Socialization and Identities P1 2022

Socialization and Identities
SOCIOLOGY
It is the systematic/planned/organized study of human groups & social life in modern

societies.
To learn sociology is to learn how human societies are constructed & where our beliefs and
daily routines come from & how our social identities are formed.
It re-examines many of the taken for granted assumptions that we all hold, which influence the
way we think of ourselves and others. Above all, it is developing a critical understanding of
society. It can contribute to changes in society – about issues like divorce, crime, poverty.
It is concerned with the study of social institutions like family, the education system, work,
politics, religion, etc. These institutions make up the social structure of a society or – the
building blocks of society. Sociology tries to understand these institutions & how they operate,
how they relate to one another, eg. Does family play a part in how well children perform in
school / the education system?
Inequality, deprivation, conflict are the feature of every society. Sociology is concerned with
describing, & explaining these problems.
The French writer August Comte (1798-1857) is the one who formulated the word Sociology-
gave it the status of a science. To learn Sociology is to learn how societies are constructed &
where our beliefs come from, where our daily routines come from, and how social identities
are formed. Re-examine many taken for granted assumptions which we have, how we see
ourselves & others. Develop a better understanding of the world we live in & how to improve it.
It is a systematic study, not common sense. A systematic study involves the application of
sociological methods & theories. An academic discipline.
Three stages of the evolution of human thinking- Theological stage, Metaphysical stage,
Positivist stage
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Perspectives
When various similar (interrelated) theories are joined together, & seen under the same light as
one, we call this a perspective. The major Sociological Perspectives are:
1. Functionalism
2. Marxism
3. Weberianism
4. Feminism
5. Interactionism
6. Post Modernism
Positivism Weberianism Phenomenology
Macro Micro
Structure Action
/ \ / \
Consensus conflict symbolic interactionism ethnomethodology
/ \
(functionalism) (Marxism, feminism)
KEY CONCEPTS
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CULTURE
Raymond Williams defines culture as one of the two or three most complicated words in the
English language.
The culture of a society is the way of life of its members, the collection of ideas and habits they
learn, share and transmit from generation to generation- a ‘design for living’. It is a whole way
of life of people. The things that humans produce are cultural whereas the things that exist
without human intervention are part of the natural world. All that is natural is not cultural and
all that is not natural is cultural.
Since humans have no instincts to direct their actions their behavior must be based on
guidelines that are learned. In order for a society to continue these guidelines must be shared
by the members of a society. Without this shared culture, members would not be able to
communicate or cooperate & confusion would result.
Culture therefore has two properties
1) it is learned and
2) it is shared.
Without it there would be no society. Culture determines how members of a society think and
feel. It is taken for granted. It is so much a part of one’s life, people are unaware of its
existence. It defines accepted ways of behaving— these change from society to society.
Culturally determined behavior—infanticide, senicide (geronticide) , eg Aborigines—child

eating.
Caribou Indians, travelling— leaving behind old feeding men, etc. Inuit—ice. Japan—old
women.
NORMS
Every culture contains a large no. of guidelines that direct conduct in particular situations –
known as norms. A specific guide to acceptable & appropriate behavior in particular situations.
Eg in every society there are norms governing dress, guide you as to what to wear on certain
occasions. What to wear at what age group, what to wear at what occasion. These vary from
society to society. eg the missionary in Africa.
Norms are enforced by positive & negative sanctions ie rewards & punishments. Formal and
informal sanctions. A glare will make you change (or rethink) your attire. Usually just the threat
of sanctions will enforce acceptable behavior.
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Agencies for both formal and informal sanctions.
Certain norms are translated into laws which re enforced by official sanctions, eg bare on a
public beach, ‘flasher’ at a sports event, etc. Official punishment of varying severity. Official
positive sanctions concerning dress—tailor’s organizations give best dressed men in Britain
awards.
Therefore the sanctions that enforce norms are a major part of the mechanisms of social
control which are concerned with maintaining order in society.
VALUES
Unlike norms, which provide more specific directives for conduct, values provide more general
guidelines.
A value is a belief that something is good & desirable. It defines what is important, worthwhile,
& worth striving for. It is often suggested that individual achievement and materialism are
major values in western societies. Thus individuals believe it is important to come top of the
class, win a race, reach the top in a chosen profession.
Individual achievement is measured by material possession, so people work hard (investing

time and money) into achieving them.
Values also vary from society to society. Sioux Indian high value on generosity. Therefore
Western individual achievement is seen as anti-social, self-seeking.
Norms can be seen as reflections of values. Many norms can be seen as an expression of a
single value. – Western life—value on human life—norms associated with hygiene in the
home and public places, norms defining how to settle an argument— associated with transport,
safety at the workplace.
Shared norms and values are essential for the operation of human society. Since human have
no instincts, their behavior must be guided & regulated by norms. Without norms people would
be unaware of how to behave with one another. An ordered & stable society needs shared
norms and values.
STATUS
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All members of society occupy a number of social positions known as statuses—occupational

status (doctor), family status (daughter), gender status (male/female). Statuses are culturally
defined, despite the fact that they may be based on biological factors – sex & race. Skin color
may define you as black or white but this merely reflects conventions of particular societies.
Ascribed status – fixed at birth (eg. aristocratic titles). There’s little one can do to change them.
In certain societies occupational status is also fixed at birth, eg Indian caste system.
Achieved status – entered as a result of choice, or some purposeful action. In Western society a
person’s marital status & occupational status are not fixed at birth.
ROLE
Each status in society is accompanied by a number of norms that define how an individual
occupying a particular status is expected to act. This group of norms is known as a role. The
status of a husband is accompanied by the role of a husband, solicitor, doctor, teacher, etc.
(expectations associated with these status). Roles are played in relation to other roles. (Doctor
in relation to patient) People act in terms of roles. Social roles regulate & organize behavior,
they provide means for accomplishing certain tasks. Teacher / student role can be
accomplished if all other areas of their lives are left out. (Example of going in and out of roles—
doctor’s office examination).
Roles provide social life with order & stability/ predictability. You can predict & comprehend
the behavior of others when you understand their roles.
PERSPECTIVES
FUNCTIONALISM
Functionalism first emerged in the 19th century in Europe. The French sociologist Emile
Durkheim was the most influential of the early functionalists. The theory was developed by
American sociologists such as Talcott Parsons in the 20th century. In the 40s and 50s it became
the dominant perspective in sociology particularly in the US. From the 60s its popularity
declined partly due to criticism and partly due to competing perspectives which provided
superior explanations. The key points of the functionalist perspective may be summarized by
the comparison drawn from biology – organic analogy.
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Structure
Functionalism begins with the observation that behavior in society is structured. This means
that relationships between members in society are organized in terms of rules. Social
relationships are therefore patterned & recurrent. Values provide general guidelines for
behavior & they are translated into more specific directives in terms of roles and norms. The
structure of society can be seen as the sum total of normative behavior—the sum total of social
relationships which are governed by norms. The main parts of society, its institutions can be
seen as a structure made up of interconnected roles or interrelated norms eg. The family is
made up of the interconnected roles of husband, father, wife, mother, son & daughter. Social
relationships within the family are structured in terms of a set of related norms.
Function
How does this structure function? This involves an examination of the relationship between the
different parts of the structure and the relationship to society as a whole. Function (simply)
means effect. Therefore the function of the family is the effect it has on other parts of the social
structure and on society as a whole. In practice, the contribution an institution makes to the
survival of the system eg. the major function of the family is socialization of the children (new
members of society). This is an important contribution to the maintenance of the society, since
order, stability & cooperation largely depend on learned, shared values.
Functional Pre-requisites
Societies have certain needs & requirements that must be met if they are to survive functional
pre-requisites- food and water – a means of getting food and water- a system of socializing new
members.
Value Consensus
Society is a system. A system is an entity made up of interconnected parts. Each part will affect
the other parts & therefore the system as a whole. If society is to function, the different parts
must fit together/be compatible. Therefore integration between the parts is necessary. This is
based on value consensus- this is an agreement about values by members of society.
Value consensus forms the fundamental integrating principal in society. If members in society
are committed to the same values, they will tend to share the same identity, which provides the
basis for unity & common identity. From shared values derives common goals.
Value-materialism (Western society) -maximum production
Education system- provides skills to maximize productivity
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Family- rising demand for consumer products
Political system-aims at making the standard of living better.
Because the value is the same (material acquisition) therefore they are integrated.
Functionalism stresses on social balance, coherence.
Social Order
Functionalism assumes that a certain degree of order & stability is essential for the survival of
social systems. Therefore it is concerned with explaining the order and stability in society. They
believe that value consensus integrates the various parts of society. It forms the basis of social
unity or social solidarity, since individuals seem to identify with those who share the same
values as themselves. Value consensus provides the foundation for cooperation since common
values produce common goals. Members cooperate for the sake of the goals they share.
These values are maintained through the process of socialization whereby values are
internalized and transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore family is important for
functionalists & regarded as a vital part of the social structure. Once learned, they must be
maintained. Those who deviate must be brought back, mechanisms of social control must be
used.
Organic solidarity
As society evolves, the division of labor becomes more specialized. People are no longer similar
to one another but they do depend on one another. eg. teachers need farmers to grow their
crops & farmers need teachers to educate their children. This interdependence is organic
solidarity. In a society of organic solidarity a collective conscience (or shared values) is
necessary. However, this collective conscience is less strong than it is in mechanical solidarity.
Individuals have to be different to carry out their specific roles (a boxer needs to be different
from a nurse).
Solidarity in industrial society is based on difference rather than uniformity. In industrial

society, occupational roles are specialized yet function together (as parts of a body in an
organism-heart, lungs, liver)
Where Marx saw the division of labor as divisive, Durkheim believed it could increase
interdependence & therefore reinforce social solidarity.
Mechanical solidarity
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In Durkheim’s words: “Solidarity which comes from likeness is at its maximum when the
collective conscience completely envelopes our whole conscience & coincides with all points in
it. But at that point, our individuality is nil.”
Functionalism aims at bringing about a more stable & sophisticated social cohesion. All
institutions will cater more efficiently because the proper functioning of one is directly linked to
the proper functioning of the other. They are interdependent.
If the component parts of society developed a ‘lively sentiment of their mutual dependence’
then conflicts can be swept aside.
Manifest functions
Latent functions
Social change
Parsons said that no society can be in a state of perfect equilibrium, although a certain degree
of equilibrium is required for the survival of society. The process of social change can therefore
be regarded as a ‘moving equilibrium’. He reviewed change as a process of ‘social evolution’
from simpler to more complex society.
The collective conscience constrains individuals to act in terms of the requirements of society.
The collective conscience is external to the individual & constrains it (is a coercive power)— it is
a social fact. Society has to ‘be present in the individual’.
Criticism: Giddens: conflict is inevitable in society and functionalism sees to overlook that.
Concentration is completely on consensus, very little concentration on interaction—social
action of individuals. Sometimes this functional analysis seems idealistic, unreal. The ‘needs’ of
the society arise from individuals, yet the individual seems to be pushed in the background as
far as functionalism is concerned.
MARXISM
Karl Marx’s work consists of 40 years of writing, many of these unfinished, a lot of it
contradictory. Much of his work was developed after his death.
Marxism became popular in the 1970s partly because of the decline of functionalism & partly
because it was more suited to the ‘mood of the times’. It is one of the major conflict theories.
It begins with the simple observation that in order to survive humans must produce food and
material objects. History begins when humans actually produce their means of subsistence,
when they begin to control nature—at its minimum, get food and shelter. Marx said: ‘the 1st
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historical act therefore is the production of material life’. In doing so, they enter into social
relationships with other people. From the simple hunting gathering bands to the complex
industrial state, production is a social enterprise. The economic basis, or infrastructure of
society is the most important aspect within society. The other aspects of society, the
superstructure are largely shaped by the infrastructure. Thus the political, legal, & educational
institutions & the beliefs & value systems are primarily determined by economic factors.[ these
contradictions did not exist at the dawn of human life, because everything was communally
owned (a sort of communism)]. A change in the infrastructure will result in change in the
superstructure.
Marx feels that all societies in history [excluding pre-historic societies] contain contradictions &
cannot survive in their existing forms. These contradictions involve the exploitation of one
social group by another. (In feudal society—lords exploit their surfs, in capitalist society –
employers exploit their employees). This creates a conflict of interests since one gains at the
expense of the other. This must be changed.
Means of production are those parts of the forces of production that can be legally owned ie
raw materials, machinery, building tools. Not technical knowledge, skill— laborers (in
capitalism) are free, they sell their labor for money (not so the slave in the slave society).
Only labor produces wealth, thus the wealth of the capitalist is produced by the laborer. Since
the wages of the worker are well below the work he does, thus the contradiction between the
forces of production (labor) & the relations of production.
The second conflict – that the means of production are privately owned, & not by the worker.
Large no. of people work, one individual reaps the profit.
Marx felt that the major changes in history take place because of the different relations of
production. Therefore he felt communism would do away with these problems. Communism—
collective production, collective ownership—thus the infrastructure has no conflict. This in his
eyes would mean the end of history since they would no longer be any change in society.
Social change is not a harmonious process, it proceeds for contradictions built in the society—
which are a source of tensions, radical change.
-Ruling power, dominant ideas, agenda setters. They are supported by law—to further their
interests, justify their power/privilege. Dominant class. They exploit, oppress.
- In capitalism, dominance is disguised with the idea of equality & freedom.
-‘wage slavery’ forced to work for money.
-Two class model
-Economic determinism
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Ideology—a distortion of reality, a false picture of society. Ruling class ideology. Binds
members of society to the contradictions & conflicts of interests that are built into their
relationships. As a result they accept their situation as normal, natural, right—false
consciousness is produced to maintain the system.
Alienation
Alienation – a process by which the creations of humanity appear to humans as alien objects.
Such creations are seen as independent from their creators. This happened when people regard
the products of their labor as a commodity for sale in the market place. The objects are subject
to seemingly impersonal forces like the laws of supply and demand. Alienation reaches its
height in the capitalist society.
Neo Marxism. Althusser. RSA and ISA
Comparison
Conflict theories differ from functionalism is that they hold there are fundamental differences
of interest between social groups. These differences result in conflict being a consistent and
persistent feature of society & not a temporary aberration (as functionalism says that it will be
eradicated). Conflict theories—Marxism, feminism, Weberianism.
Capitalism holds within itself the seeds of its own destruction. The more it develops as a system
— the more the capitalists seek greater benefits – the more they enable the workers to see the
truth about their situation – the workers will abandon their false consciousness (the feeling that
they are happy with their jobs) & will rise up against the bourgeois – thus gaining class
consciousness .
Relation of production
Classical societies Rome and Greece slave owner, slave

Feudal societies Middle Ages land owner and serf
Capitalist societies today’s bourgeois & proletariat
Each epoch is different because of the differences in relation of production (relations between
land lord & serf/ owner & worker, etc) and means of production (land, factories, tools, etc)
WEBERIANISM
Max Weber (1864-1920)
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German sociologist. One of the three founding fathers along with Marx & Durkheim. His conflict
theory springs from Marxism but he rejects the idea that conflict in society arises out of only
the division between 2 groups. He argued that there could be numerous divisions (or classes)
with in the 2 basic classes, depending upon ‘market situation’ of individuals. He thought people
could be divided by their status situation & political interests rather than just economic
position.
‘Parties’ could be formed on the basis of status groups or classes, but it was also possible for
them to cut across class or status groups.
He suggests that the social structure is much more complex than Marx suggests—not just two
classes.
The groups have different interests, but the differences are not just economic. In particular,
groups may strive for greater prestige or status, rather than just economic power. Some status
differences are within the same occupation, based on ethnicity and gender. (black, woman;
white, man)
Social action theorists reject the idea of the existence of a social structure. Weber bridges the
gap between the positivists and the social action theorists. Symbolic interactionists accept the
existence of social roles but deny that these are inflexible or determined entirely by the social
system.
Status (ie prestige of social standing) : a person may have a status different from his class:
eg he may be wealthy but may lack status. eg winner of the national lottery.
eg he may be poor but may have higher status eg a religious leader or a nurse.
eg some individuals may be very powerful but not wealthy eg some politicians.
Weber accepts social structures such as class parties, social groups but he says that all these
groupings were made up of individuals carrying our social actions. According to Weber it was
social action that should be the form of study in sociology.
A social action was an action carried out by an individual to which a person attached a meaning.
It has to take into account the behavior of others. Thus an action that one doesn’t think about
isn’t a social action eg an accidental collision of bikes or an involuntary cry of pain aren’t social
actions because they are not the result of a conscious thought process.
Also an action can’t be taken into account if it doesn’t entail the existence of possible reactions
of others eg praying in private. Sometimes social action can lead to large scale changes in
society, eg The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
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Rationalization
Weber saw the development of modern sociology in terms of a move towards rational social
action. Thus to Weber, modern societies were undergoing a process of rationalization—where
action governed by tradition /custom was seen as less important.
He believed that bureaucratic organizations were the dominant institutions of industrial

societies. Bureaucracy according to Weber is : a hierarchy of paid, full time officials who formed
a chain of command. Concerned with the business of administration, controlling, managing a
complex series of tasks. Bureaucratic organizations are dominating all institutions – politics,
state, military, education, churches.
Bureaucratic and Rational Action
Since all human action is directed by meanings, thus in order to explain an action, the meanings
& motives that lie behind it must be seen.
He identified various types of action:
1) Affective or emotional actions – stems from a particular emotional state (loss of temper)
2) Traditional action – based on established customs, ingrained habit. No real awareness,

just habit, second nature.
3) Rational action—involves a clear awareness of a goal, (like that of a manager at work).

Goal is defined, if one wanted to increase productivity, one would analyze alternative raw
material, labor costs, etc. it would require precise calculations & weighing of advantages and
disadvantages.
Weber believed rational action had become the dominant more of action in modern societies.
He referred to this as the process of rationalization. Man is no longer driven by emotion or
tradition but by rationality, logic, reason.
Bureaucracy is an eg of this process—defined goal—precise calculations. Bureaucracy is

therefore rational action. Bureaucrats exercise control, legitimize their own power.
Bureaucracy prevents spontaneous behavior, individual initiative. Bureaucratic organizations
produce an ‘iron cage’ which imprisons and restricts people.
Weber saw the danger of bureaucrats becoming preoccupied with uniformity and order, losing
sight of everything else, being dependent upon the highly structured niche in the bureaucratic
machinery.
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Though he thought bureaucracy essential for the running of large scale industrial society, he felt
that the process of rationalization is basically irrational. It is ultimately aimless, since it tends to
destroy the traditional values that give meaning & purpose to life. He wished to gain freedom
from man’s ‘parceling out of the soul’ to the supreme mastery of the bureaucratic way of life—
said that we are entering a ‘night of icy darkness’.
Though he was sceptical about bureaucracies, he felt that there was no other way of controlling
such large scale organizations.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Macro theories like functionalism, Marxism (even Feminism) regard society as a system &
human actions being shaped by the system.
Functionalism—system of norms and values.
Marxism—system determined by the economic infrastructure.
Feminism—system developed by patriarchy.
Interactionism focuses on small scale interaction rather than society as a whole. It usually
rejects the notion of a social system. Thus it does not regard human action as a response or
reaction to the system.
Interaction—ie action between individuals. Action is meaningful to those involved. An

understanding of the action requires an interpretation of the meanings. (candle lighting
example). To understand an act, it is therefore necessary to discover the meaning held by the
actors. Meanings are NOT fixed. Meanings are created, developed, & changed within the actual
process of interaction. , eg pupil in a new class being cautious when entering a new class may
relax, or may become very quiet if he feels intimidated. Altering and changing his reaction as
required.
Human thought, experience & conduct are essentially social. Human beings interact in terms of
symbols; the most important of which are language. A symbol doesn’t just define an object
(chair) but also the response/or line of action associated with that symbol (sitting).
Without symbols there would be no human interaction & therefore no society. Human beings
are not born with the knowledge of how to react to particular stimuli. They must construct a
world of meaning & live within it. They must classify objects around them eg to meet their
nutritional needs they must classify objects in to food & non food categories. Thus they create a
definition & their reaction/ response to the stimuli.
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Through symbols meaning is imposed on the world around them & human interaction with that
world is made possible.
Role Taking
Social life can only continue if meanings of symbols are largely shared by members of society.
Without this, meaningful conversation would be impossible.
However common symbols create only the meaning (definition)— in order for interaction to
continue, each person must interpret the meanings and intentions of others.
This is possible through common symbols, but accomplished by ‘role-taking’ – imaginatively

placing themselves in the position of the person with whom they are interacting. Attempting to
interpret another’s meaning by each taking the role of the other.
The Self
Through role taking people develop a concept of the self. They must see themselves as others
see them.
‘me’—yourself in a specific social role eg you might see yourself as a whole—the concept—built
up on other’s reaction to you, you tend to adopt that role. (eg if you see yourself as a coward
on the basis of a self-concept, it is unlikely that you will behave bravely on any occasion)
(labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy)
2nd stage—game stage—in playing a game, children have to see themselves as others/other
participants (as in cricket or football). They must understand the role of others to know their
own role in the game. They see themselves in the perspective of the generalized other.
Significant other—a particular individual whose views, opinions & reactions contribute to &
influence the conception we have of ourselves.
Generalized other—expectations of general conduct in a social group—what is expected of

you.
For Mead—the development of the consciousness of the self is an essential part of the process
of becoming a human being. It forms the basis for thought & actions & the foundation for
human society. Without an awareness of the self, the individual could not direct action or
respond to the actions of others.
Thought (thinking) is a ‘conversation with the self’. Without knowing the self/being aware of
the self—thinking would be impossible.
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By seeing the self as others see you, you are aware of what is expected from you & therefore
your actions can be modified accordingly.
Human interaction is a two way process—action and reaction. Both shape the pattern of
behavior.
action reaction
/ \
Generalized other self
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
It is concerned with methods used by people (members) to construct, account for/ give
meaning to their social world.
They believe there is no social order (as other perspectives assume). Members actively engage
in making sense of the world around them, therefore life seems orderly.
Societies have regular/ordered patterns because members perceive them this way. – a
‘convenient fiction’, an appearance of order constructed by members of society.
Members try and provide explanations / reasons for the world around them and constantly
make sense of it in a way to make it acceptable to themselves. Members are constantly ‘seeing,
describing, and explaining the order they live in’.
Coroners—terms suicide because of a pattern—pattern because of suicide—reflexive. Instances

as reflections of the underlying pattern/ vice versa.
Garfinkle : Social life is reflexive. Members constantly look at particular activities & situations in
terms of presumed patterns & in turn confirm the existence of those patterns by referring to
particular expressions of them in activities & situations. In this way social reality is created by
members.
Therefore ‘suicide’ doesn’t exist until someone terms it as such. Therefore they are creating
suicide. Atkinson’s study of coroners.
Experiments in counseling —university students made sense where none existed. Their
interpretation was reflexive—more to do with what’s expected rather than what exists.
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Other perspectives look at objective reality as independent of member’s accounts and

interpretations. Ethnomethodologists see the social world as nothing more than the constructs,
interpretations, & accounts of its members. The job of the sociologists is to explain the
accounting procedures that members use to construct their social world. According to
ethnomethodologists this is the job mainstream sociology failed to do.
FEMINISM
Feminists state that women have been left out of research, marginalized, ignored. Sociologists
have conducted research on men (eg. education and stratification). In Sociological research
even when all male samples are used, the results are generalized to ‘people’ in general, not just
men.
Areas of social life concerning women (house work, childbirth) are left out, seen as unimportant
(till the 70s). When women are included they are presented in a distorted way eg in crime—
that something must be wrong with them as they are meant to be docile.
Class differences are given more importance than gender differences. Sociology is seen as sex
blind and sexist.
From the beginning of industrial development, the labor process was not only ‘capitalist’, but
‘gendered’. New techniques of production produced ‘men’s jobs’ and ‘women’s jobs’—utilizing
characteristics that were ascribed to men and women as workers. Men—skill and technological
expertise, women—cheapness of labor and adaptability.
Neither Marx nor Weber nor Durkheim properly addressed the gender dimensions of the
process of modernization, drawing more on traditional ideas of women—that associate women
with an unchanging nature, traditional family values. Only recently were the political &
economic significance of gender relations recognized.
Rationalization—seen as a state of rational thinking, separating human from animals—

Enlightenment. But there was a catch for women—they weren’t considered as rational as men.
They were seen as inferior, intellectually, physically. Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the earliest
feminists (1792) thought it irrational not to apply the concept of rational thinking to women as
well.
*She wanted non- segregation educational.
*She said that the talents of women were wasted.
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*She criticized the vanities and frivolities of the women of her time. But said they were due to
extreme segregation. She was called ‘a hyena in petticoats’ due to her outspoken views.
POSTMODERNISM
Globalisation has led to the blurring of boundaries in society (the nation state, their own
anthems, flag, their own identity, ideas about educations etc.) Capitalism also brought about
many changes. Technology brought in the debate between science and religion. And there has
been a move towards individualism. Rather than sticking to fixed identities, they have become
fluid.
Post Structuralism
Enlightenment period
Modernity
Reliance on science
Move away from religion, secularization.
Secular Intelligensia
Globalization has led to technological changes, economic changes, political changes (nation
states which boundaries of nations are clearly defined and constricted). All of these affect
culture and identity where identities have been fluid.
There is a reliance on Western brands, Western clothing, etc. spread through the vast network
of media sources. We live in a media saturated society. The postmodern condition is media
saturated.
Lyotard – Metanarratives: whole truths, grand truths, universal truths, universals. They claim
absolute truth but they are just versions of reality. Everyone of who holds a view, it’s true to
them. There is no single truth to explain everything. There are just versions of the truth.
Individual versions. And no one person’s truth is wrong (because it means different things to
different people).
You can no longer rely on science alone to give answers. People have become more pessimistic
about the future & don’t tend to believe in ideologies as presented by Marx. They see no simple
recipe for changing their world or ending their problems. There is no grand plan for the future.
• Diversity is the order of the day
• Anything and everything goes
• Knowledge is no longer an end in itself, but can be bought and sold
• There are no universal truths.
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It maintains that society is changing. They take some matter from conventional approaches—
that it is possible to explain human behavior & that societies are changing. Not necessarily
headed in the right direction, but changing.
Some post modernists say that conventional modern approaches should be abandoned
because they are no longer applicable to the way society works now. (Because societies have
changed so much). They say new theories are needed to explain this. They give two main
reasons for this: social behavior is not shaped through socialization & people’s background. 2.
Class gender, ethnicity affect people less than they used to. People are freer to choose their life
style and identities. Freer to choose where to live, go, travel, wear, hetro, homo, etc.
The boundaries between social groups are breaking down, choices are greater.
Baudrillard – hyperreality. Fictitious things become a reality. We can’t distinguish between the
images that we are seeing and actual reality. If we can’t understand our reality then we have no
power to change it. We start questioning our culture and whether or not we should be
behaving in this way. This leads to us questioning our identity. Simulacra: a simulation of a
simulation. The role that images play in creating reality.
Reality TV. How can it be a reality show when there is a presence of cameras.
Theories of late modernity- Giddens: we live in a state of High Modernity which is

characterized by disembedding and reflexivity. Disembedding: we no longer need face to face
interactions, and because of technologies interactions have become impersonal. You can send
emails, texts, etc. It leads to us not being aware of our customs and traditions because we have
to act in terms of other people’s cultures and traditions, kind of like a universal culture and
tradition. We are forced to become reflexive. We have to monitor and change, modifying and
reacting according to different situations, based on the people we are in contact and the based
on the opportunities available. We are reacting to being in a different society.
Which means, according to Giddens and especially Ulrich Beck, that we are living in a risk
society. Which is made by humans and human choice and individualization. These could be
individual risks but could be monetary risks but they could also be environmental risks, like
disease and famine etc. We live in a time where we manufacture these risks ourselves. It is
environmental but it is actually man made. We are aware of these changes but we are not
necessarily making these on large scale and resulting in real changes.
Additionally, we weigh the costs and benefits of any action.
Art. Culture. Identities.
SOCIAL ORDER
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Functionalism believes that a certain degree of social order & stability is essential for the
survival of social system. Order & stability are maintained by shared values & value consensus.
Value consensus integrates various parts of society, forming the basis of social unity & social
solidarity since individuals tend to identify themselves who share their values. Common values
means common goals therefore people tend to cooperate. People will work together for similar
goals.
How can consensus be maintained?
Emphasis is placed on socialization (internalization).
Parsons suggests that values be internalized & transmitted from one generation to the next.
Family is therefore regarded as the vital part of the social structure. Learned values must be
maintained. Those who deviate, must be brought back. Thus social order can be maintained.
Marxist theories are openly radical. They advocate fundamental social change in many
contemporary societies.
Mechanical and organic solidarity.
Ethnomethodologists believe there is no social order as described by other sociological

perspectives assume. Social life seems orderly because member of society actively engage in
making sense of it. Societies have regular patterns only because people perceive them that way.
Social order is a convenient fiction—an appearance of order.
Garfinkle—the sense of any action is achieved by reference to its context. Members sense of
what is happening depends on the way they interpret the context of the activity concerned. In
this respect their understanding & accounts are indexical—they make sense in terms of
particular settings.
SOCIALIZATION
The process by which individuals learn the culture of their society. It is not confined to
childhood, it is a life-long process. Without socialization an individual would bear little
resemblance to any human being defined as normal by the standards of his/her society.
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The process by which children or other members of society learn the way of life of their society
is called socialization. Socialization is the primary channel for the transmission of culture over
time & generations. Human beings are helpless animals, they must be schooled into behaving
‘human’.
Socialization is understanding of our role in society & understanding the norms and values
attached to that role. Social sanctions keep the process of socialization going. Informal negative
sanctions & positive sanctions.
Podder and Bergvall’s (2004) observation that culture “isn’t something we’re born with, it is
taught to us. The human being is a social creature and we need rules for interaction with one
another”. Since it can be argued that culture can lead to us creating our identity, the
significance that socialisation can have on us is clear. Jenkins (2008) argues that identities are
formed in the socialisation process.
There are two types of socialisation:
Primary – According to Cooley (1909), primary groups that contain intimate relationships and
face to face are fundamental in creating the nature and ideals of an individual. The primary
relationships we form is with our parents, followed by our peers and then with other adults e.g.
marriage. Parsons (1951) states that primary socialisation is crucial in socialising newborns into
being children who can function in society. This explains how people can interact with society
e.g. saying please and thank you or how to eat. Primary socialisation is considered essential,
otherwise, individuals could not integrate into society. Take a look at feral children which is an
example of this.
Secondary – Berger and Luckmann (1967) note, by “a sense of detachment…from the ones
teaching socialisation”. Secondary socialisation occurs when we don’t expect it or even
recognise it e.g. indoctrination by the media. Individuals are not always passive regarding this
and in fact, children may also receive contradictory socialisation messages from differing
agents. Parsons (1951) states the purpose of secondary socialisation is to liberate the individual
from a dependence upon the primary attachments and relationships formed within the family
group. To summarise, to an individual’s social group needs to expand from primary agencies of
socialisation e.g. family to secondary e.g. peers. A key part of transferring from primary
socialisation to secondary is creating and testings instrumental relationships. This is assessing
how to deal with people in terms of what they can do for us and what we can do for them in
particular situations (this is the opposite of the effective relationships we find in primary
groups). Berger and Luckmann (1967) suggest that the characteristic of primary socialisation is
“emotionally charged identification” meaning the relationship involves using our emotions e.g.
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love for parents. On the other hand, secondary socialisation is characterised by “formality and
anonymity”.
Functioning
Each agency of socialisation has its own theatre. A theatre is an environment which a person
operates. Each theatre has its own rules, which are called ‘doxas’. Doxas can change and are
fluid and we measure our ability to survive in a theatre by our success in that environment e.g.
if we have lots of friends and are popular, we could argue that we have mastered the doxas of
the environment. Two types of doxas exist in an environment:
Formal controls – These generally consist of written rules of behaviour that, theoretically, apply
equally to everyone in society (laws) or particular social group (rules). The police force is an
example.
Informal controls – These aim to punish or reward behaviour which falls outside of the law.
These rules can differ from person to person and group to group. Usually, rather than an
authoritative figure punishing or rewarding, the group or individual does themselves e.g.
ridicule, sarcasm, disapproving, violence.
There are also Sanctions which are used to enforce the controlling mechanisms above. There
are two types:
1. Positive sanctions (or rewards) are the way people are rewarded for their positive
behaviour e.g. compliments or physical rewards. These usually fall into intrinsic (internal
– making the person feel happy) and extrinsic rewards (external – giving someone
money). Normally, intrinsic rewards are the most effective as they can permanently
modify behaviour, unlike extrinsic.
2. Negative sanctions (or punishments) are actions that try to punish individuals for their
actions e.g. prison or bullying.
Family
Role: The family, is an important process in shaping an individual’s identity. This is because of
the many stages that an individual goes through in their childhood (don’t forget that this is a
social construct and therefore it changes from culture to culture). An individual starts with
being a baby, then an infant, then a child finally a teenager, or young adult. This is called child
development.
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Values: Mead (1934) called parents and other immediate family members “Significant Others”.
This is because of the importance that they have in shaping our identity e.g. knowing right from
wrong creating our moral code.
Behaviour: Norms: Families have different norms and values, but, there are some which they
might share. Although times and processes may differ, constants may be calling your parents
Mum and Dad or eating at the table with your mouth closed. When individuals stray from these
norms, sanctions may apply. Usually, these sanctions are informal but can be a mix of positive
and negative.
Peer Groups
Peers are those individuals who tend to be the same age as yourself. This doesn’t have to be
exact but from the same social group e.g. teenagers. Hughes et al (2002) define as “the models
we use for appraising and shaping our attitudes, feelings, and actions”). Hughes continues in
saying peer groups contain“both normative and comparative functions”. Normative – changes
our behaviour e.g. if our friends smoke, so too do we. Comparative is where we compare
ourselves and our identity to others. This can lead to normative changes, but not always.
Roles: It could be argued that as part of the peer group phase we learn to categorise individuals
e.g. giving people ranks – friends, acquaintance, a nobody. This skill is carried over to your adult
life for use in the wider world e.g. workplace.
Values: This is intrinsically linked to roles as the next step is that we add value to those ranks
e.g. friends spend more time with us and are liked more.
Sanctions: Peer groups mostly use informal methods to control members. This creates a degree
of conformity by adhering to a hidden social code.
The Education System
Behaviour: The function of the education system differs from perspective to perspective – you
will learn more about this when studying education.
One function of the education system is to teach the skills and knowledge required for adult
life. e.g. learning British Values and particular skills, such as learning to read and write or solve
mathematical problems. This is called the manifest function of education, however, there also
exists latent functions e.g. learning how to make friends, being on time, being hardworking.
This is sometimes linked to the hidden curriculum.
Roles: From day one, students learn roles e.g. teachers have higher authority than students.
This teaches individuals their place in society whether it be a good thing (Functionalist) or bad
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(Marxist). These labels are often exerted and are intrinsically linked to modifying behaviour e.g.
expecting a teenager to change their behaviour by calling than a young adult.
Norms: Bowles and Gintis (1976) suggest, there is a correspondence between school norms and
workplace norms. As they argue (2002) “schools prepare people for adult work rules by
socialising people to function well, and without complaint, in the hierarchical structure of the
modern corporation”. This Correspondence Principle is seen in schools each day e.g. taking
registers, measuring behaviour and performance.
Sanctions: Positive sanctions include the gaining of grades, qualifications and other monetary
mechanisms e.g. winning prizes. On the negative side, teachers use sanctions like detentions,
suspensions and exclusions to equally control students and their behaviour.
The workplace
The workplace: Roles: There are two main workplace roles of employer and employee.
However, the range of jobs in these two categories are vast e.g. being a professor to a dog
walker. Either way, individuals often have their status creating depending on their profession
e.g. a doctor may have a higher status than a cleaner and thus have more responsibilities given
to him by society.
Values: Because of capitalism, we believe that work and money are linked. One should not
happen without the other. However, there are other values such as being happy in work and
wanting to work hard or wanting a promotion etc.
Norms: We expect to be paid for working (although some types of work, like housework and
voluntary work, don’t involve money). As stated, the education system is linked to the
workplace as there are common norms and values that are shared e.g. attendance, hard work
etc.
Sanctions: Employers can use both positive and negative sanctions e.g. Pay rise or docking of
pay.
The Media
There is an ongoing debate surrounding the impact of the media (explored more in the topic
media). To what extent media can influence individuals on a short and long term basis is subject
to debate. That said, however, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that an individual’s
behaviour can be affected by the media. Examples of the way our behaviour is affected by
exposure to the media might include areas like sexuality – magazines aimed at teenagers
arguably perform a socialising role in terms of understanding sexual relationships.
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In summary:
The Glasgow Media Group (1982) have argued that the media have an agenda-setting role –
they will show news on the media that attracts attention (to sell newspapers), therefore other
news might be hidden. This potentially allows them to indoctrinate individuals – think about
Joseph Goebbels.
Values: The values of the media can often shape our own. The article below demonstrates how
individuals can be manipulated by the media.
To quote the GMG – “…television… has a profound effect, because it has the power to tell
people the order in which to think about events and issues. In other words, it ‘sets the agenda’,
decides what is important and what will be featured. More crucially it very largely decides what
people will think with; television controls the crucial information with which we make up our
minds about the world”.
Norms: Durkheim (1912) stated that the media promotes “boundary marking”. By publicising
behaviour, both good and bad, it has the ability to modify society’s behaviour e.g. showcasing
that smoking was cool in the 20th century, but now bad in the 21st.
Sanctions: Positive sanctions may involve the use of positive language, praise and so forth,
whereas negative sanctions may involve being criticised in magazines or being labelled e.g.
immigrants being targetted by newspapers promoting Brexit.
Religion
Behaviour: Generally, religion plays a peripheral role in most people’s life (religious beliefs are
not central to their personal value system). Indirectly, however, religions play an important
socialising role in terms of both influencing general social values and performing certain
ceremonial functions (such as marriages, christenings and funerals). This has changed
somewhat with globalisation as religiosity is weakening in society.
Values: Morals are a major part of religion e.g. the 10 commandments, capital punishment.
Religion often has shaped law e.g. murder is illegal, so too is stealing. Religion mostly uses
negative sanctions to shape behaviour e.g. an individual not going to Heaven.
Althusser (1971) saw religion as an ideological state apparatus where individuals are
indoctrinated by the dominant ideology.
Functionalist view of socialization
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Social roles are fixed & relatively unchanging parts of a society’s culture. They are taken as
social facts. According to such a view individuals learn the expectations that surround social
positions in their particular culture and perform those roles largely as they’ve been defined.
Social roles do not involve negotiation or creativity—they are prescriptive in directing an
individual’s behavior. Through socialization individuals internalize social roles & learn how to
carry them out.
Socialization is a one way process. Through agencies such as the family, education system and
peer groups, society inculcates individuals into roles that are already prescribed for them. (pre-
cut, readymade roles)
According to Durkheim, ‘society is greater than and goes beyond us, for it is infinitely more vast
than our being, but at the same time it enters into every part of us. It is outside us and it
envelopes us, but it is in us and is everywhere an aspect of our nature. We are fused with it’.
Society is seen as a system of norms and individuals are passive, responding without choice to
imposed rewards and punishments. Socialization therefor is like the training or taming of the
individual where the individual is a microcosm of society’s values.
According to Parsons, social order is maintained by the individual learning to desire what the
culture of society provides. Personalities become structured by the norms they internalize.
Social roles become a part of the individual. The end result is conformity.
Socialization is a process by which society’s values are transmitted from one generation to the
next & internalized to form an integral part of individual personalities. For Western societies
family & education are important institutions responsible for this. By means of socialization
humanity is programmed in terms of the norms & values of the social systems. Social
equilibrium & also maintenance by the various mechanisms of social roles that are designed to
meet the functional pre-requisites of society. (functionalist view) . The process of socialization
& social control are fundamental to the equilibrium of the social system & therefore to order in
society.
Marxism and socialization
Marxists see socialization as an ideological conditioning device ensuring children accept their
exploitation later in life. In the family they learn conformity and obedience and their creativity
is constricted. The process continues in schools through the hidden curriculum which teaches
children to be subservient and obedient. They also learn that inequality is legitimate.
Neo Marxists emphasize that socialization is full of conflict and not necessarily successful. In
Learning to Labour Willis showed how school pupils developed a counter culture which
opposed the cultural values of the school. In rejecting the values of the school through their
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‘counter culture’, the lads unintentionally prepared themselves for their future role in the
exploitative workplace.
Bourdieu argues that socialization involves the transmission of cultural capital (the cultural
knowledge necessary for success) from one generation to the next. This ensures inequality is
maintained.
Feminism and socialization
Feminists examine how patriarchal society imposes a subordinate, docile role on women within
society. Women are socialized within the home to be subservient to men. This same ideology is
mirrored in text books and early reading schemes like the lady bird series or tales of the
Princess waiting to be rescued by the Prince.
Ruth Hartley believed socialization takes place through four processes: manipulation,
canalization, verbal appellation and activity exposure.
Manipulation refers to how a child is handled. Boys are taken to be strong and girls are given
more feminine designation of being pretty.
Canalization involves the familiarization of boys and girls with certain objects like toys, which
later shapes their perceptions, aspirations and dreams eg giving girls dolls and kitchen sets and
boys cars to play with.
Verbal appellations like “strong” for boys and “beautiful” for girls help them construct different
identities.
Activity exposure pertains to different kinds activities, boys and girls are exposed to. Girls are
asked for help by their mothers and boys usually accompany their fathers outside the house.
This is how the idea of gender is constructed and slowly permeates into the psyche of the
individual. As mentioned earlier, gender is socially constructed and, so is one’s personality. It is
important to note here that the basic difference between a man and a woman does not seem
to have any genetic foundation. It is the result of one’s culture, which is injected into an
individual through socialization process.
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Interactionist view of socialization
Mead focuses on how an individual passes through stages of taking on his social identities.
Children learn how to socialize & learn more & more about social skills as they grow. Individuals
have a hand in this learning process of self-growth. Their social identities alter and develop. The
children learn about social roles at the stage of primary socialization. Adult roles are also
changing & developing. The child understands that it is an entity visible to others & interacting
with other. The ‘I’ becomes the ‘me’. Language is used as a tool for socialization.
Mead’s role taking:
Learning to take the role of others, an individual goes through three stages:
1. Imitation – children under 3 can only mimic others. They don’t have a sense of self
separate from others, and can only imitate people’s gestures and words. This stage is
not actually role taking but prepares a child for it.
2. Play- from the age of about 3-6, children pretend to take the roles of specific people.
They might pretend they are a fire-fighter, wrestler, super-girl, etc. They also like
costumes, enjoy dressing up in their parents’ clothing, or wearing a cape, etc.
3. Games – this is the 3rd stage in which organized play or team games begins roughly with
the early school years. The significance of the self is that to play these games the
individual must be able to take up multiple roles. eg. In a baseball game, each player
must be able to take up the role of all other players, and to anticipate the role of other
players.
Mead explains that self-image arises in particular due to our ability to see & judge ourselves as
objects. We must be able to communicate in a complex way, using language to hold a kind of
internal conversation. We ‘talk’ to ourselves about how others see us. Language (or symbol) is
central to the formation of self.
Parents, grandparents, teachers & in adolescence, peers are among the significant others.
(Significant others—persons whose affection, approval & judgment are especially important in
the development of the self.)
A child pretending to be a teacher or nurse is not merely playing but working to build a self-
image. Role taking enables us to look at ourselves from the perspective of others. Thus an
individual becomes aware of his/her self’s very existence & can build a self-image.
Overtime the individual becomes able to assume the attitude or role of the generalized other
(members of the community in general). (Going through a mall, a teenager is aware of how
people see her). The attitudes of the generalized other are taken into one’s self, becoming the
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‘me’. The ‘me’ reflects the social structure surrounding the individual & is clearly a product of
the social environment. (eg Alcoholics Anonymous creates a new ‘me’ for its members).
Cooley’s Looking Glass Self
Cooley explains how a child builds self-esteem. He uses the phrase ‘looking glass self’ too
describe how we use others as a mirror to construct a self-image. (Self-image—the total
perceptions of one’s body & personality, capability & other qualities.)
There are three stages in this process:
1) We imagine how we appear to others
2) We imagine how others react to what they see in us
3) We develop feelings about ourselves based on the judgments we imagine other people
have formed of us.
From this we gain feelings (positive or negative) about ourselves. (eg 1st graders going to class
for the 1st time imagines how he looks to his teacher (sloppy/ neat). Imagines how the teacher
judges him (likes / dislikes). Forms a self-image based on the teacher’s imagined judgment (I’m
a slob /I’m cool) (eg adolescents who suffer depression from lowered self-esteem). People of
all ages peer into the looking glass around them. Misinterpretations can (& do) occur.
Misreading are often based on self-esteem. Low self-esteem will establish negative self-esteem;
high self-esteem will assume the positive.
For Goffman, roles are best seen as played, performed or dramatized within the rules
surrounding social rituals, (like getting ready to go out) where what we do at home is regarded
as backstage activities and possessions are seen as props. When the props are removed, a
mortification of the self occurs. His study of asylums shows that this process entails a loss of
the former sense of self.
Negative aspects of the socialization process
Freud and irrational urges
Freud, (unlike Mead and Cooley) delved into the conflict between the constructive aspects of
the interaction between the self and social world. Freud believes the most important part of
the socialization process takes place early in our life when our human desires clash with the
culture’s demands & restrictions. This conflict begins in infancy because we are born with
unconscious, irrational, self-centred urges that socialization cannot tolerate. Parents
manipulate the child into conformity. This control creates guilt, fear, & anger; all of this is
repressed.
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Id—unsocialized , selfish desires that must be controlled, the primitive and instinctive
component of personality, impulsive part of our psyche
Ego- the ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external world.
The decision making part of the personality. It works by reason whereas the id is totally
irrational.
Super ego—the moral codes of society which are learned from parents and from others.
As the socialization proceeds, the norms & values of the adult world become incorporated into
the child’s superego which functions as a conscience.
A balance between the impulses of the id & the control of the superego is necessary for healthy
functioning. This is done through the ego, which plays the part of a referee, mediating the
demands of the id and the super ego.
It is a mistake to believe that because individuals take on the roles they have, therefore they
are socialized into them or have internalized the role. Sometimes they have no choice but to
play their role.
Dennis Wrong presents the concept of the ‘over socialized man’. The internalization of norms
and values is not like the programming of an input output model. There is no necessary reason
that individuals will automatically play the roles assigned to them, or will internalize them to
the same degree. They can become overburdened by the weight of role prescriptions.
Garfinkle feels that it is incorrect to see individuals as ‘cultural dopes’ as if they simply play the
roles given to them. People can individually or collectively reject their roles.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIAL IDENTITIES
Human contact is very important in socialization for acquiring general human characteristics &
for developing communication through language. It is also essential in shaping identities or in
the allotment of roles.
Social identities reflect natural difference between people, childhood behavior & then adult,
mature behavior is seen as natural. The adult transition is seen as natural. This is the generally
accepted idea. But what about cultural varieties between individual behavior patterns. The
time/age at which a child is considered an adult varies from society to society.
So this suggests that identities and role allocation is dependent upon social factors.
Gender identity is also gained through cultural socialization, an acceptance of/understanding of

how to behave according to your gender. Gender expectations vary from society to society.
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Differences between sex & gender
/ /
Physiological sociological
/ /
woman bears children, the woman learns to cook, man is more athletic
nurses baby more likely to study math than food & nutrition
In everyday life, identities are formed as people try to get others to see them as they want to
be seem. They may or may not be successful. If unsuccessful they may find it difficult to sustain
the identity they prefer.
Identities are both:

Internal & external
What we think of our how others see us
own identity
The two factors combine & interact to produce an identity. External factors may
undermine/contradict OR support/ strengthen the way we see us. Identities emerge out of the
relationship between ourselves and others.
Sense of Self
Not only does the sense of self proceed the sense of having free will (this is who I am, this is
what I want to do) but it is also a basis of social control.
Margret Mead: human beings are shaped by different cultures to create personality types.
Americans & Asians
/ /
Strong sense of self familial self, linked with close

emotional family relationships
The Formation of Identities
Structuralist sociologists argue that aspects of our identity are imposed on us by social forces
such as class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, religion and nationality. Functionalists see the identity
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of an individual as the product of social structures like family, school, religion and work. They
see identity as vital for society as it helps create a sense of common community and solidarity
across groups.
However, social action theorists see identity as a product of choice. For example we may
choose to identify with a sports team, fashion brand, leisure activity, type of music, etc.
According to Goffman, people actively construct their own identities.
Giddens (structuration approach) argues that structure and action interact to construct
identities. Individuals are not passive receivers, they are reflexive- they alter their identities
depending on the reactions of others around them.
Zygmunt Bauman (postmodernist) argues that consumers in the 21st century have greater
freedom of choice in what they purchase and thereby establish their identities, however,
affluent consumers have greater freedom than poorer consumers.
The construction of identities according to Kath Woodward is a personal as well as social issue
because it concerns the groups with which we identify. It involves an element of choice eg
when a person decides to identify with a group. Identity is marked by similarity, you identify
with others because of the similarities between you and the differences between others. (eg
members of a football club) It combines how you see yourself and how others see you. In that
way it is internal and subjective and it is also external and dependant on the judgement of
others. Some forms of identity are harder to change than others, eg it may be easier to change
your football club as opposed to your gender. Because if you appear to be a man but feel like a
woman, it might be harder for others to identify with you as a woman (or feeling like one
nationality but not being able to adopt that nationality). Thus identity is always formed with a
combination of individual agency and structural constraints.
According to Althusser, when people are recruited into identity positions they are interpelled
or hailed into behaving in certain ways. Particular symbols are used to call out to certain people
so that they recognize themselves in them and identify with the group being portrayed. Eg in
WWII when men were at war, women had to join the labour market to support themselves.
When the men returned, they needed women to go back to the homes and involve themselves
in house work. Therefore ads and TV shows of that era concentrate heavily on showing women
in domestic roles. Through the process of interpellation we come to feel that an identity is the
one that fits us- as a man, a new mother, a team supporter, a Pakistani, etc- the process is one
of recognition. It is a process by which we internalize our cultural values.
Link to Mead’s idea of the ‘inner I’ and the ‘social me’. When we understand how we appear to
others, our internal identity is linked to the external identity – how others see us.
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Goffman has explained through the dramaturgical approach how individuals put on
performances for others to convince them of who they are. Like an actor, they take on a certain
role. Ultimately that role they adopt becomes the person that they are. In ‘The Presentation of
the Self in Everyday Life’ he describes this process of how an individual develops particular roles
as he plays different roles.
Props
Mortification of the self
Total institutions
Institutionally defined self
Impression Management
Uncertainty and identity in the UK

According to Woodward- There are a number of factors that affect the development of
identities in the UK.
Changes in social class as jobs have moved from the manufacturing industry to the service
industry. This has changed traditional masculine identities eg those in the mining industry and
led to the crisis of masculinity.
Increased female employment of married women in paid work has undermined previous
conceptions about the traditional housewife role.
With changes in family set ups, keeping in mind the increased divorce rate, high number of
single parent families, advancement in fertility treatments has led to a variety of different
family forms and therefore family identities.
Civil rights movements, women’s liberation movement, environmental movements, all lead to
changes in identity development.
As Britain becomes more multinational, certainty about national identity is also reduced.
The growth of consumer culture has led to a range of hybrid identities developing. People can
express their identities through their choice of clothes, jewellery, tattoos, hairstyles, surgery,
workout routines, diet choices, etc.
Despite all these changes, Woodward establishes that there are still structural constraints that
hold people back from expressing their chosen identities.
According to Zygmunt Bauman, in postmodern society, there is so much uncertainty and
change is so rapid that there is no surety that any particular position or profession will be
available in 10, 20, or 30 years’ time. For this reason, there is no reason to chase after a
permanent identity especially that linked to a profession. Instead, people should opt for life
strategies. People can ‘stroll’ through a number of identity choices, which they can frequently
change. The presence of shopping malls assists in this because they offer a variety of identities
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that can be chosen and discarded the very next day. Postmodern society also creates the
‘vagabond’, the individual who wonders from place to place (identity to identity) without
settling on any one identity. Postmodern society makes it almost impossible to settle. Selecting
an identity is almost like playing a game, where one can play for a while, enjoy while it lasts,
then switch onto another identity or game.
According to Stuart Hall contemporary societies are characterized by the existence of
‘fractured identities’. People no longer have a single unified sense of who they are. Due to
modernity, the pace of change has made it difficult for people to have a unified identity.
Previously class was a significant marker of identity but now new social movements have
resulted in gender, ethnicity and environment being seen as more significant and have made
identity a political issue. Globalization has resulted in improved communication systems which
have led to a global marketing of styles and images. People can choose from a wide range of
consumer products and therefore a wide range of identities.
Ethnicity and identity

Pilkington states that there was no British National I entity before the Act of Union of England
and Scotland in 1707. Prior to that most people loved in small communities and identified with
them. National identities became popular in the 18th and 19th century when political and
economic changed led to the development of strong national identities.
Globalization produced contradictory results which effect nationalism. It can lead to cultural
homogenization (people using Coke and watching Hollywood films) or it can cause a fascination
with difference so that ethnically distinct products are available around the world.
On the one hand we have the example of John Townsend who wanted to protect English
identity and ensure that it is free from any ‘mixing’. (Little Englanders) And on the other hand
we have Gordon Brown who tried to embrace multiple ethnicities and accepts a multi-cultural,
multi-ethnic, multi-nationalist Britain where diversity is a source of change.
Pilkington believes that there is considerable evidence of ‘new hybrid identities’ in Britain eg.
British Caribbean, and British Asian youth one eg. is that of bhangra music.
Stuart Hal points out that Black was a term used to refer to Asian, Afro Caribbean and Africans.
The term was used to highlight the experiences of these minorities (discrimination) that united
them rather than concentrating on the cultural differences that separated them.
This led to the concept of New Ethnicities where each ethnic minority is seen in terms of the
differences that they have with other ethnicities but also within an ethnicity eg differences of
class, gender, age, sexuality. This leads to the idea of hybridization.
33
Processes like globalization have weakened nation states and their idea of imposing a single all-
embracing culture on diverse ethnic groups. Most modern states are multi-cultural with mixed
ethnicities, religions, cultures and languages.
(Negative aspects of trying to impose a single ethnic identity- Yugoslavia – ethnic cleansing,
violent conflict)
However, as Stuart Hall mentions in his work ‘Our Mongrel Selves’ this ethnic and cultural
diversity, different nationalisms and globalization can lead to confusion. Mass migration has led
to the development of ‘our mongrel selves’.
Tariq Modood agrees with Hall in his study of ethnicity in Britain – new ethnicities are
beginning to develop. Some respondents feel that they felt British but that feeling could be
undermined by racism. Those that adopted a bi-cultural such as British- Asian had a positive
attitude about the British element while maintaining a link to their culture and religion.
Modood concludes the ethnicity is a changing badge of membership. He found an emerging
and evolving plurality of ethnicities old and new.
Microaggressions- a term coined by black psychiatrist Chester M Pierce- small behavioural
indignities intentional or not that communicate derogatory racial insults that leave black people
feeling degraded and dehumanized.
Class and identities

John Scott sees classes as consisting of households that have a similar distribution of wealth as
well as life chances.
Often the higher class households may have groups who are intermarrying and have
interconnected family ties. Elite self-recruitment
Prior to industrialization in Britain, the higher classes, specifically the aristocracy and the gentry
were characterized by a high degree of social closure. The development of industry led to
added opportunities of gaining success often through contacts with influential families. It was
common for such groups to be united through marriage and businesses.
Middle class: often seen by some as a homogenous group, while others believe that such a
group does not exist. Those who accept that the middle class does exist feel that it is divided
into many strata.
Working class: often characterized by collective goals expressed through trade unions.
- Fatalistic attitude- they feel there is little they can do to change their situation.
- Present time orientation- since they feel there is little that can be done for a better
future, they tend to live day to day rather than plan for a future.
34
- There is an emphasis on immediate gratification with little effort to make any sacrifices
for future rewards. (opp. deferred gratitude)
- Collectivism (opp. individualism)
Proletarianization thesis. Add Henry Braverman – deskilling – many routine manual jobs have
become deskilled. The number of white collar jobs has increased but the skill required to do
these jobs has decreased. Though the number of clerical jobs increased drastically in the US
from the 1800s to end of the 20th century, the wages of the clerical worker also decreased
where they are now indistinguishable from the manual workers.
Embourgeoisement thesis
Contradictory class positions (Poulantzas)
Social mobility - upward, downward, long range, short range, inter-generational and
intragenerational
Open societies, closed societies
Social closure
Death of Class- Pakulski and Waters feel that social class is no longer relevant in modern
Britain. Classes only exist when there is at least a minimal number of grouping among
members. People no feel they belong to class groupings, and members of supposed classes
include a wide variety of different people. They do not believe that inequality is disappearing,
but they do believe that there are new divisions that are emerging. Class is seen as just one
division among many, like gender, ethnicity and age etc. People are more likely to be defined by
their lifestyle choices ( eg supporting a football team) rather than by class structures, therefore
a surgeon can stand with a butcher and share an interest. Welfare states have changed the
concept of class. Property ownership has become more shared. A broader scattering of wealth
means that people are consuming more than necessary. According to Ulrich Beck we are living
in Risk Society where science has not solved problem but created further problems for us, and
therefor class and status lose their significance.
Four aspects of identities
Harriet Bradley examines four aspects of inequality in terms of identity formation- class,
gender, ethnicity, age.
Class: she does not see class a defining aspect of identity in contemporary Britain. She thinks
class is less visible now as compared to gender and ethnicity. There is not a ‘death of class’ as
the post modernists think, but in fact a polarization and fragmentation. Although the rich are
getting richer and the poor are getting poorer, there is fragmentation in class structures as
there is a possibility of combining other identities with that of class eg, ethnic identity and
gender identity- much like the ideas presented by Weber on class. According to her, class
35
relations are shaped by other forms of inequality. Consumption has become more important as
a range of choice of goods is available to people.
Gender: she sees women not as a single group with a common experience, but as diverse
fragmented groups. Though issues of a variety of women are different and unique, they are all
united on the basis of the fact that they all suffer from inequality at some level. However, Black
feminists argue that the disadvantages that they face are greater than those faced by other
women.
Ethnicity: this has become a source of active identity, perhaps due to the nature of visible skin
color but even when that is not the case (eg the issues of ethnic cleansing among different
white ethnic groups in Yugoslavia). Ethnic identities are often used to mobilize different political
movements like the Black Power movement or the Civil Rights movement. Ethnic identities may
be combined with other forms of identity for the sake of mobilizing movements, eg being an
Asian in Britain can be replaced by being a Pakistani Muslim in Britain in light of Islamophobia
post 9/11.
Age: young people have restrictions on what they are allowed to do and express in terms of
their identity and old people might suffer from ageism. It seems to be most neglected
dimension of inequality. The fact that people move through different age groups and do not
stay in any age group for an extended period of time mitigates the development of a long-
lasting identity. The most powerful group is in the middle. And those who are very young or
very old do not have anything in common to form a single united front in order to deal with
their inequality.
Paper 1 Socialisation, Identity and Methods of Research
For examination from 2021
36
SPECIMEN PAPER
1 hour 30 minutes
Total marks: 60 marks
Section A: Answer all questions in this section.
1 Describe two types of interview. [4]
2 (a) Explain two reasons why some social groups may be more difficult to research than others. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of overt participant observation as a research method. [6]
3 ‘Peers are the most important influence in shaping an individual’s identity.’
(a) Explain this view. [10]
(b) Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]
Section B: Answer one question in this section.
EITHER
4 Evaluate the view that female identity is changing. [26]
OR
5 Evaluate the use of scientific methods in sociological research. [26]
M/J 2022 11
1 Describe two examples of social norms. [4]
37
2 (a) Explain two ways sociological research may be affected by bias. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of unstructured interviews as a research method. [6]
3 ‘The family is the main influence on gender identity.’
4 Evaluate the view that age is the main influence on a person’s identity. [26]
5 Evaluate the use of experiments in sociological research. [26]
M/J 2022 12
1 Describe two examples of social identities. [4]
2 (a) Explain two features of the interpretivist approach to research. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of questionnaires as a research method. [6]
3 ‘Under-socialisation is the main cause of deviance.’
4 Evaluate the view that the media is the most important influence in shaping gender identity.
[26]
5 Evaluate the view that practical factors are the main influence on a sociologist’s choice of
research method. [26]
M/J 2022 13
1 Describe two features of globalisation. [4]
38
2 (a) Explain two problems a researcher may face in gaining access to a study group. [8]
(b) Explain two limitations of longitudinal studies. [6]
3 ‘Religion is the most important factor shaping ethnic identity.’
4 Evaluate the view that social class has little influence on identity today. [26]
5 Evaluate the view that qualitative interviews have little value in sociological research. [26]
Oct/Nov 2021 11
1 Describe two types of qualitative interview. [4]
2 (a) Explain two ways in which researcher values may lead to bias in research findings. [8]
(b) Explain two limitations of using a postal questionnaire as a research method. [6]
3 ‘The media is the most important influence in shaping an individual’s identity.’
4 Evaluate the view that nurture is more important than nature in shaping human behaviour.
[26]
5 Evaluate the view that sociological research should be based on the methods of the natural
sciences. [26]
Oct/Nov 2021 12
1 Describe two types of femininity. [4]
39
2 (a) Explain two reasons why a researcher might use more than one method. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of using a covert approach to participant
observation. [6]
3 ‘Cultural deprivation is the main reason individuals act in deviant ways.’
4 Evaluate the view that an individual’s identity is largely shaped by their social class. [26]
5 Evaluate the use of secondary data in sociological research. [26]
M/J 2021 11
1 Describe two informal social sanctions. [4]
2 (a) Explain two practical factors that can influence choice of research method. [8]
(b) Explain two limitations of using an overt approach to participant observation. [6]
3 ‘Male identity is changing.’
4 Evaluate cultural explanations of deviance. [26]
5 Evaluate the view that quantitative research methods have more strengths than limitations.
[26]
M/J 2021 12
1 Describe two sampling techniques. [4]
40
2 (a) Explain two ethical issues associated with sociological research. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of official statistics. [6]
3 ‘Ethnic identity is changing, with new hybrid identities emerging.’
4 Evaluate the view that human behaviour is shaped entirely by the process of socialisation.
[26]
5 Evaluate the use of qualitative interview methods in sociological research. [26]
M/J 2021 13
1 Describe two social roles associated with young people. [4]
2 (a) Explain two characteristics of the positivist approach to sociological research. [8]
(b) Explain two strengths of structured interviews as a research method. [6]
3 ‘The family is the most important influence on social class identity.’
4 Evaluate the view that social identities are changing due to increased choice. [26]
5 Evaluate the view that the strengths of overt participant observation outweigh the
limitations. [26]
M/J 2022 11
1 Describe two examples of social norms. [4]
2 (a) Explain two ways sociological research may be affected by bias. [8]
41
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of unstructured interviews as a research method.
[6]
3 ‘The family is the main influence on gender identity.’
Section B
Answer one question in this section.
4 Evaluate the view that age is the main influence on a person’s identity. [26]
5 Evaluate the use of experiments in sociological research. [26]
M/J 2022 12
1 Describe two examples of social identities. [4]
2 (a) Explain two features of the interpretivist approach to research. [8]
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of questionnaires as a research method. [6]
3 ‘Under-socialisation is the main cause of deviance.’
Section B
4 Evaluate the view that the media is the most important influence in shaping gender identity.
[26]
5 Evaluate the view that practical factors are the main influence on a sociologist’s choice of
research method. [26]
M/J 2022 13
1 Describe two features of globalisation. [4]
2 (a) Explain two problems a researcher may face in gaining access to a study group. [8]
42
(b) Explain two limitations of longitudinal studies. [6]
3 ‘Religion is the most important factor shaping ethnic identity.’
Section B
4 Evaluate the view that social class has little influence on identity today. [26]
5 Evaluate the view that qualitative interviews have little value in sociological research. [26]
Extra questions:
1 Assess the claim that sociologists have exaggerated the role of socialisation in shaping human
behavior. [26]
2 ‘Sociologists who believe that research can be carried out unaffected by their personal
prejudices and values are mistaken.’ Explain and assess this claim. [26]
3 ‘Unstructured interviews are too subjective to be useful in sociological research.’ Explain and
assess this view. [26]
4 ‘Individual behavior is too unpredictable for it to be studied scientifically.’ Explain and assess
this claim. [26]
5 ‘Qualitative methods should not be used in sociological research because they lack reliability.’
Explain and assess this view. [26]
6 Explain and assess the post-modernist view that class divisions have little influence in shaping
social identities today. [26]
43

Socialization and Identities P1 2022

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Socialization and Identities

It is the systematic/planned/organized study of human groups & social life in modern

Positivism Weberianism Phenomenology

Consensus conflict symbolic interactionism ethnomethodology

(functionalism) (Marxism, feminism)

Culture therefore has two properties

Culturally determined behavior—infanticide, senicide (geronticide) , eg Aborigines—child

Agencies for both formal and informal sanctions.

Individual achievement is measured by material possession, so people work hard (investing

All members of society occupy a number of social positions known as statuses—occupational

Value-materialism (Western society) -maximum production

Education system- provides skills to maximize productivity

Family- rising demand for consumer products

Political system-aims at making the standard of living better.

Functionalism stresses on social balance, coherence.

Solidarity in industrial society is based on difference rather than uniformity. In industrial

Neo Marxism. Althusser. RSA and ISA

Classical societies Rome and Greece slave owner, slave

Max Weber (1864-1920)

He believed that bureaucratic organizations were the dominant institutions of industrial

Bureaucratic and Rational Action

He identified various types of action:

2) Traditional action – based on established customs, ingrained habit. No real awareness,

3) Rational action—involves a clear awareness of a goal, (like that of a manager at work).

Bureaucracy is an eg of this process—defined goal—precise calculations. Bureaucracy is

Functionalism—system of norms and values.

Marxism—system determined by the economic infrastructure.

Feminism—system developed by patriarchy.

Interaction—ie action between individuals. Action is meaningful to those involved. An

This is possible through common symbols, but accomplished by ‘role-taking’ – imaginatively

Generalized other—expectations of general conduct in a social group—what is expected of

Generalized other self

Coroners—terms suicide because of a pattern—pattern because of suicide—reflexive. Instances

Other perspectives look at objective reality as independent of member’s accounts and

Rationalization—seen as a state of rational thinking, separating human from animals—

*She wanted non- segregation educational.

*She said that the talents of women were wasted.

• Diversity is the order of the day

• Anything and everything goes

• Knowledge is no longer an end in itself, but can be bought and sold

• There are no universal truths.

Theories of late modernity- Giddens: we live in a state of High Modernity which is

Art. Culture. Identities.

How can consensus be maintained?

Emphasis is placed on socialization (internalization).

Mechanical and organic solidarity.

Ethnomethodologists believe there is no social order as described by other sociological

There are two types of socialisation:

The Education System

Functionalist view of socialization

Marxism and socialization

Feminism and socialization

Interactionist view of socialization

Mead’s role taking:

Cooley’s Looking Glass Self

There are three stages in this process:

1) We imagine how we appear to others

2) We imagine how others react to what they see in us

Negative aspects of the socialization process

Freud and irrational urges

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIAL IDENTITIES

Gender identity is also gained through cultural socialization, an acceptance of/understanding of

Differences between sex & gender