based on sound psychological theory and research. The résumé should begin with a short
summary of your strengths. This section takes advantage of the impression-formation principles
of priming (preparing the reader for what is to come), primacy (early impressions are most
important), and short-term memory limits (the list should not be longer than seven items).
The next section of the résumé should contain information about either your education or your
experience—whichever is strongest for you. The design of the education section is intended to

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provide an organizational framework that will make it easier for the reader to remember the
contents. In deciding which information to put into these two sections, three impression-
management rules should be used: relevance, unusualness, and positivity. If information is
relevant to your desired career, it probably should be included. Unusual information should be
included when possible as people pay more attention to it than to typical information. A problem
for college seniors is that their résumés look identical to those of their classmates. That is, most
business majors take the same classes, belong to the same clubs, and have had similar part-time
jobs. To stand out from other graduates, an applicant needs something unusual, such as an
internship, an interesting hobby, or an unusual life experience. Though it is advisable to have
unusual information, the information must also be positive.
Include only information that most people will find positive (such as a volunteer, worked to help
finance education, and so on), and avoid information that may be viewed negatively, such as
political affiliation, religion, and dangerous hobbies. Of the many positive activities and
accomplishments that you could list, list only your best. Do not list everything you have done; it
is better to list a few great things, rather than a few great things and many good things. This
finding is based on Anderson's (1965) averaging versus adding model of impression formation,
which implies that activity quality is more important than quantity. It is neither necessary nor
desirable to list all of your coursework.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL & PREDICTION

STEPS IN EVALUATION PROCESS

Validation of Selection

Training Requirements

Employee Improvement

Pay, Promotion, etc.

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EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE PREDICTION

PREDICTING PERFORMANCE USING REFERENCES AND LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION

In psychology, a common belief is that the best predictor of future performance is past
performance. Thus, if an organization wants to hire a
salesperson, the best applicant might be a successful Reference check
salesperson who held jobs that were like the one for which he
is now applying. The process of confirming the accuracy of
Verifying previous employment is not difficult, but it can be resume and job application information.
difficult to verify the quality of previous performance. An
Reference
employer must obtain information about the quality of
previous performance by relying on an applicant's references, The expression of an opinion, either orally or
either by calling those references directly or asking for letters through a written checklist. regarding an
of recommendation from previous employers. applicant's ability, previous performance, work
To differentiate among reference checks, references, and habits, character, or potential for future
letters of recommendation. A reference check is the process of success.
confirming the accuracy of information provided by an
applicant. A reference is the expression of an opinion, either orally or through a written checklist,
regarding an applicant's ability, previous performance,
work habits, character, or potential for future success. Letter of recommendation
The content and format of a reference are determined A letter expressing an opinion regarding an
by the person or organization asking for the reference. applicant's ability, previous performance, work
A letter of recommendation is a letter expressing an habits, character or potential for success.
opinion regarding an applicant's ability, previous
performance, work habits, character, or potential for future success. The content and format of
a letter of recommendation are determined by the letter writer.

Other ways in which Employee Performance can be predicted, include the

following:

 Using applicant’ Training and Education, like his qualifications and institutes where s/he
received his education from.
 Using applicants’ Knowledge- through competitive/entrance exams such as the Job
Knowledge Test, National level tests (e.g., National Eligibility Test or Common Entrance
Exams), or specific tests like All India Bar Examination, etc.
 Using applicants’ Ability- assessing Cognitive, Perceptual, Psychomotor, Physical abilities
based on the nature and type of job applied for. This can be done by using standardized
psychometric tools & tests, simulation techniques and agility testing activities
 Using applicants’ Skill- through Work samples in which the applicant performs actual job-
related tasks that are pre-determined, or through Assessment centers which is a selection
technique characterized by multiple assessment methods that allow multiple assessors

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to actually observe applicants perform simulated job tasks. Such a selection technique
must include:
 Activities must be based on a thorough job analysis
 Multiple assessment techniques must be used, one of which must be simulation
based
 Multiple trained assessors must be involved
 Behavioural observations must be documented simultaneously
 Assessors must prepare a report of their observations
 Overall evaluation of the applicant must be based on the combined information
from multiple assessors and techniques
 Overall evaluation cannot be made until all tasks/activities are completed

 Using Prior Experience- based on previous Experience Ratings that the employee received
in the earlier jobs held, and through Bio-data analysis to assess and predict worker’s
behaviour based on earlier conduct.
 Using Personality, Interest and Character- through Personality inventories such as MBTI,
16PF, MMPI (for clinical assessment), BIG 5 based tests such as NEO-PI, etc. Interests can
be measured through tests such as Strong Interest Inventory, while to assess Character,
integrity testing measures can be applied such as polygraph tests, voice analyzer, other
than simple paper-pencil tests or conditional reasoning tests, credit history and even
graphology. All these are used as per the nature and type of job applied for.
 Assessing Medical & Psychological Problems- through drug testing to identify medical
issues and drug dependence history, if any, and through psychological examination by
qualified and experienced professionals.

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