Modal verbs or modal auxillary verbs

- Are special verbs which behave irregularly in English

- Gives additional information about the function of the main verb that follows them
- May show Permitting, prohibiting. Or obligation

MODAL VERBS OF PERMISSION ( CAN, COULD, MAY)

- Can be used to give or ask permission
- Can, May, and Could are example of modal verbs, there is no “s” with
he/she/it/any singular subject
MAY
- Most formal modal verb used to give permission or to state that someone has
permission
- Also used to ask permission
CAN
- Least formal modal verb used to ask permission
- Also used for ability and to give permission
COULD
- Used to ask for permission but less formal than May but more formal than Can
- Cannot be used to give permission

MODAL VERBS OF OBLIGATION (MUST, HAVE TO, SHOULD, OUGHT TO)

- To express a necessity of something you have to do or an obligation

MUST (INTERNAL OBLIGATION)

The speaker thinks it is necessary
- Basic and the most direct way of saying that something is compulsory
- No choice but to do(or not to do)
- Present form to describe a general or permanent obligation or obligation in the near
future
- When orders are general and official such as notices and documents must is usually
used (written rules and instructions)
- Also used for questions but rarely used
Have to (EXTERNAL OBLIGATION)
Another person thinks it is necessary
- Similar to must but is more flexible, very commonly used
- Past, Present, and the future
- “Has to” is used when the subject is SINGULAR and in present tense
- Facts not opinions
SHOULD
- Personal obligation or moral obligation
- Used to give or express opinions
- Used to indicate an advice or the best suggestion
- More common
OUGHT TO
- Same use with should but is more formal
- For rules, regulations, and laws

MODAL VERBS FOR PROHIBITION (CAN’T, MAY NOT, MUST NOT)

- Opposite of giving permission
CAN’T
- Most common way to prohibit something
- Not so formal compare with must not and may not
- To show inability and prohibition
- Against the rules, especially when the speaker didnt make the rules

MAY NOT
- Formal way to prohibit something
- Because may is the most formal, may not will be often seen in writing

MUST NOT
- Not allowed, particularly used, when the prohibition comes from the speaker
- Prohibited and forbidden due to real laws, regulations or personal obligations
- SUBJECTIVE- opinion of the speaker
- OBJECTIVE- Due to an external factor such as a rule, law, or regulation

LITERATURE
- Body of artistic writing on any subject of a particular notionby people of a certain period
of time usually characterized by BEAUTY OF EXPRESSIONS, by form and by
universality
- Expressions of peoples life, thought, hope, emotions, feelings, and aspirations
- Refers to the french phrase “Belle Lettres” which means “beautiful writing”
- Modified form of a Latin word ‘Literra, litteratura, or Litteratus’ that means ‘writing formes
with letters’
- ‘Mirror of society’, society is the only subject matter of literature
EFFECTS OF LITERATURE ON A SOCIETY
PLATO
- The one who started the idea of write dialogue
- A moralist, did not approve of poetry because he deemed it immoral, considered it based
on false ideas whereas the basis of philosophy be censored from adults and children for
fear of lasting detrimental consequences
ARISTOTLE
- Considers literature of all kinds to be an important part of childrens upbringing
- “Poetry takes us closer to reality”

APPROACHES TO LITERATURE(Literary Approaches)

Act as LENSES critics usd to view and talk about literature, art, and culture

- THE WORK AND THE WORLD IT IMITATES - historical and social circumstances
- THE WORK AND ITS AUTHOR- Biography/autobiography, Author-focused
- THE WORK AND OTHER WORKS- structurazation/comparative analysis
- SCHEMATA - background knowldege
- THE WORK AND ITS READER- Reader response, reader-focused
- THE WORK IN ITSELF- Form, literary elements, style of writing, literary devices,
structure

BENEFITS OF LITERARY CRITICISM/APPROACHES

1. LITERARY CRITICISM EXPANDS YOUR WORLDVIEW
2. HELPS YOU BETTER UNDERSTAND LITERATURE
3. CREATES OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEW STYLES OF WRITING

PROSE
- Came from the latin words “Prosa Oratis” meaning “direct speech”
- Ordinary and uses without metric structure
- Aim “to get the message across
NON-FICTION
- Factual based, Real life events
- Subjective, familiar in tone
- Purpose to info
- Autobiography/biography
- History
- News/essay/Diary
- Journalism and political work
- Religous writings
- Philosophical
- Anecdote
FICTION
- Imaginary
- Creative in style
- Purpose to entertain
- Novels
- Short story
- Fable (animals, inanimate objects)
- Parables (moral story)
- Myths/Legends
POETRY
- From latin words “POEMA” meaning “something composed and created
- Follows a rhythmical pattern or metrical form and often uses figurative language
Narrative Poetry
- Combines storytelling elements with poetic elements
- Written in verse
- Focuses more on the plot or the series of events
- Earliest poetry made was either spoken, chnted, rectified, or sung
- Epic, Ballad, Verse
Lyric poetry
- Focuses on presenting thoughts, feelings, and emotions
Odes - ceremonies, provisioning and glamorizing an event or individual
Elegy - Serious reflection, lamentation for the dead
Sonnet - 14 line poem written by a iambic pentameter
- Shakesperian/william shakespeare
- Spenserian/edward spencer
- Petrarchan/italian
DRAMA
- From the greek “Gran” meaning “to do”
- A literary form that is written(closet drama) or verse and is solely intended to be
performed on stage

FORMS OF DRAMA
1. TRADEGY
2. COMEDY
3. FARCE
4. SATIRE

COMMUNICATIVE STYLES
- According to MARTIN JOOS(1976), a linguis and german professor, speech style here
means the form of language that the speaker uses which characterized by the degree of
formality

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1. To control/regulate
2. To socialize
3. To motivate
4. To give/get information
5. To express emotions

Frozen(Fixed speech)
- It is the most formal commuication style and is typically employed during ceremonies
and events of respect. It is also used to express doubt, boredom, or prejudice. In a very
formal situation, frozen speech is typically used and doesn't require audience
participation. It is the most formal manner of communication under polite circumstances.
- Pledges, anthems, bible verses, sacraments
Formal(Straightforward speeches)
- The speaker avoids using slang terminologies, have been prepared beforehand
- Complex structure and noun phrase are well structured
- Mostly seen in writing than speaking
- Announcemeents, welcome addresses, Academic, Scientific and technical publications
Consultative (third level of language)
- Basically unplanned speech
- Uses the participation and feedback of the listener
- Semi-formal communication, sentences end to be shorter and spontaneous
- Formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech
- Regular classroom discussion, student-professor, doctor-patient
Casual(informal)
- :anguage used among and between friends
- Word are general, rather than technical. May include more slangs and colloquialisms
- Used in conversation between insiders who have something to share or have shared
background information but dont have close relations
- Improvised and not prepared ahead of time
- Uses slangs, profanity, and unconventional English words
- Phone calls, classmates, co-workers, everyday conversation with friends
Intimate
- For very close relationships like couples, family, and best friends
- Marked by various degrees of implicitness because of intimacy between the speaker and
listener
- High incidence of significant nonverbal communication such as GETURES, FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS, EYE CONTACT, etc
- Couple talking about their future plans, family sharing ideas
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTIMATE STYLE
1. Addressee
2. Extraction
3. Jargon
4. Close friend relationship
5. Family
6. Relatonship

JARGON
- Specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity
- The context is usually a particular occupation
COLLOQUIALISM
- Use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech
- Specific to only a dialect
- Words or phrases that appear in many dialects but have unique meaning in certain
dialects
- Sort of phrases and words such as unique contractions
- Words that ma be considered offensive and idioms
SLANG
- Unique expressions created by a specific culture or social group
CONDITIONALS
- Are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations and their
consequences, contains a conditional clause(or the if-clause) and the consequences
- Is the if clause is the first clause, use a comma

1. Zero Conditionals (If + Present simple, …present simple)

- Real conditions, results that are always the same(past/present/future)
- Used when the result will always happen
- Result of the ‘if clause’ is always the main clause
- The ‘if’ is replaced by ‘when’ once the speaker is sure about the condition

Condition Result

If the wind blows, the tree move The tree move if the wind blows

If you push this button, the lights come on The lights come on if you push this button

Imperatives - commands and request

- When you get home, call me
- If john calls, dont answer the phone
2.