Explain of firing circuit of SCR using Resistor and Capacitor (Full Wave).

A single phase fully controlled rectifier supplied with voltage V=100 sin314t, α=30°and load
Give Comparison between VSI & CSI.
resistance is 50 Ω. Find average output DC voltage and load current.

Explain of firing circuit of SCR using Resistor. Explain construction and working of SCR with is V-I characteristics. Explain of firing circuit of SCR using Resistor and Capacitor (Half Wave).
An SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is a four-layer solid-state semiconductor device that belongs to the family of thyristors. Its
construction and working principle are essential to understanding its V-I (Voltage-Current) characteristics.
Construction of SCR:
An SCR comprises three PN-junctions and has three terminals: anode (A), cathode (K), and gate (G).
Construction Layers:
1. P-type Material: The outermost layers are made of P-type semiconductor material.
2. N-type Material: The inner layer is made of N-type semiconductor material.

Working Principle of SCR:

The working of an SCR involves the following states:
Forward Blocking State: When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode and no gate pulse is applied, the SCR remains in the OFF
state. It has a high reverse resistance and does not conduct current.
Forward Conduction State: To turn on the SCR, a positive gate pulse is applied while the anode is still made positive with respect to the cathode.
At this point, a small current flows into the gate terminal.
This triggers the SCR, allowing a large current to flow from anode to cathode, and the SCR enters the forward conducting state.
Once triggered, it continues to conduct even if the gate current is removed until the anode current drops below a certain level (holding current) or
the voltage across the SCR decreases below a specific value (forward breakover voltage).

V-I Characteristics of SCR:

The V-I characteristics of an SCR illustrate its behavior concerning voltage applied across its terminals and the resulting current through it.
Forward Characteristics:
When the anode voltage becomes positive with respect to the cathode and a gate pulse triggers the SCR, it starts conducting. The current
rises sharply with a very low forward voltage drop across the SCR, leading to a nearly vertical rise in the curve.
Reverse Characteristics:
When a reverse voltage is applied across the SCR (anode negative with respect to cathode), it remains in a blocking state and exhibits very
high resistance, allowing only a small leakage current to flow.
Breakdown Voltage:
If the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage (avalanche breakdown voltage), a sudden increase in reverse current occurs,
indicating breakdown and potential damage to the SCR if not limited.
 What is electric drive? Explain it with a neat block diagram. Explain the operation of three phase half wave controlled rectifier with circuit diagram and also Explain continuous current operation with neat waveforms for D C Drives.
Drives: sketch its input and output waveform. Continuous current operation in DC drives refers to the steady-state condition
Any machine comprises of the three following components. Working principle of the control circuit
A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is a circuit that uses three thyristors (or SCRs) to convert AC voltage to DC where the motor operates without any significant changes in the armature current,
Prime Mover
Power Transmission system
voltage. Only one SCR can conduct at a time. maintaining a constant speed under a stable load. In continuous current operation,
For example, when V1 is maximum, SCR1 is forward biased; SCR2, SCR3 is reverse biased. So if SCR1 is fired, then SCR1 will
Machine conduct, and SCR2, SCR3 turn off. Similarly for SCR2 and SCR3, voltage V2 and V3 should respectively be greater than the armature current remains constant due to the stable conditions of operation.
Power is generated by the prime mover. The prime mover may be electric motor, steam engine, IC engine other two phase voltages.
or a water turbine.
Power generated by the prime mover is given to the machine by the transmission system. Machine does
the useful work using this power.
In Electric drive, electric motor is used as the prime mover. Suitable type of transmission system is used.
Conversion equipment like rectifier, frequency changer and control equipment like speed control ,
braking etc are also included in electric drive.
Block Diagram of Electrical Drive: 3 phase half wave controlled rectifier

◦
The input phase voltages V1, V2, and V3 have the same amplitude and frequency with 120 phase shifts. The control
signal must be synchronized with the input phase voltage. In Psim software, we design a control circuit that generates
control pulses.

The following are the components of electric drive.

Source (Energy requirement for the operation the system)
Power Modulator (Modulate (adjust or convert) power flow from the source to the load)
Motor (Actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical))
Load (A machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.)
Sensing Unit (Measure the real time operating condition)
Control Unit (Adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.)
Source: Fig: DC Series motor Semi Converter waveforms in continuous current operation.
Electrical power source is needed to drive the eletric motor. A. C. suply of suitable voltage and frequency is used where the supply system is A. C. In our
country 230 V, 50 Hz is used for single phase and 415 V, 50 Hz is used for the three phase power source. Where D. C. power source is used for the D. C.
system.
Power modulators: Control circuit designed on Psim software
Power modulators regulate the power flow from source to the motor to enable the motor to develop the torque speed characteristics required by the load.
The common function of the power modulator is,
They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits during the transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal
etc.
They converts the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are regenerative.
Converters: The control circuit uses a voltage
They provide adjustable voltage/current/frequency to control speed, torque output power of the motor.
The various type of converters are, sensing block to convert the input phase
AC to DC rectifiers voltage to a smaller voltage that can be
DC to DC choppers
AC to AC Cyclo-converter measured. And move the electrical zero
DC to AC Inverters
degree angle of the control pulse to a
Motor:
The type of motor used depends upon many factors like characteristics of load, whether the speed control is required or not, if required , whether new position where the thyristor can Armature voltage and current waveforms appear as steady DC signals.
continuous control is needed or two to three fixed speed are needed.
conduct immediately when the thyristor
The motor may be of: Speed and torque remain constant under stable load conditions.
D. C. Series motor is fired.
D. C. Shunt motor The phase relationship between armature voltage and current remains constant.
D. C. Compound motor
Synchronous motor After that, this signal will pass through a The back EMF opposes changes in motor speed and affects the armature current
Schrage motor
comparator block to generate a digital accordingly.
Single Phase Induction Motor
A. C. Series Motor signal. This digital signal puts into Block
Load:
The load may be a machine, pump, compressor, electric locomotive, machine tool, elevator etc.
Angle Control. When the signal level is Continuous current operation is essential in various applications where stable motor
Sensing Unit: high, the alpha block will wait for a time operation at a constant speed is required, such as in certain industrial processes,
Sensors are used in automatic closed loop system. They measure various parameter like motor speed, supply voltage, current etc and control the motor
output. t (t = alpha) and then output a signal to conveyor belts, and other applications requiring steady and continuous performance
Control Unit: activate the thyristor.
It controls the power modulator and extract the desired output from the converter. from DC motors.
Describe the operation of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with R- L load. Draw the block diagram and explain closed loop control method of speed control for AC Drive Explain the operation of three phase full wave controlled rectifier with circuit diagram and also
The closed-loop control method for speed control in an AC drive involves using feedback from the sketch its input and output waveform.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectification
motor to adjust and maintain the desired speed. This control system ensures the actual speed matches
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with 'RL' load: the desired speed set by the user or a controller.
The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two per phase in a similar
fashion to the single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-
A block diagram and explanation of the closed-loop speed control method for an AC drive:
wave rectifier circuits. The advantage here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple output than the
previous half-wave 3-phase rectifier as it has a frequency of six times the input AC waveform.
Also, the full-wave rectifier can be fed from a balanced 3–phase 3-wire delta connected supply as no
fourth neutral (N) wire is required. Consider the full-wave 3-phase rectifier circuit below.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectification

Explanation of Components:
Input Command (Reference Speed):
This is the desired speed set by the user or the control system. As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA) starts at
Summing Junction: 0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as shown. One diode of the conducting pair powers the
Compares the reference speed with the feedback signal (actual speed) to generate an error signal. positive (+) side of load, while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.
Controller: Diodes D1 D3 D2 and D4 form a bridge rectifier network between phases A and B, similarly diodes D3 D5
Receives the error signal and processes it to generate a control signal that determines the required D4 and D6 between phases B and C and D5 D1 D6 and D2 between phases C and A.
adjustment in motor speed. Diodes D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail. The diode which has a more positive voltage at its anode
PWM Generator: terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has a more
Produces Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signals based on the control signal received from the negative voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.
controller. Then we can see that for three-phase uncontrolled rectification the diodes conduct in matching pairs with
These PWM signals control the switching of the power devices (IGBTs or transistors) in the inverter. each conduction path passing through two diodes in series. Thus a total of six rectifier diodes are required
Inverter: with commutation of the circuit taking place every 60o, or six times per cycle.
Converts the DC voltage from a rectifier or power supply into variable frequency and variable If we start the pattern of conduction at 30o, this gives us a conduction pattern for the load current of: D1-4
voltage AC output. D1-6 D3-6 D3-2 D5-2 D5-4 and return again to D1-4 and D1-6 for the next phase sequence as shown.
Controlled by the PWM signals, it regulates the power sent to the AC motor. Full-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform
AC Motor:
The motor being controlled in the system.
Its speed is adjusted based on the output from the inverter.
Feedback (Actual Speed):
Uses sensors (such as encoders, tachometers, or Hall effect sensors) to measure the actual speed of
the AC motor.
Sends this information back to the summing junction to compare with the reference speed.
Closed-Loop Control Process:
The reference speed is compared with the actual speed of the motor.
Any difference between the reference and actual speeds generates an error signal.
The controller processes this error signal to determine the corrective action needed to adjust the
motor speed.
The controller sends a control signal to the PWM generator, which generates appropriate PWM
signals.
These signals control the inverter, which adjusts the frequency and voltage supplied to the motor
to match the reference speed.
The closed-loop speed control method for an AC drive continuously monitors and adjusts the motor's speed to maintain
it at the desired level, ensuring better accuracy and stability in speed control by using feedback from the motor.
 Explain speed control of D C motor using chopper – four quadrant method.
Speed control of a DC motor using a chopper in the four-quadrant method allows the motor to operate
in both forward and reverse directions while controlling speed and providing dynamic braking. This
method involves using a chopper circuit to regulate the average voltage applied to the motor.
Four-Quadrant Operation:
The four-quadrant operation in a DC motor control refers to four possible combinations of motor speed
and direction:
Forward Motoring: Positive speed, Forward direction
Reverse Motoring: Positive speed, Reverse direction
Forward Plugging: Negative speed, Forward direction
Reverse Plugging: Negative speed, Reverse direction
Chopper Circuit for Speed Control:
The chopper circuit consists of a semiconductor switch (such as an IGBT or MOSFET), a freewheeling
diode, an inductor, and a DC motor. It regulates the average voltage applied to the motor by controlling
the duty cycle of the switch.
Operation in Four Quadrants:
Forward Motoring (Quadrant I):
The chopper operates in PWM mode to provide a variable DC voltage to the motor in the forward
direction, controlling speed in the positive range.
Reverse Motoring (Quadrant II):
The chopper operates in PWM mode but with reverse polarity to provide a variable DC voltage in the
reverse direction, controlling speed in the positive range.
Forward Plugging (Quadrant III):
To apply negative speed in the forward direction, the chopper operates in PWM mode, but the polarity is
reversed. This causes the motor to decelerate in the forward direction.
Reverse Plugging (Quadrant IV):
Similar to Quadrant III, but with negative speed in the reverse direction. The chopper operates in PWM
mode with reverse polarity, causing the motor to decelerate in the reverse direction.
Speed Control and Dynamic Braking:
The chopper's duty cycle determines the average voltage applied to the motor, controlling its speed in
both directions.
Varying the duty cycle changes the effective voltage applied to the motor, enabling speed control in
both forward and reverse directions.
Explain stator voltage control method for controlling the speed of three phase
Induction motor
Stator voltage control is a method used to control the speed of a three-phase induction motor by
varying the voltage applied to the motor's stator windings. This method is one of the simplest and
most commonly used techniques for speed control of induction motors.
Principle of Stator Voltage Control:
Stator Voltage Control Method:
Voltage Reduction:
Lowering the voltage supplied to the stator windings decreases the electromagnetic force
generated in the motor.
Reduced voltage leads to a decrease in the magnetic field strength, resulting in reduced
speed of the motor.
Method of Voltage Reduction:
This method involves using an autotransformer or a variable voltage supply to reduce the
voltage applied to the motor's stator windings.
Controlling the voltage with an autotransformer allows for stepless variation of voltage,
offering continuous speed control.
Effect on Torque:
Reducing the voltage also decreases the torque produced by the motor.
Lower torque might limit the motor's capability to drive heavy loads at lower speeds.
Application in Fan and Pump Systems:
Stator voltage control is commonly used in applications such as fan and pump systems
where speed variation is required.
It offers a simple and cost-effective method to control the motor speed.
Limitations of Stator Voltage Control:
Torque Limitation: Reduced voltage leads to reduced torque, limiting the motor's ability to
handle heavy loads at lower speeds.
Heating Issues: Lower voltage operation can lead to increased heat generation in the motor
windings, affecting motor efficiency and longevity.
Limited Speed Range: The speed control range using stator voltage control is limited
compared to more sophisticated methods like variable frequency drives (VFDs).
Stator voltage control for controlling the speed of a three-phase induction motor involves reducing the
voltage supplied to the motor's stator windings. While it provides a simple and economical method for
speed control, it has limitations concerning torque reduction, heating issues, and a limited speed
control range compared to more advanced speed control methods like variable frequency drives (VFDs).
What are the main factors which decide the choice of electrical drive for a given application?
The selection of an electrical drive for a specific application involves considering various
factors to ensure optimal performance, efficiency, and compatibility. Here are the main
factors that influence the choice of an electrical drive for a given application:
1. Load Characteristics:
Speed-Torque Requirements: The required speed and torque characteristics of the load
strongly influence the type of drive needed.
Starting Torque: Some applications require high starting torque, influencing the choice of
the drive system.
2. Type of Motor:
AC or DC Motor: Depending on the application requirements, the choice between AC and DC
motors is crucial. AC motors (induction, synchronous) are preferred for many industrial
applications due to their robustness and reliability.
Motor Size and Power Rating: Consider the required power output and physical size of the
motor needed for the application.
3. Control Requirements:
Speed Control: Some applications require precise speed control, influencing the choice of
the drive system and its control mechanism.
Torque Control: Certain applications demand accurate torque control, affecting the
selection of the drive system.
4. Efficiency and Energy Consumption:
Energy Efficiency: Consideration of the drive system's efficiency and its impact on energy
consumption is vital, especially for applications with high energy demands.
5. Environmental Conditions:
Operating Environment: Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust, and
vibration levels can influence the choice of the drive system.
6. Cost Consideration:
Initial Cost vs. Operating Cost: Balancing initial investment cost with long-term operating
costs, including maintenance and energy consumption, is crucial.
7. System Integration:
Compatibility with Existing Systems: Compatibility with other systems and ease of
integration into the existing setup can significantly impact the choice of the drive system.
8. Reliability and Maintenance:
Reliability Requirements: The required reliability and maintenance schedule affect the
choice of the drive system, especially in critical applications where downtime is critical.
9. Control Complexity:
Control System Complexity: The complexity of the control system required for the drive
(open-loop, closed-loop) may influence the choice, especially regarding ease of
implementation and troubleshooting.
10. Regulatory Compliance:
Regulatory Standards: Compliance with industry-specific standards and regulations might
dictate the choice of the drive system.
The choice of an electrical drive for a specific application is a multi-faceted decision that considers
various technical, operational, economic, and environmental factors. Understanding the load
requirements, motor type, control needs, energy efficiency, environmental conditions, and reliability
aspects is crucial in making an informed decision to ensure optimal performance and cost-
effectiveness for the intended application.
Draw & Explain with circuit diagram and waveform the operation of single phase
center tapped full wave controlled rectifier with R load.
Figure 1 shows the basic arrangement of a single-phase, center-tap controlled rectifier with a resistive
load. Phase control of both the positive and the negative halves of the AC supply is now possible, thus
increasing the DC voltage and reducing the ripple compared to those of half-wave rectifiers.
Figure 1: Full-wave Controlled Center-
tap Rectifier Circuit
The average value of the load voltage is twice
that given by equation 1
Explain the Speed-Torque conventions and Multi-quadrant Operation of Electric
drives with an example.
Speed-Torque conventions and multi-quadrant
operation in electric drives refer to the
relationship between the speed and torque of a
motor under different operating conditions. A
multi-quadrant operation involves the motor
functioning in various speed-torque modes
across different quadrants.
Speed-Torque Conventions:
1. Positive Speed, Positive Torque (Quadrant I):
Represents the conventional motoring operation where the motor rotates in the forward direction
(positive speed) and produces positive torque.
This quadrant is typical for many applications like pumps, fans, and conveyors.
2. Negative Speed, Positive Torque (Quadrant II):
Involves the motor rotating in the reverse direction (negative speed) but still producing positive
torque.
Occurs during dynamic braking or regenerative braking, where the motor absorbs energy from the
load and generates power back into the supply.
3. Negative Speed, Negative Torque (Quadrant III):
The motor rotates in the reverse direction (negative speed) and produces negative torque.
This quadrant represents plugging or reverse plugging operation, where the motor decelerates in the
reverse direction.
4. Positive Speed, Negative Torque (Quadrant IV):
Involves the motor rotating in the forward direction (positive speed) but producing negative torque.
This quadrant is uncommon and typically occurs in certain specialized applications.
Multi-Quadrant Operation:
A motor capable of multi-quadrant operation can function in various speed-torque modes across
different quadrants by controlling the applied voltage or current.
Example of Multi-Quadrant Operation:
Consider a DC motor controlled by a four-quadrant chopper drive:
Quadrant I (Forward Motoring):
The motor rotates in the forward direction and produces positive torque, as in normal motoring for
applications like conveyors.
Quadrant II (Regenerative Braking):
When the load overhauls the motor, causing it to rotate faster than the set speed, the motor acts as a
generator, producing power back into the supply (negative speed, positive torque).
Quadrant III (Dynamic Braking):
In scenarios where the motor needs to decelerate quickly, the chopper reverses the polarity of the
armature voltage to create negative torque while the motor still rotates forward, resulting in rapid
deceleration (negative speed, negative torque).
Quadrant IV (Reverse Motoring - Rarely Used):
If needed, the chopper can supply reverse polarity to the motor while maintaining the forward
rotation, producing negative torque for specific applications.
Draw full-wave controlled rectifier with R-L load with Freewheeling diode. Explain the
effect of freewheeling diode on the circuit with output voltage wave forms.
A freewheeling diode connected across the inductive load (as shown in figure below) modifies the
voltage and current waveforms of Figure below. As the load voltage tends to go negative, the FWD
becomes forward biased and starts conducting. Thus, the load voltage is clamped to zero volts. A
nearly constant load current is maintained by the freewheeling current through the diode.
Center tap Rectifier with RL load and FWD, Voltage
& Current Circuit
The freewheeling diode carries the load current during the delay period α when the SCRs are off.
Therefore, the current through the FWD (D) is given by:
Effects:
Protection from Voltage Spikes: The freewheeling diode prevents voltage spikes by providing a path
for the inductive current when the power supply is turned off.
Prevention of Component Damage: It safeguards semiconductor devices (like transistors or switches)
by redirecting the inductive energy and preventing damage due to high voltage transients.
The freewheeling diode's effect in an inductive load circuit is crucial in preventing damage caused by high
voltage spikes due to the inductor's back EMF when power is switched off. Its inclusion provides a safe
path for the inductive current to circulate and dissipate, thereby protecting the circuit components.
 Explain Class B type of Commutation of SCR with a neat circuit diagram and waveform. Explain with a neat circuit diagram operation of series inverter with waveforms. Draw a neat diagram and explain construction & working of A C Servomotor.
In SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) circuits, commutation refers to the process of turning off or AC servomotors are widely used in various industrial applications requiring precise control of speed,
stopping the conduction of the SCR after it has been triggered. Class B type of commutation involves position, or torque. They operate based on electromagnetic principles and are designed for high-
using an external circuit to interrupt the current flowing through the SCR to force it to turn off. performance and accuracy.
Class B Commutation Circuit for SCR: Construction of an AC Servomotor:
Circuit Diagram: Components:
The Class B commutation circuit typically includes an external commutating diode (also called an Series Inverter Circuit Stator: The stationary part of the motor consisting of a laminated core with slots to hold the stator
auxiliary or commutating diode) connected in reverse across the SCR along with a resistor in series windings.
with the diode. This circuit is often used to ensure rapid turn-off of the SCR. Rotor: The rotating part located inside the stator, typically composed of a squirrel-cage or wound
rotor.
Windings: The stator windings are energized with AC voltage to produce a rotating magnetic field.
Enclosure: Protects the motor's internal components and provides mechanical support.
The whole operation is divide into three modes: Shaft: Connected to the rotor, used to transfer mechanical power.
Mode-I ( T1 on and T2 off): In this mode we give firing pulse to thyristor T1 so, T1 get turned on and T2
thyristor is turned off initially. So, current flow from supply Vs…..T1……load……back to Vs.
The nature of the load current is alternating due to under damped circuit. So, this time capacitor (C)
start charging gradually from -Vs to its max voltage. This time inductor (L) also get charge. When the
load current becomes maximum the voltage across capacitor becomes + Vs. When the load current
becomes zero at point a the voltage across capacitor becomes +2Vs. Then the load current becomes
zero the thyristor T1 automatically turns off at point a.
Mode- II (T1 and T2 both off): This time thyristor T1 turns off because the load current becomes zero
from point a to b. In this time duration The thyristor T1 and T2 are turned off and voltage across
capacitor becomes equal to +2 Vs.
Mode III (T1 off and T2 on): In this mode we give firing pulse to thyristor T2. So, T2 get turned on. In
this time capacitor start discharging its energy from +2Vs to – Vs through thyristor T2 and R – L circuit
. Due to capacitor discharging reverse current flow across the load. Now at point C thyristor T2 turns
off automatically due to load current becomes zero. The thyristor T2 turns off during point C to D and
thyristor T1 again turns on. In this way cycle repeat.
Now, we see in the waveform the time duration ab and cd is called as dead zone. Working Principle of an AC Servomotor:
Operation Similar to Induction Motor:
AC servomotors typically operate on the same principles as induction motors.
Voltage and current Wave form of Series
The stator is energized with three-phase AC voltage, creating a rotating magnetic field.
Inverter 1) Ig1 is the gate pulse of thyristor T1
Rotating Magnetic Field:
2) Ig2 is the gate pulse of thyristor T2 3) Io
Working Principle: When the AC power is supplied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is created.
(output current) 4) Vc (capacitor voltage) 5)
During Conduction (Forward Bias): This rotating magnetic field induces currents in the rotor, generating its own magnetic field.
VL (Load voltage)
When the SCR is conducting, current flows from the anode to the cathode through the SCR. Interaction Between Fields:
The commutating diode (D) is reverse-biased in this state, allowing negligible current to flow through it. The interaction between the rotating magnetic field in the stator and the induced magnetic field in
Turn-off (Commuation): the rotor causes the rotor to rotate.
To turn off the SCR, the gate current is cut off, and a negative voltage pulse is applied to the gate. The rotation of the rotor depends on the frequency and amplitude of the AC power supplied to the
Application of Series Inverter
This makes the SCR reverse-biased and stops the gate current. stator windings.
The voltage across the SCR reverses, but the commutating diode (D) becomes forward-biased. Feedback System:
The diode provides a low-impedance path for the stored charge in the SCR to flow, helping to quickly Series Inverter is basically used in high
AC servomotors are usually equipped with feedback devices such as encoders or resolvers.
reduce the anode-cathode voltage and extinguish the SCR's conduction. frequency applications (200 Hz to 100
These devices provide feedback on the motor's speed, position, or angle to a controller, enabling
Waveform: KHz) because it generate high
precise control and adjustments.
frequency sinusoidal waveform.
Applications of AC Servomotors:
Class B commutation circuits in SCR applications use a commutating diode to help rapidly turn off
CNC machinery
the SCR by providing a low-impedance path for the stored charge when the SCR needs to stop It is used in Induction heating.
Robotics
conducting. This method ensures quick and reliable turn-off, enabling efficient control of the SCR's For Fluorescent lighting.
Industrial automation
conduction. Used in Sonar transmitter.
Aerospace systems
Used in Ultrasonic generator.
Printing machines
Conveyor systems
Draw a neat circuit diagram for a current source inverter fed Induction Motor Drive. Explain construction and working of permanent magnet stepper motor with neat diagram. What are the main factors which decide the choice of electrical drive for a given application?
A permanent magnet stepper motor is a type of
stepper motor that uses permanent magnets in The selection of an electrical drive for a specific application involves considering various
the rotor assembly. It operates based on the factors to ensure optimal performance, efficiency, and compatibility. Here are the main factors
attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles, that influence the choice of an electrical drive for a given application:
allowing precise control of angular rotation. 1. Load Characteristics:
Advantages of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors:
Speed-Torque Requirements: The required speed and torque characteristics of the load
Precise Positioning: Offers precise control over
strongly influence the type of drive needed.
angular movement.
Starting Torque: Some applications require high starting torque, influencing the choice of the
No Feedback Required: Doesn't require feedback
drive system.
devices for position sensing in many applications.
2. Type of Motor:
High Torque at Low Speeds: Provides significant
holding torque, even at low speeds. AC or DC Motor: Depending on the application requirements, the choice between AC and DC
Applications: motors is crucial. AC motors (induction, synchronous) are preferred for many industrial
Printers applications due to their robustness and reliability.
CNC machines Motor Size and Power Rating: Consider the required power output and physical size of the
Robotics motor needed for the application.
Positioning systems 3. Control Requirements:
Automated equipment Speed Control: Some applications require precise speed control, influencing the choice of the
Here's an explanation of its construction and working principle: drive system and its control mechanism.
Torque Control: Certain applications demand accurate torque control, affecting the selection of
Construction of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:
the drive system.
1. Rotor:
The rotor assembly contains permanent magnets arranged in a specific pattern, typically with north 4. Efficiency and Energy Consumption:
and south poles in alternating positions. Energy Efficiency: Consideration of the drive system's efficiency and its impact on energy
The number of poles on the rotor determines the motor's step angle. consumption is vital, especially for applications with high energy demands.
2. Stator: 5. Environmental Conditions:
The stator contains a series of coils wound in groups, often with teeth or poles aligned to match the Operating Environment: Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust, and
rotor's magnet arrangement. vibration levels can influence the choice of the drive system.
Each coil is energized in sequence to generate a magnetic field and interact with the permanent 6. Cost Consideration:
magnets on the rotor. Initial Cost vs. Operating Cost: Balancing initial investment cost with long-term operating costs,
3. Bearings and Shaft: including maintenance and energy consumption, is crucial.
The rotor and stator assemblies are mounted on bearings within the motor housing. 7. System Integration:
The motor's shaft extends from the rotor and transfers the rotational motion to the external Compatibility with Existing Systems: Compatibility with other systems and ease of integration
mechanism. into the existing setup can significantly impact the choice of the drive system.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:
8. Reliability and Maintenance:
Operation Based on Poles Interaction:
Reliability Requirements: The required reliability and maintenance schedule affect the choice
The motor operates by energizing the stator coils in a specific sequence to create a magnetic field.
The permanent magnets in the rotor interact with the changing magnetic field produced by the stator of the drive system, especially in critical applications where downtime is critical.
coils. 9. Control Complexity:
Step Movement: Control System Complexity: The complexity of the control system required for the drive (open-
As the stator coils are sequentially energized, the rotor moves incrementally in discrete steps. loop, closed-loop) may influence the choice, especially regarding ease of implementation and
Each step corresponds to a specific angular rotation, known as the step angle, determined by the troubleshooting.
number of poles in the rotor and stator. 10. Regulatory Compliance:
Full Step and Half Step Modes: Regulatory Standards: Compliance with industry-specific standards and regulations might
In full-step mode, the rotor moves one step per stator excitation. dictate the choice of the drive system.
In half-step mode, the rotor moves half a step per stator excitation, providing finer resolution and
smoother motion at the cost of reduced torque. The choice of an electrical drive for a specific application is a multi-faceted decision that considers
Controlled by Sequencing Coils: various technical, operational, economic, and environmental factors. Understanding the load
To control the motor, a controller or driver circuit sends electrical pulses to the stator coils in a requirements, motor type, control needs, energy efficiency, environmental conditions, and reliability
specific sequence. aspects is crucial in making an informed decision to ensure optimal performance and cost-
The sequence of energization determines the direction and number of steps the motor rotates. effectiveness for the intended application.
Draw and explain characteristics of D C Series & D C shunt Motors.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
The shunt motors are the constant flux machines i.e. their magnetic flux remains constant because
their field winding is directly connected across the supply voltage which is assumed to be constant.
Torque and Armature Current Characteristics
The armature torque in a DC motor is directly proportional to the flux and the armature current, i.e.,
In case of a shunt motor, the flux is also constant. Therefore,
Characteristics of DC Series Motor
In a DC series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature and hence carries the
full armature current. When the load on shaft of the motor is increased, the armature current also
increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the increase in the armature current and
vice-versa.
Torque and Armature Current Characteristics
In a DC motor,
Explain speed control of D C motor using chopper – two quadrant method. Explain continuous current operation with neat waveforms for D C Drives.
Speed control of a DC motor using a chopper in the two-quadrant method allows controlling the Continuous current operation in DC drives refers to a mode where the current flowing through the
motor's speed in both forward motoring and regenerative braking modes. This method involves using motor remains relatively constant during normal operation. It involves controlling the motor speed
a chopper circuit to regulate the average voltage applied to the motor, controlling its speed in both while ensuring a continuous and steady flow of current through the armature windings. Here is an
directions within a limited range. explanation along with simplified waveforms:
Two-Quadrant Operation: Continuous Current Operation:
In the context of DC motor speed control using a chopper, two-quadrant operation refers to Steady State Current:
controlling the motor in both the forward and reverse directions while using the chopper for speed In continuous current operation, the motor operates within a steady-state condition where the
regulation and dynamic braking. armature current remains nearly constant.
Chopper Circuit for Two-Quadrant Speed Control: Controlled Armature Voltage:
The chopper circuit used in the two-quadrant speed control method involves bidirectional switches The armature voltage is controlled using methods like a controlled rectifier or a chopper circuit to
(usually IGBTs) that can control the voltage and direction of the motor. This circuit allows the motor regulate the motor speed.
to operate in both forward motoring and regenerative braking modes. Neat Waveforms for Continuous Current Operation:
Operation in Two Quadrants:
Forward Motoring (Quadrant I):
The chopper operates in PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) mode to provide a variable DC voltage to the
motor in the forward direction, controlling speed in the positive range.
Regenerative Braking (Quadrant IV):
When the motor needs to decelerate in the forward direction, the chopper operates in PWM mode
with reverse polarity.
This causes the motor to act as a generator, converting mechanical energy back into electrical
energy, which is fed back into the power supply.
Control Mechanism:
Chopper Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
The chopper circuit regulates the average voltage applied to the motor by controlling the on-off time
of the switches in the circuit.
By adjusting the duty cycle of the chopper, the effective voltage applied to the motor is varied,
thereby controlling its speed.
Bidirectional Switching:
The bidirectional switches control the direction of the motor by allowing the current to flow in either
direction through the motor.
Block Representation of Chopper circuit used to control rotation of DC Motor

Timing Diagram of Signals at various stages of the chopper circuit

Explain Class A, Class B, class C, class D, class E and Class F type of

Commutation of SCR with a neat circuit diagram and waveform.
Explain Class A type of Commutation of SCR with a neat circuit diagram and waveform.
It is termed as resonant commutation. Resonant commutation means the circuit using resistor,
inductance, and capacitance. The SCR, inductance(L), capacitance(c) is connected parallel into
the source voltage (Edc). The load resistor RL connected parallel to circuit capacitor.
In terms of commutation can achieved, the forward current flow through the thyristor is
decreased to less but the limit of holding current of the thyristor. this is termed as “current
commutation”

Class A commutation of an SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) involves natural commutation or the
process of turning off the SCR without the aid of external circuits or components. It relies on the
natural reversal of current or voltage conditions to extinguish the SCR's conduction.
Class A Commutation Principle:
Forward Conduction:
During forward conduction, the SCR remains in the on-state, conducting current from the anode to
the cathode when triggered by the gate signal.
Natural Turn-off:
When the anode current drops below the holding current level, the SCR will naturally turn off during
the next half-cycle of the AC supply.
AC Power Reversal:
For an SCR connected in an AC circuit, the natural turn-off occurs at the zero-crossing point of the AC
supply when the voltage reverses polarity.
Reversal of Anode-Cathode Voltage:
As the AC voltage reverses polarity, the anode becomes negative concerning the cathode, reversing
the bias across the SCR.
Recovery Time:
The SCR requires a certain recovery time, known as the reverse recovery time, to regain its blocking
capability after the voltage reverses. During this time, the SCR remains non-conducting.
Turn-off without External Components:
Class A commutation does not involve external commutating components like diodes or capacitors.
Instead, it relies on the natural reversal of voltage or current conditions.