Unit 2

Just Order
Logic
-
:

- prepositional Logic ,
we can
only represent
the
facts ,
which are either there or
false .

-At is not
sufficient to
represent
the
complex
natural
or
language sentences .

-First order Logic ,

is an extension to
prepositional
includes all the
logic which means it also

connectives in
prepositional logic
.

-Apart from connectives .

FOPL makes use
of
As
quantifies .
name
suggest they ,
quantifies
variably
the no .

of taking part in the relation

the rule
or
obying
.
 Syntax and Semantics of FOL:

The models of a logical language are the formal structures that constitute
the possible worlds under consideration. Each model links the vocabulary
of the logical sentences to elements of the possible world, so that the truth
of any sentence can be determined. Thus, models for propositional logic link
proposition symbols to predefined truth values. Models for first-order logic
are much more interesting. First, they have objects in them! The domain of a
model is the set of objects or domain elements it contains. The domain is
required to be nonempty—every possible world must contain at least one
object.
Symbols and interpretations:
The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are the symbols that
stand for objects, relations, and functions. The symbols, therefore, come
in three kinds: constant symbols, which stand for objects; predicate
symbols, which stand for relations; and function symbols, which stand for
functions. We adopt the convention that these symbols will begin
uppercase letters.
Every model must provide the information required to determine if any
given sentence is true or false. Thus, in addition to its objects, relations,
and functions, each model includes an interpretation that specifies exactly
which objects, relations and functions are referred to by the constant,
predicate, and function symbols.
 Atomic Sentences :

~ Atamic fentences dur the most basic sentences

of
For . These sentences are
found from a

symbol followed by
with
predicate parentlusis
a
sequence of terms .

sentence such
-We
reprsent atomic as

predicate (tem 1
,
kend ,
---
,
tem n) .

John and Richard batterns

E
: ou

Bratters (John Richard) .

Sentences
Complex
:

Comple sentences our made

by combining
atomic sentences connections (1 V n c)
using ,
.

, , ,
 statements divided into 2
jist-Order
logic a

parts :

① Subject It is the main

part of subject
:

② Predicate A predicate is
defind as the relation
:

which binds two atonic statement

statement
together
a
.

in

Quantifiers
A quantifier is an operator that specifies how many individuals in the domain of
discourse satisfy an open formula.
Universal quantification (∀)
The universal quantifier symbol is denoted by the ∀, which means "for all".
Suppose P(x) is used to indicate predicate, and D is used to indicate the domain
of x. The universal statement will be in the form "∀x ∈ D, P(x)". The main
purpose of a universal statement is to form a proposition. In the quantifiers, the
domain is very important because it is used to decide the possible values of x.
When we change the domain, then the meaning of universal quantifiers of P(x)
will also be changed. When we use the universal quantifier, in this case, the
domain must be specified. Without a domain, the universal quantifier has no
meaning.
Existential quantification (∃)
The existential quantifier symbol is denoted by the ∃, which means "there
exists". Suppose P(x) is used to indicate predicate, and D is used to indicate
the domain of x. The existential statement will be in the form "∃x ∈ D such that
P(x)". The main purpose of an existential statement is to form a proposition.

Nested quantifiers
The nested quantifier is used by a lot of serious mathematical statements. For
example:
Let us assume a statement that says, "For every real number, we have a real
number which is greater than it". We are going to write this statement like this:
∀x ∃y : y > x
Or assume a statement that says, "We have a Boolean formula such that
every truth assignment to its variables satisfies it". We are going to write this
statement like this:
∃ formulaF ∀ assignmentsA : A satisfies F.
It is very important to understand the difference between statements that
indicate ∃x ∀y and a statement that indicate ∀x ∃y. For example, suppose we
are talking about the real number. In this case, our above example ∀x ∃y : y >
x is true. But it will be false if we try to write this with quantifiers in other order
like this: ∃y ∀x : y > x. This version needs a single number that must be larger
than every number.
Connections between ∀ and ∃
The two quantifiers are actually intimately connected with each other,
through negation. Asserting that “Everyone likes ice cream” means
that there is no one who does not like ice cream:
∀ x Likes(x,IceCream) is equivalent to
¬∃ x ¬Likes(x,IceCream) .
 Inference in Just-Ordu
Logic
:

Influence F01 used to deduce

in ww
is

sentences
facts sentence
misting
·

from

For lits
Before understanding
rule
,
inference
understand used in
some basic
terminology
FOL .

① substitution :

fundamental operation perford

is is a
on

If all
tes or
formulas .
occus in
inference
FOL
Septems
in .

F(a(n)
"a"
substitute a constant in
place of

variable ''
of

⑳ Equality on
page
8 is also used .
 rules
FOL inference of ducntifie :

As have ruls
PL also
inference Fol
in
we
,

-
Universal Genealisation
I
Univisal Instantiation

-
Existential Instantiation

-
Existential Introduction

i Universal Generalisation :

valid states
It is a inference rule which

that if premise P(C) is true for any arbitary

dement in uniuse discouse then
a
of ,

no can have conclusion as XuP(2) .

reprsented
as
It can be