Ultrasonic Testing (UT) basics for your reference:

Sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of
the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave
signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed
on a screen.

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the
advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:

 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size
and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.

As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:

 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

 Skill and training are more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse-grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.
 Normal probe (Angle 0°) Angle probe (Eg. 45°, 60°, 70°)

The portion of sound wave which comes back to the probe after being reflected
by the discontinuity is mainly dependent on the direction of the sound wave. i.e.
it does not matter whether scanning is made with a straight-beam probe or an
angle-beam probe or whether it is carried out from different surfaces on the test
object. If the reflected portion of the sound wave is not received by the probe,
then it is unlikely that the discontinuity will be detected. The possibilities of
detection only increase when the plane discontinuity is hit vertically by the
sound beam. This applies to discontinuities which are isolated within the test
object.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

In the above, Figure (a), The defect orientation is not perpendicular to sound wave
propagation in normal probe, so the reflections are not received and there will be
no indication on display. But the same orientation can be easily detected by Angle
probe since the orientation is perpendicular to the soundwave propagation (See
Figure b).

Near resolution

When a discontinuity is just below the surface of the test object, i.e. directly in
front of the probe? Can this discontinuity still be detected? The answer is no,
because the intermediate echo is now within the initial pulse, it is therefore
covered by it. Probably there are also no further indications that there is a near-
to-surface discontinuity here, See Figure below.

A non-detectable near to surface discontinuity.

Default initial pulse in the display element limits the detectability of near-to-
surface discontinuities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the non-testable area
immediately beneath the surface, can no longer be detected.
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