1

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
📌Derived from a greek word called ATOMOS meaning indivisible.
📌Dalton was one of the scientist that discovered atoms giving some postulates and that was
some in 1808 though dey were later discarded but he is still the father of atoms

The thories are

1. Atoms are indivisible but then people like chadwick thompson and others discovered PEN

 Electron - J.j Thompson

 Neutron - James Chadwick 1932

2. Atoms can neither be created or destroyed but was discarded cause of the man that
discovered Radioactivity, Henri benquerel

3. Atoms of an element are all alike in all respect and differs from all other element, was
discarded by isotopy

4. When atoms combine they do so in simple ratio but was discarded when we had organic
chemistry

And the one that is acceptable till now is

5. All changes are from the separation and combination of atoms

Later we came to see modifications helping John Dalton who was then father of atomicity

 Law of conversation of mass from the first one

 The second one is the law of definite proportions

 Third one to the law of reciprocal proportions

📌Contribution of faraday and davie is that they have us the electrical nature of atoms. Coming
to the conclusion that there is high pd and low pressure making it to be electrified. While for
ideal gas is low pressure and high temp.

📌J.J Thompson contributed using cathode ray experiment in 1987 bringing us electrons
And then we have the characteristics of cathode ray

Cathode ray

2
Has a constant value for charge to mass ratio

Attract positive charge or negative

Move in a straight line

Possess kinetic and electric energy

🔖And this man also postulated some therios e.g watermelon model of atoms
Plumb pudding model

🔖Electron cloud model is the defect of j.j Thompson which made all useless..1.6×10–¹9
📌R.A Millikan used oil drop experiment discovering the charge of electron and using that we
got the charge of electrons which we all know as 9.11*10-³¹kg

📌Ernest Rutherford discovered proton using canal experiment, gold foil experiment or alpha
scattering experiments in and also called the nuclear model or planetary model in 1911

📌James Chadwick discovered Neutron in 1932

📌Henry mosley contribution is the atomic number meaning he used the x-ray diffraction
techniques and functions as atomic numbers

 SNE - stoney named electron

 Berzellius gave symbols in 1814

📌Eugene Goldstein worked on the canal ray experiment using the hydrogen ion
But J.J Thompson won the nobel prize

QUANTUM NUMBERS

3
1. Principal quantum number - It helps to give energy level electronic she'll that is number of
shell

 Energy level

 Shell

We have the K L M N O shell making O the biggest shell and can be gotten from 2n²..

2. Subsidiary or Azimuthal or Secondary quantum number - it can function as us getting the

shape and will also let us know the orbital

 S - Spherical

 P - Dumbell

 D - Double dumbell

 F - Complex

3. Magnetic quantum number - it gives us degeneration or the spatial orientation

Medical DoctorS
 M - Magnetic

 D - Degeneracy

 S - Spatial orientation

4. Spin quantum number will give us the direction

🌹Inside the nucleus of an atom we have proton and neutron and we call both of them
NUCLEONS

🌹The sum of proton and neutron gives us mass number

 Proton is positive

 Electron is negative

 Neutron is neutral

And out of the 3 the most active and heaviest is NEUTRON though they differ by a very small
number making electron the lightest. 1/1840 this for finding the ratio

4
Laws that govern the filling of electron

1. Aubauf principle - it says that you fill in increasing energy level following the 1s2 2s2 way

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

2. Pauli exclusion principle - it says No two electrons can have the same value for the four
quantum numbers

3. Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity - it states that in filling of electrons to degenerate orbital,
electron enters singly first before pairing takes place

5
 PERIODIC TABLE

First man to classify elements is Antony Lavoisier and using metals and non metals and we
know them using their various valency

📌Johannes Dobrena this my father here have us the law of triads in 1823 saying if we have li
Na K but now we just called him foolish cause it's too bulky even though he is called father. But
no longer grandfather😂😂

📌Newlands gave us the law of octaves saying after 8 stuffs we repeat some certain trends
📌Dimitri Mendeleev gave us the current periodic table together with luther meyer by
constructing the modern day periodic table together and they predicted that so many elements
will be discovered in the future and they were absolutely correct using the mass number but
they had fault somewhere when he used atomica weight instead of ATOMIC number and Henry
Mosely corrected them

📌Rongten discovered x ray

Common names for the groups

 Group 1- Alkali metals

 Group 2 - Alkali earth metals

 Group 3 - Icosagens

 Group 4 - Crystallogens

 Group 5 - Pnictogens

 Group 6 - Chalcogens

 Group 7 - Halogens

 Group 8 - Aerogens or noble gases

Sibogeons was for Sg

Now to the mnemonics for periodic table

Group 1

6
  L lithium

 N sodium

 K pottasion

 Rubidium

 Caesium

 Francium

RCF for the last three

Group 2

 Magnesium

 Strotium

 Barium

 Radium

STROBARAD for the last three

Group 3

 Boron

 Aluminum

 Galoum

 Indium

 Talium for group 3

BAGIT

Group 4

 Carbon

 Silicon

 Germanium

 Tin

7
  Lead

GT Lead for the last three

Group 5

 No - Nitrogen

 Problem - phosphorus

 At - Antimony

 All - Arsenic

 Bayo - Bismuth

Group 6

 Beryllium

 Only - Oxygen

 Serious - Sulphur

 Student - Selenium

 Think - Telenium

 Properly - polonium

📌The only metal found in group 6 is called polonium

📌And the member of group 6 that can form multiple bond is oxygen
📌Group 6 also called chalcogens cause they can form special ores with copper
📌Halogens mean salt former
 S block is group 1 and 2

 P block is group 3 to 8 or 0

 D block is group 2 and 3

 F block is group is 4 and 5

And we have inner transition metal called Lanthanides and Actinides found in f block and period
6 and the first element is Lanthanum

8
📌We can group 8 element group 8 cause the outermost electron is 8 and we call them group 0
is cause of 0 reactivity

Number of elements in

Period 1 is 2

Period 2 is 8

Period 3 is 8

Period 4 is 18

Period 5 is 18

Period 6 is 32

Period 7 is 32

🔖Period is horizontal
🔖 Group is vertical
🌹Period has the same number of electronic shell while group have the same number of
valence electron named

ELECTRON TRENDS

DAMI = I²E²

Decrease across the period

Atomic radius

Metallicity or electropositivitu

Ionic radius

Increase across the period

Ionization energy

Electronegativity

Electrom affinity

📌Elements in tbe same groups are called CONGENERS

Energetics and reaction kinetics

9
Energetics is from the word called electrodynamics

We will be knowing enthalpy entropy and gibbs free energy

🔖Enthalpy is heat content ΔH

📌To have a standard enthalpy we must have
 A temperature of 25°c or 298k

 Concentration must be 1 mole per dm ³

 State of matter must be constant

 Stable physical properties

🔖Endothermic is positive. Examples are:

 Decomposition reaction

 Dissolution of all acidic subtance

 Dissolution of neutral substance

DDD

🔖Exothermic is negative. Examples are:

 Neutaluzatiion reaction are exothermic

 Combustion

 Disolution of alkakine substances

 Conc h2so4 is diluted

NCDC

🔖Nacl is endothermic cause it's neutral

🔖NaoH is exothermic cause it's alkaline
Entropy of a reaction are affected by:

10
🌹Temperature: The higher the temperature the higher the entropy
🌹State of matter: Solid to liquid to gas for the increasing order of entropy
 Sublimation occurs in increasing entropy

 Condensation occurs in decreasing

 Melting occurs in increasing

Gibbs free is the energy available to do work

📌The second law of thermodynamics states that spontaneous process occur if and only if
there is an increase in d entropy of d system and surrounding

For reactions to be spontaneous

 The gibbs free energy must be negative

 The entropy must be positive

🌹In Endothermic reaction, product is greater but in exothermic the reactant is greater
Product is in the right and vice versa

 Blue line stands for activation energy

 Red stands for the activation energy in the reverse rxn

 Green stands for the enthalpy change

 Black stands for activation complex

🌹Bond energy is peculiar to covalent compounds and we have two types called bond
dissociation which will be endothermic it Is also called bond breaking and bond formation
energy will be exothermic and are also spontaneous

🌹Lattice energy is peculiar to Ionic compounds and it also keeps members of a crystal lattice
together .

📌When lattice energy is greater than hydration it is endothermic and vice versa

11
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
We have three people that defined an acid

 Arrhenius

 Bronsted Lowry

 Lewis

📌When hydrogen ion is dissolved in water it gives h3o+ also called hydroxonium ion which Is
the only positive ion

Classes of acid

1. Organic acid are ones that occur naturally.

 Lactic acid from milk

 Capric acid from Goat

 Butiric acid from butter

 Stearic acid from animal fat

 Citric from lime

 Formic acid or methanoic acid from ants

 Absoorbic acid from citrus

Examples of inorganic acids Hcl and the likes

Strongest acid is pecloric acid hclo4

Strong acid ionizes completely in water and examples are hcl and the likes

Weak acids ionizes partially in water eg methqanoic acid and the likes

Hi is greater than HF cause the dissociation 1111111111111 is higher in hi than hf

HI > HBr > HCl > HF

12
Weak acids ionizes partially

An acid with 1000cm3 of acid and 0cm3 of water,is conc

True or false

Physical properties of acid

Sour taste

Blue litmus red

Conc are corrosive

Ph less than 7

Methyl orange red

Chemical properties

Neutaluzatiion rxn. Water is the constant product

React with co3 salt to liberate co2

React with metals to liberate hydrogen gas

Pls

Senior

Call

Matthew

And

Zacheeus

In

The

Laboratory

Hydrogen

Can

Make

13
Silver

Good

Mg reacts with hot water

Calcium also hot water while iron and zinc reacts with steam and red hot and this must be done
for it to be accelerated

Hcl na

C chemical

R rust

AP pickling removal of oxide from metals

R- REFINERY

I- industry

D -dehydratiin

E -electroplsting

On H2so4

I for industry

f fertilizer

e explosives

HNO3

Sabatiers reaction 🔥🔥
Uses of boric acid and it's just called hydrogen borate

B boron

M mild

A antiseptic

G germicide

Function of citric acid ..

Fir making fruit juice

14
Function of fatty acids

Fir making soaps

Vinegar is from vinegar

T tartaric acid

B baking soda

H health salt

Bases

Physical properties

Bitter taste

Slippery touch

Ph above 7

Turn red litmus blue

Strong electrolyte

Conc form are corrosive

Bases and alkaline differ cause alkali are bases that are soluble e.g NaoH koh and ammonia

We also classify them as strong bases and weak bases

Chemical properties

Reacts with acid to form salt and water

Reacts with ammonium salt to liberate ammonia

Indocatorss

For litmus

Red in acid

Blue I'm base

15
Purple in neutral

Phenopnetalein

Colourless in acid

Pink in alkaline

Colourless in neutral

Methyl orange

Red in acid

Yellow in base

Orange in neutral

Phenopnetalein is for basic solution

Methyl orange for acidic solution

But strong acid strong base for any indicators

Weak acid weak base no indicators

Types of salt

Normal. Complete neutaluzatiion eg nacl kcl etc

Double.. Alum is an example potash alum to be precise and they are called alum cause they
always contain aluminum. Double salts usually have 2 cations

Acidic- partial neutaluzatiion with acids. A tribasic acid can form 2 types of salts nite that a
dibasic will form 1 salt while a tribasic will form 3

Basic. Na2co3 is an example

Complex. Copper2 tetramineion Cu(NH3)2

The bond present in a complex salt is a dative bond.

An example of binary salt is NACL and a binary salt is any salt that has 2 compounds and the
same definition for binary acids

16
 REACTION KINETICS

Reaction Rate

Reaction mechanism and reaction rate

🌹Some reaction like rusting oxidation of diamonds are very slow

Fast reactions are also called instateneous reactions

And it is also known as Change in concentration/time

Example

Initial conc -140 moldm-³

Final conc- 20moldm³

Time - 2 min(2*60=120)

Rate = 140-20/120

Rate = 1 moldm-³S-¹

Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions

 Nature of reactants-Ionic acids will have a fast reaction than covalent and gases will
have a faster reaction rate than others

 Surface area of reactants-powder will react more faster than marble salt cause of a large
surface reaction and the rxn will be very fast at the start of a rxn

 Pressure/concentration- a substance of high conc will react faster than the one of low
conc and vice versa

 Temperature- Temp goes higher the rate increases

 Sunlight - rxn that requires light are photogenic or photochemical rxns and it maks some
rxns faster. Eg in photographic things

17
  Catalyst-catalyst lowers activation energy

🌹MnO2 is for oxygen

🔖In contact process we use V2O5
🔖In sabatias rxn we use nickel
📌In esterification we use h2so4 and h2so4 also serves as dehydration agent
 Conversion of starch to maltose is diastase

 From maltose to glucose is maltase

 Fermentation is to zymase and it is gotten from yeast

18
 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

🌹Marie Currie is the first person to get a nobel prize in both physics and chemistry
Radioactive couples😂😂. But what they discovered later killed them😂

We have both

 Natural radioactive elements

 Artificial radioactive elements

Natural decomposes normally and vice versa 😂

📌Elements that are greater than 83 (bismuth)are radioactive is naturally radioactive and the
ones lesser are artificial and they have unstable nuclei

🔖The half life of tritium

🔖Alpha has the highest power
🔖Beta has d highest penetration power
 And the likes when doing so

 Atomic number of electrons is -1

 Fir positron is +1 and they both have d same

 The mass number is zero

🌹We use neutron proton ratio to determine the stability ratio of an electron once the value is
not near 1 it is unstable

Difference between nuclear fusion and fission

Nuclear fusion is when there is nearly equal masses and they fuse together and examples of
natural occurrence is helium and during hydrogen bomb.

Uses of Nuclear Chemistry

19
 🔖The radioactive isotope for curing cancer is radon or cobalt 60
🔖Cancer of the throid gland is cured by iodine 131
🔖For welding is cobalt 60
🔖Cancer for phosphorus 32 leukaemia for example

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Strong electrolyte are synonymous to acid bases and salt same as weak

Difference btw conductors and electrolytes

📌Conductors are ways solids or whenelectrolytes are liquid

📌Conductors Are usually elements while the later is a. Compounds
📌Conductors don't decompose while electrolytes does
📌Insulators are solids while.non electrolytes are liquid
Examples of Electrolytic cells are down cell diaphragm cell etc

And we use holfam in ethe electrolysis of water

Another name for electrolytic cell is voltmeter but for electrochemical cell is 3igher votaic or
galvanic cell

🌹Down cell is for extraction of sodium DNa

🌹Diaphragm cell is used for extraction of NAOH
* The anode of down cell is carbon while that if cathode is iron

FeCCAd

20
In aluminum the cathode is steel but for anode is carbon SCAN TGE HALL

And the likes lime that

Examples of electrochemical cell are electric heel Daniel cell leclanche cell and the likes like that

Primary and secondary cell

🔖Primary examples are daniel and leclanche cell

🔖Daniel Couzin Learnt Camphor's Zinger
🔖The anode in primary cel is always zinc whuil cathode is cropper land carbon respectively
The defects of primary cells are local action and polarization

🌹Another name of primary cell is simple cells

Local action affects the anode

📌We reduce local action with manganese4oxide

📌We reduce polarization by using depolarizers
The anode of lead acid is anode lead oxide with the electrolyte being h2so4

Alkaline accumulator for nickel and iron

Similarities

 CRAO

 REDOX

21