Unit 1: Introduction of Irrigation

Definition of Irrigation:
It is the process of supplying water artificially to the crops for its growth when
there is no enough or sufficient water available from natural rain fall.

Functions of Irrigation:
1. fulfills the water requirement of crop.
2. reliable and continuous supply of water.
3. continuous cropping
4. maintaining water to the root zone.

Necessity of Irrigation:
Irrigation is needed due to following reasons:
1. Inadequate (insufficient) rainfall
2. uneven or not uniformly distributed rainfall over an area
3. for continuous cropping
4. increasing food production
5. growth of perennial crops
6. most of the population depend on agriculture

Advantages of Irrigation:
 increase in food production
 elimination of mixed cropping
 continuous cropping
 prosperity of farmer, economic growth of nation, development of country
 reliable system to fulfill requirement of crop
 generation of small hydropower
 domestic water supply for animals, washing clothes etc.
 transportation facility of both roadway and waterway
 afforestation
 increase in land value

Disadvantages of Irrigation:
 seepage of fertilizer
 pollution of underground water
 formation of marshy land in cold region
 water logging due to over irritation
 salinity

Sources of water:
 Water bodies having sufficient quantity of water that can be used for irrigation.
 Two types of sources: primary source (rainfall),
secondary source of water: surface source (river, lake, pond etc.) and sub-
surface source ( well, tube well, boring etc.)

GCA (Gross commanded area):

GCA is defined as the total area that can be irrigated. It includes cultivable as well as uncultivable
land. It includes pond, road, village, playground, farm etc.

CCA (Cultivable or Culturable commanded area):

It is the part of GCA in which cultivation and cropping is possible. It includes pasture land
(grassed), fallow land (unseeded/vacant) that can be cultivated.
Generally, CCA is taken as 80% of GCA.
Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 1
NCA(Net commanded area):
The area of CCA that is under the command of available water or that can be irrigated by
available discharge in a canal is called NCA.

Exercises:
1. What do you mean by irrigation?
2. Define GCA.
3. Introduce CCA.
4. Why irrigation is needed? State the factors affecting necessity of irrigation.
5. Write full forms of GCA, CCA, NCA.
6. State the factors affecting necessity of irrigation. [SLC2072]
Short questions:
1. Write advantages of irrigation.
2. Compare GCA and NCA.
3. What are the sources of irrigation? Which sources are mostly used in Nepal? Why? [SLC2072]
4. What are the necessity of irrigation?

Unit 2: Water Requirement

Crop season:
Crop season is the time period during which a crop is sown and completely matured.
There are mainly 3 types of crop season:
1. Kharif crop season
2. Rabi crop season
3. Perennial crop season

Kharif crop season:

The crops in Kharif season are sown in June-July and harvested in Oct-Nov. Although this time
period may vary from place to place. The crops sown in this season are called Kharif crops. Generally
Kharif crops are sown at the beginning of monsoon and harvested in autumn. It is also called monsoon or
summer season. For example: rice, maize, pulses, cotton, tobacco etc.

Rabi crop season:

This season began in Oct-Nov and ends in Mar-April. But this time period may vary from place to
place. Crops sown in this season are called Rabi crops. Generally crops are sown in autumn and
harvested in spring (after holy). It is also called winter season. For example: wheat, gram barley, pea,
potato, mustard, linseed etc.

Perennial crop season:

Some crops like sugarcane requires almost full year to be mature and the crop season of a
complete year is called perennial crop season. This season starts in Feb-Mar and ends in Dec.

Classification of crops:
A. Based on agriculture:
a. Field crops: Crops like wheat, rice, maize once sown give the product for a single time
only.
b. Plantation crops: Crops like tea, coffee once planted will give the products many times.
c. Horticulture crops: fruits, vegetables sown in garden.
d. Forage crops (grass): for domestic animals.
e. Miscellaneous crops: medicinal plant, spices etc.
B. Based on irrigation requirement
a. Dry crops: Dry crops do not need irrigation water. Eg.: grass.
b. Wet crops: Crops which need irrigation water.

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 C. Based on crop season:
a. Kharif crops
b. Rabi crops
c. Perennial crops
D. Based on consumption:
a. Food crops: used as food and people can directly consume it.
b. Cash crops: They are not consumed directly and they are encased in market such as
sugarcane, tea, hemp (jute), tobacco, cotton etc.

Base period:
It is the time period between the time of first watering to a crop at the time of sowing and the time
of last watering before its harvesting. In other words, base period of a crop is the total period during
which irrigation is done to that crop. It is simply called base of crop. It is denoted by 'B' and expressed in
days.
Eg.: base of rice is 120-150 days.

Crop period:
It is the time period required for a crop for its complete growth from the time of its sowing to the
time of its harvesting. In other words, crop period is the total period during which the crop remains on the
ground. Crop period is slightly more than base period.

Growth period:
It is the time period required for a crop to become complete mature.
For all practical purposes, these all periods are taken as same.

Kor depth and Kor period:

The very first or initial watering to a crop just after its sowing is called kor watering.
Kor period: It is defined as the time period during which Kor watering is done. Eg.: kor period of rice is
2-4 weeks and kor period of wheat is 3-8 weeks.
Kor period is more in dry season than in rainy season.
Kor depth: It is the quantity of water required for a crop during kor period, measured in depth. Eg.: Kor
depth of rice is 19 cm and Kor depth of wheat is 13.5 cm .

Discharge (Flow rate):

Discharge is defined as the quantity of water flowing per unit time at a section.
Quantity (volume) of water (m3) flowing per second at a section is discharge.
It is denoted by Q and measured in m3/sec. (cumec), liters/sec. For example, if 10 liters of water can be
withdrawn in 20 seconds in a tube well, then discharge is obtained as 10 liters/ 20 seconds = 0.5
liters/sec.
Note: 1 m3 = 1000 liters.

DELTA & DUTY:

Delta:
Each crop needs certain quantity of water for its growth. Water is supplied to the crop at some
fixed interval of time during its base period. The sum of all quantity of water supplied to a crop during its
base period is the total water requirement of that crop. This total required quantity may be expressed in
m3, ha.m and simply in terms of depth (cm).
Delta may be defined as the total quantity of water, measured in terms of depth in cm, required
for a crop during the base period of that crop. It is denoted by ∆.
For example, if a crop requires 250000 m3 of water during its base period sown in 50 hectares area. then,
depth of water or delta is = volume of water / irrigated area
∆= = = 0.5 m = 50 cm.

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# If a crop requires 5 cm depth of water after 10 days interval in 120 days base period, find delta of the
crop.
Solution:
total no. of intervals = 120/10 = 12
i.e. the crop requires 5 cm depth of water for 12 times.
Therefore, delta = 5*10 = 60 cm. Ans.

Following are values of delta of some crops:

Rice - 120 cm sugarcane - 120 cm

wheat - 40 cm vegetable - 45 cm
maize - 25 cm

Duty:
It is the area of land in hectare (ha) that can be irrigated for full growth of a given crop if 1 cumec
of water is supplied continuously during the base period of that crop. It is expressed in ha/cumec and
denoted by 'D'.

Relationship between duty, delta and base period :

Considering a crop of base period B days.

Let 1 cumec of water is supplied to this crop during B days.
Now, volume of water supplied to this crop during B days is = 1×24×60×60×B m3 = 86400 B m3

[1 cumec of water means, 1 m3 volume of water applied in 1 second

in 1 second, vol. of water applied is 1 m3
in B days = B×24×60×60 seconds, vol. of water applied is =1×24×60×60×B m3]

By definition of duty, 1 cumec water applied continuously for B days can irrigate D hectares (ha) of land.
Total depth of water applied on this land =
.
= = × = m
total depth of water is called delta (∆),
.
∴ ∆= m
1. Find delta of a crop if the duty is 1800 ha/cumec and the base period is 120 days. What would be the
duty if delta is increased by 20% and base period is reduced by 10 days?
2. A canal is designed to irrigate an area of 840 ha of rice. Total depth of water required is 40 cm for 15
days of kor period. Find the duty on the field if there is an average rainfall of 10 cm.
3. Calculate the total quantity of water required from the data given below.

Rice wheat vegetable sugarcane

B (days) 150 120 120 320

D (ha/cumec) 800 1800 700 1600

Area (ha) 7500 15000 5000 10000

Factors affecting duty:

1. Type of crop: Duty will be less for a crop which requires more water and duty will be more for a
crop which requires less water.
2. Climate and season: water may be lost due to evaporation in hot season which results decrease in
duty but duty will be more in cold season as well as rainy season.

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 3. Type of soil: Loss of water is high due to percolation in permeable soil and hence duty will be
less.
4. Method of cultivation: Proper cultivation of land up to root zone may help to improve the water
holding capacity of land and this will increase duty. Faulty and improper cultivation may decrease
the duty.
5. Method of irrigation: Drip irrigation method and sprinkler irrigation method have low amount of
water loss, therefore duty will be more in comparison to other methods of irrigation.
6. Canal condition: Lined canal gives more duty because seepage loss is less.

Water Requirement of some crops:

Exercises:

Very short question:

1. Why Kharif crop season is called monsoon season?
2. What are the main crops of Rabi crop season?
3. Define kor period and kor depth.
Short question:
1. Define Kharif season and give any two examples of Kharif crops.
2. Differentiate between crop period and base period.
3. What is meant by base period?
4. Introduce duty.
5. Define delta.
6. List the factors affecting duty.
7. Compare delta and kor depth.
Long question:
1. Derive the relationship between duty and delta.
2. Explain the factors affecting duty.
3. What are the numerical value of delta and duty of paddy crop?

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 Unit 3: Method of Irrigation

Method of Irrigation

Surface Irrigation Sub-surface Irrigation Sprinkler Drip Irrigation

Natural sub- Artificial sub-

irrigation irrigation

Uncontrolled Controlled
flooding flooding

Check flooding
Border flooding
Furrow irrigation
Zig-zag method
Contour farming
Basin flooding
Contour laterals

Flooding method:
In this method, land is thoroughly flooded under gravity with water by keeping the land
submerged.
Flooding may be done in two ways:
1. Uncontrolled flooding ( wild of free flooding)
2. Controlled flooding

Uncontrolled flooding:
 Water is applied to the land through field channel directly without providing any control means to
the flow.
 Since there is no any attempt made to control the flow, it is called uncontrolled flooding.
 it is earliest method
 lateral ditches are made at 15-45 m apart
 suitable for smooth and flat land
 huge amount of water waste
 only used when water is sufficient

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Controlled flooding:
 water is applied in controlled manner
 land is prepared and graded properly
 land is divide into no. of small strips
separated by levees
 land is irrigated through series of field
channels located at higher edge of field

Following are various methods

1. Border flooding
2. Check flooding
3. Basin flooding
4. zigzag flooding
5. contour laterals
6. Furrow irrigation
7. Contour farming

Border flooding
 In this method land is divided into no. of strips separated by low height levees called border.
 strips size (10 to 20 m × 100 - 300 m)
 Strips have slope towards the flow direction ( along natural direction )
 Water flows from supply canal to the strip.

Check flooding
 Most common method used in Nepal.
 Farm is divided into no. of small plots (0.2 to 0.8 ha.) surrounded by levees and these levees
are called checks.
 Water is supplied through field channels which are connected to supply channel
 Generally there is one field channel for two rows of plots.
 water is allowed to irrigate at high rate and keep water until it infiltrates
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Basin flooding
 Special type of check flooding used for the irrigation in garden (orchard)
 Basins are circular depression of low depth made around each tree.
 Each basin is connected to field channel through which water is applied to the basin.
 Some times pipes may be used to supply water to basin from field channel.

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Zigzag method
 In this method water takes a route through field starting from field channel reaching to the end
of each plot. Plot is divided into no. of small rectangular plots.
 Opening is provided in opposite direction in each plot so that water takes a circuit type path as
shown in fig.
 It is suitable for level land.

Contour farming:
 The land is divided into no. of strips
which are aligned along the contours of the land.
 The difference in level between two successive strips in 30-60 cm
 Levees are constructed at outer end of each strip.
 Useful in hilly areas
 Any method of
irrigation such as
furrow check border
may be applied

Furrow irrigation method

 It is the method irrigation in which entire farm is not wetted or flooded.
 Water is supplied through long narrow channels excavated between rows of crops called furrows
 The depth of furrow varies from 8 to 30 cm and spacing depends on spacing of plots.
 Furrows are made right angles to field channel.
 Suitable for row crops such as potato, sugarcane, maize, cotton etc.

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Contour laterals:
 The laterals (field channels) are aligned along contour of area forming strips.
 Field channels are generally aligned right angle to the main supply channel.
 Only one side can be irrigated by a field channel.
 Suitable for row crops such as potato, sugarcane, maize, cotton etc.

Sprinkler irrigation method

 Water is sprayed to the land as rainfall using network of pipes and pumps. It is kind of artificial
rainfall.
 A water spraying part is fitted on the pipe called sprinkler.
 There are two types of sprinkler system one is fixed sprinkler system in which water is sprayed
from nozzles fitted on laterals at some intervals. Another is rotatory sprinkler system in which
sprinkler is little bit mounted and rotated due to pressure of flowing water.
 Sprinkler irrigation method is classified as:
1. Permanent system: Main pipes are permanently placed underground and laterals are
portable
2. Portable system: Main supply pipes as well as laterals are portable
Advantage:
 suitable for any topographical condition, especially steep ground.
 no cultivable area is lost for making strip, levees
 Water loss is minimum
 Also suitable for small area
 Fertilizers can be applied uniformly by mixing irrigation water.

Disadvantage or limitations:
 Expensive method
 Not suitable in the area having high wind velocity
 Not suitable for the crops requiring more water frequently, such as paddy.
 sand and silt free water is needed
 power is required

Drip of Trickle Irrigation:

 is the latest technique of irrigation in which water is directly applied to the root zone of plants
 water is applied using pipe networks. The pipe network includes head, main, sub-main, laterals
and drop nozzles.
 Water is supplied from head under pressure. Mains and sub-mains are pipes of flexible pvc pipe
and laterals are small sized pipe in which drip nozzles are fitted
 water is applied to the root area through the nozzles in the form of small drops
 suitable for nursery and garden.

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 Advantages
 Water loss is less
 Suitable for orchard
 Productivity of crop is increased

Sub-surface Irrigation:

In this method, water is applied directly to the root zone of crops below the surface of land.

Natural sub-irrigation:
Leakage water from canals goes under ground and it may irrigate the crops during passage
through sub soil.
Artificial sub-irrigation:
A network of perforated pipes or open jointed pipes is laid below the ground surface. Water is
supplied under pressure and water reaches to the root zone of crops through perforations. This method is
suitable for highly permeable soil since water loss is less. It is expensive method and the main problem of
this method is perforations may be clogged by silt contained in water.

Exercises:
Very short questions:
1. Classify the types of sub-surface irrigation.

Short questions:

1. Write any two advantages and disadvantages of furrow irrigation.

2. Compare between sprinkler and drip irrigation.
3. Write any four advantages of drip irrigation.
4. Draw sketch of contour farming with one merit and demerit of this method.
5. Draw a typical chart showing method of irrigation.
6. What are the disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation method?

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 Unit-4 Various Irrigation Structures

Diversion Head Works

The structure, which is constructed at the head of the canal, in order to divert the river water towards the
canal, so as to ensure continuous supply of silt free water, is known as diversion head work.
Objective of Diversion Head Works
 To rise the water level at the head of the canal.
 To form storage by constructing embankments on both the banks of the river so that water is
available throughout the year
 To control the entry of silt into the canal and to control the deposition of silt at the head of the canal
 To control the fluctuation of water level in the river during different seasons
Selection of Site for Diversion Head Works
 The river should be straight and narrow
 The river banks should be well defined.
 The valuable land should not be submerged when the weir or barrage is constructed.
 The elevation of the site should be much higher than the area to be irrigated.
 The site should be easily accessible by roads or railways.
 The materials of construction should be available in vicinity of the site.
 The site should not be far away from the command area of the project, to avoid transmission loss.

Weir and Barrage:

It is a barrier constructed across the river to raise the water level on the upstream side of the obstruction in order to feed the
main canal.
The ponding of water can be achieved either only by a raised crest (concrete wall made across the river ) across the river or by
a raised crest with gates or shutters, working over the crest.
The barrier is of two types, one is weir and other is barrage.

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Weir:
A weir is a raised crest of concrete or masonry constructed across the river in which major portion
of ponding is done by crest and less or nil portion of ponding is done by shutter (gate).
Barrage:
A barrage is low crest with tall gate. Major portion of ponding is done by gate and less or
negligible portion of ponding is done by raised crest.
( Ponding: Raising of water level in river by providing a barrier. )

Under sluice:
Under sluice is the part of diversion head work constructed adjacent to the canal head regulator. It
is the same as weir but its crest level is lower than the crest of normal weir.
Since it is at low level, a deep channel develops towards under sluice which helps to divert water
to canal during dry season. Its crest level is 1 to 1.5 m below crest of weir.
Main functions of under sluices:

 To maintain a well defined deep channel approaching the canal head regulator.
 To ensure easy diversion of water into the canal through the canal head regulator even during low
flow.
 To control the entry of silt into the canal.
 To help scouring of the silt deposited over the under sluice floor and removing towards the
downstream side.
 It also removes water containing silt flowing through silt excluder tunnel.

Silt excluder:
It consists of small rectangular tunnels of 2 to 3 number adjacent to canal head regulator along the
river.
The water containing silt flows in bottom layer and escapes through silt excluder and flows out from
under sluice.

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Divide wall:
The divide wall is a masonry or concrete wall constructed at right angle to the axis of the weir.
The divide wall extends on the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator; and on
the downstream side, it extends up to the end of the loose protection of the under sluices.
Main functions of Divide wall:
 It separates the ‘under-sluices’ with lower crest level from the ‘weir’ with higher crest level.
 It helps to keep cross - current, if any, away from the weir.

Guide bank:
Structure constructed on both side of river at diversion head work to guide the river flow in fixed
path in order to prevent from changing course of river near head work. The main function of guide bank
is to keep the flow in fixed channel path. It protects the weir from being outflanking.
Length of guide bank at u/s side is kept 1.1 L and that of d/s side 0.1L to 0.2 L measured from weir axis,
where L is span between guide bank.
The main function of guide bank is it guides the flow of river in fixed path.

Marginal Bund:
These are embankment or banking on either side of river which are constructed to protect from
submergence of river side land due to the rise in water level of river. These bunds are extended up to the
place of high contour than H.F.L. (High flood level). These also help to guide the river flow initially
between guide banks.
Functions of Marginal Bund:

 It prevents the flood water or storage water from entering the surrounding area.
 It retains the flood water or storage water within a specified section.
 It protects the towns and villages from devastation during the heavy flood.
 It protects valuable agricultural lands.

Fish Ladder:
There are various types of fish in the
river. Generally, fish move from
upstream to downstream in winters
and from downstream to upstream in
monsoons. This movement is
essential for their survival. Due to
construction of weir or barrage, this
movement gets obstructed. In the fish
ladder, the baffle walls are
constructed in a zigzag manner so
that the velocity of flow within the
ladder does not exceed 3 m/sec. and
fish can move towards u/s easily. A
narrow opening including suitable
baffles or staggering devices in it is
provided adjacent to the divide wall.

Canal Head Regulator:

A structure which is constructed at the head of the canal to regulate flow of water is known as canal head
regulator. It consists of a number of piers which divide the total width of the canal into a number of spans
which are known as bays. The piers consist of number tiers on which the adjustable gates are placed. The
gates are operated form the top by suitable mechanical device. A platform is provided on the top of the
piers for the facility of operating the gates.
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Functions of Canal Head Regulator
 It regulates the supply of water entering the canal
 It controls the entry of silt in the canal
 It prevents the river floods from entering the canal
The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by about 1.2 to 1.5
meters higher than the crest of the under-sluices.

Fig: A typical section of Canal head regulator

Canal Regulator:
1. Distributory Head regulator
2. Cross regulator
Distributory Head regulator
 Distributory head regulator is provided in off taking canal which controls the flow in off taking
canal.
Cross regulator
 Cross regulator is provided d/s of off taking canal. It controls flow of water and it raises water
level when there is low flow.
Functions of cross regulator:
 To control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
 To help in heading up water on the upstream side and to fed the off-taking canals to their full
demand.

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Canal Fall
Irrigation canals are constructed with some permissible longitudinal bed slopes preventing from
silting or scouring in the canal bed. But it is not always possible to align the canal at the desired bed slope
throughout the alignment due to the fluctuating ground slope. Generally, the slope of the natural ground
surface is not uniform throughout the alignment. Sometimes, the ground surface may be steep. In such
cases, a vertical drop is provided to step down the canal bed and then it is continued with permissible
slope until another step down is necessary. This is done to avoid unnecessary huge earth work in filling.
Such vertical drops are known as canal falls or simply falls.

Necessity of Canal Falls:

 When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, in such a case falls are provided to
avoid excessive earth work in filling.
 When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than the permissible
bed slope of canal. In that case also the canal falls are necessary.

Cross Drainage Works

In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc. are provided,
then these canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams, nallahs, etc at different
points. So, suitable structures must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy flow of water of the
canal and drainage in the respective directions.
A structure constructed at the crossing point of a canal and natural drainage for the easy flow of water
in canal without any interruption is known as cross-drainage works or in short cd works.

Types of Cross-Drainage Works:

(1) Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
(a) Aqueduct
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(b) Syphon aqueduct
(2) Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
(a) Super passage
(b) Canal Syphon
(3) Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same level)
(a) Level Crossing
(b) Inlet and outlet

Aqueduct
The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a
canal is taken over the natural drainage.
Generally, the canal is in the shape of a
rectangular trough which is constructed
with reinforced cement concrete.
When the High Flood Level (HFL) of the
drainage is sufficiently below the bed of the
canal so that the water flows freely in
drainage, cd work provided is known as
Aqueduct.

Syphon Aqueduct
When the High Flood Level (HFL) of the
drainage is higher than the bed of the canal so
that the water flows under syphonic action in
drainage, cd work provided is known as
Syphon Aqueduct.
The bed of the drainage is depressed below the
bottom level of the canal trough by providing
sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.

Super Passage
The super passage is just opposite of the aqueduct.
In this case, the bed level of the drainage is above
the fully supply level (FSL) of the canal so that
canal water flows freely. The drainage is taken
through a rectangular or trapezoidal trough of
channel which is constructed over the canal
supported by piers.

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Canal Syphon:

It is just opposite syphon aqueduct. In this

case, the full supply level (FSL) of canal is
above the bed level of natural drainage and
the canal water flows under syphonic
action. The bed of the canal is depressed
below the bottom level of the drainage
trough by providing sloping apron on both
sides of the crossing.

Fig: Canal Siphon

Level Crossing:
The level crossing is an arrangement provided to
regulate the flow of water through the drainage
and the canal when they cross each other
approximately at the same bed level.

A regulator is provided across the natural

drainage just on d/s of the crossing point.

At the outgoing canal, a regulator is also provided

to control the flow in canal. Sometimes a
regulator is provided at incoming canal.

Inlets and Outlets:

In the crossing of small drainage with small

channel no hydraulic structure is constructed.
Simple openings are provided for the flow of
water in their respective directions. This
arrangement is known as inlet and outlet.
In this system, an inlet is provided in the channel
bank simply by open cut and the drainage water
is allowed to join the channel.
At the points of inlet and outlet, the bed and
banks of the drainage are protected by stone
pitching.
Exercises:

Very Short question-answer:

1. What is diversion head work?

2. Introduce aqueduct?
3. Define super passage
4. What is canal fall?
5. Write two functions of under sluice.
6. What are the components of irrigation structures?

Short question-answer:

1. Draw typical fig. of aqueduct.

2. Draw a typical figure of irrigation head works.
3. Write about canal fall.
4. Compare weir and barrage with neat figure.
5. Discuss about types of cross drainage works.

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 Unit-5 Canal design concept

Classification of canal and their alignment

Classification of Canal

A. Based on the function of canal

a. Irrigation canal
b. Power canal
c. Water supply canal
d. Navigation canal
B. Based on the soil type
a. Alluvial canal: Soil formed by continuous deposition of silt is called alluvial soil and canal on
such type of alluvial soil is called Alluvial Canal.
b. Non alluvial canal: Soil in mountainous region which is more permeable is called non-alluvial
soil and the canal constructed on such type of soil is known as Non-alluvial canal.
C. Based on the canal condition:
a. Lined canal: Canal with its surface covering by some in erodible materials.
b. Unlined canal: Canal with earthen surface without providing any covering surface.
D. Based on the supply system:
a. Permanent canal: Continuous supply of water.
b. Temporary canal: Supply of water depends on rise in water level in river.
E. Based on the size of canal
a. Main canal
b. Branch canal
c. Distributary canal
d. Minor canal
e. Water courses (Field channel)

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 20

Canal alignment

1. Watershed Canal:
 Line dividing the two catchment areas of two natural drains, is called watershed line.
 Canal aligned along any natural watershed line is called watershed canal.
 Water can be taken out under gravity on both side of watershed canal.
 CD works (Cross drainage works) are not required to construct because natural drainages never cross
the watershed
line.

2. Contour Canal:

 When canals along watershed line are not

possible to construct in hilly region due to
the high difference between river and
watershed line, canal is aligned along the
contour of land. The canal which is aligned
along the contour of the area is known as
Contour canal.
 A contour canal can irrigates only one side.
 Since natural rivers always flow at right
angles to the contour, cd works are to be
provided.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 21

3. Side Slope Canal:

 A canal which is aligned at right angles to the

contour is called side slope canal.
 Since such canals run parallel to the natural
river, there is not needed any cd works.

Cross section of an irrigation canal:

Berm:
Berm is the horizontal distance left at ground level between the toe of the bank and the top edge of
cutting.
Freeboard:
The margin between FSL and bank level is known as freeboard. It depends upon the size of the canal.
Side slope:
The side slopes should be such that they are stable, depending upon the type of the soil. A comparatively
steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in filling.

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Canal losses:

 During the passage of water through a canal, loss of water occurs either by evaporation or by
seepage.
 The loss of water may be
25 % to 50 % during the
passage from the head of
canal to the watercourses.
 Therefore the losses
should be considered in
the design of canal
discharge.
 Water may be lost in two
ways.
 Evaporation
 Seepage
1. Evaporation: water is lost by changing into vapor in the presence of heat by sun. Very less
amount of water is lost due to evaporation.
2. Seepage: Leakage of water through the wetted surface of canal. There may be two different
conditions of seepage.
a. Absorption: Unsaturated zone extending from wetted area of canal up to the ground water
table absorbs the water from the canal.
b. Percolation: After the soil from the canal to water table being saturated, a direct flow is
occurred and almost all the lost water joins the ground water reservoir.

Canal lining:
It is a method to make earthen surface of canal inerodible and impermeable by covering earthen
surface with concrete, tiles, asphalt (natural bitumen) etc.
Advantages of canal Lining:

 To control seepage loss

 To reduce in maintenance cost
 To increase canal life
 To prevent from water logging
 To prevent from scouring
 To reduce in construction cost by making small cross section because of lesser water loss.
 Fig.: Canal lining

Types of Canal Lining:

1. Hard surface lining

a. Cement concrete lining – 5 to 15 cm thick PCC (1:2:4)
b. Plaster lining – for small canal and repair work
c. Brick or tile lining
d. Asphaltic concrete lining – mixture of bitumen and aggregate.
e. Boulder lining – stone pitching
2. Earth type lining
a. Compacted earth lining
b. Soil cement lining – mixture of soil and cement.

River training works-objectives

River Meandering:
River flowing in zig-zag way in alluvial soil is called meandering.
Water carries high amount of silts during flood. The bed slope increases due to the deposition of silts and
velocity gets increased causing the erosion of river banks. Width of river also increases. When one bank
is relatively attacked more than other, more and more water flows towards the highly affected bank and
less water flows through the less affected bank which causes further erosion of the bank side. This
process results of formation of S type curve of river, called meandering of river.
River Training works:
Any engineering works constructed in river to guide the river flow.
Objectives of River Training work:
1. To prevent river from changing its course.
2. To provide safe passage for flooding without over flow.
3. To protect the banks of river form erosion.
4. To help the river transport sediment loads efficiently.
5. To prevent from outflanking of hydraulic structures
6. To reduce cross current flow.
Exercises:

Vey short questions:

1. Classify the canal based on alignment.

2. What are the objectives of river training work? Write any two.
3. Define canal lining.
4. What is Manning’s formula used to design canal?
Short questions:
1. What are the objectives of river training works?
2. Classify the irrigation canal.
Long questions:
1. Write down the procedure for design of canal by Kneedy’s method.
2. Describe the canal design concept.

Unit-6 Water Logging and drainage

Definition of Water Logging:

Water logging is defined as the state of land in which the root zone of plants gets flooded
with water due to which productivity of plants get affected.
Causes of Water Logging:
The main reason of water logging is
rising of ground water table.
Following are some reasons:
1. Over irrigation
2. Seepage of water from canal
3. Impervious obstruction
4. Heavy rainfall
5. Submergence due to flood
6. Inadequate surface drainage
7. Irregular topography

Effects of Water Logging:

1. Decrease in land productivity

2. Difficult to cultivate
3. Growing of various other harmful plants
4. Salinity ( the salty water rises and gets deposited in soil of root zone as well as ground surface.
This phenomenon is called salinity. It is very harmful for crops)

Remedial measures of Water Logging:

1. Lining of canal
2. Crop rotation
3. Providing efficient drainage system
4. Improving natural drainage system (removal of obstruction)
5. Avoiding over irrigation

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 Canal Damages:
 Silting of canals:
Silts get deposited on canal due to less velocity and inadequate bed slope which causes
the reduction of canal capacity.
Remedy: Canal should be properly designed so that there is neither silting nor scouring. Silt excluder
and under sluice should be provided at head works. Silts should be periodically removed.
 Weed and Plant growth:
Various types of aquatic plants grow in canal which may obstruct the flow.
Remedy: Weeds and plants should be removed. It is better to remove immediately to newly born
plants to avoid its spreading.
 Failure of canal banks:
People sometimes dig the bank and animals may damage the banks.
Remedy: Digging of canal banks haphazardly should be strictly prohibited. Depressions should be
filled.
 Canal Breaches:
Gap developed in canal bank due to overflow of canal, seepage, cuts made by farmers.
Remedy: Banks should have sufficient width and stable side slope. Cuts should be filled as soon as
possible.
Exercises:
Very Short questions:
1. Write any two factors which may cause the water logging.
2. Define water logging.
Short questions:
1. Write about remedial measures of water logging.
Long questions:
1. Explain about causes and effects of water logging.
2. Explain about causes and maintenance of canal damages.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 26

 Unit-7 Hydrology and flood estimation

Definition of Hydrology:
It is a science which deals with occurrence, circulation and distribution of water on, over and
beneath the earth surface
Hydrologic cycle:
It is a natural sequence which water passes into atmosphere as water vapor, precipitates to earth
and ultimately returns to the atmosphere through evaporation.
It is endless process with no start or end.
The hydrologic cycle begins with the conversion of water into vapor by evaporation from the
surface of source of water and transpiration from plants leaves. As moist air (vapor) is lifted, it cools and
water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the
surface as precipitation (rain, snow, drizzle, hail, glaze, sleet, frost, dew). Once the water reaches the
ground, one of two processes may occur,
1) Some of water may evaporate back into atmosphere or
2) Water may penetrate the surface and become ground water.
Ground water either seeps its way to ocean, river, and stream or is released back into the
earth’s surface forming spring. The balance of water that remains on the earth’s surface is surface run off
which flows into lake, river and stream and cycle begins again.

Fig. Hydrologic cycle

Evaporation & Transpiration Condensation Precipitation Interception

Run off Percolation Infiltration Depression Storage

Evaporation:
• Process by which liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state
• Water changes from surface source into vapor on heating by sunlight
• More be the temperature of air, more water vapors will be absorbed
• 80 % evaporation from ocean & most falls back into the ocean, 10% falls on land

Transpiration:
• The process of water loss from plants through leaves.
• Depends on:
• Temperature: high in high temperature
• Solar radiation: high in day time
• Physical factors: stomata
• Soil moisture: water content of soil
Condensation & formation of clouds:
• is the process of changing water vapor into liquid droplets when the temperature is quite low.
• Clouds are formed due to condensation
• Fall of condensed form of water on the earth from the clouds.
Precipitation:
In hydrologic cycle, when evaporation continues, the amount of vapour goes on increasing and finally a
state comes when water vapour will get condensed resulting formation of cloud. The water which comes
back to the earth surface in various forms like rainfall, snowfall, hail etc. is known as precipitation.
Water falls to the earth surface from of water on the earth from the clouds.
Mechanism of precipitation:
• Cooling of water vapors
• Formation of clouds due to condensation
• Growth of water droplets
Form of precipitation
• Drizzle: -l;dl;d, em/L_
0.1-0.5 mm size drops floating in air
• Rain:
Large water drops > 0.5-6 mm
• Snow:
Solid ice crystals
• Hail -cl;gf_ :
Balls of ice of dia. 5 mm or more
• Glaze (freezing rain)
Falls as rain and freezes touching to ground
• Sleet:
Mixture of rain and snow, also called small hail
• Frost -t';f/f]]_M
Rain deposit of small ice crystals when temperature falls below freezing
• Dew -zLt_ :
Balls of ice of dia. 5 mm or more

Interception:
• Some part of precipitation is intercepted by trees and other obstructions.
Depression storage:
• Some part of precipitation is used for filling small depressions in ground.
Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 28
Infiltration:
• Process of entering water into ground
• Soil absorbs water first and gets saturated
• Excess water then moves downward under gravity and joins ground water reservoir, called
percolation.
Run off:
is remaining portion of precipitation on earth surface after losses (evaporation, interception,
depression storage, infiltration) which finds its way towards stream or river or oceans.

RO = Rainfall - interception - depression storage - infiltration

RO = Rainfall - initial loss - infiltration (initial loss = interception loss + depression storage)
Factors affecting runoff

1. Climatic factors
1. Form of precipitation: rainfall creates more runoff than other form of precipitation.
2. Intensity of precipitation: more intensity, more runoff.
3. Duration of precipitation: longer duration, high runoff.
1. Temperature & wind velocity: high temp. & high wind vel. cause reduction in runoff.
2. Physiographic factors
1. Type of soil: loose soil has high infiltration, causing less runoff.
2. Slope of land: steeper the slope more will be the runoff.
3. Area of basin: large catchment gives less runoff.

4. Shape of catchment: fan shaped catchment produces more runoff than fern shaped
catchment.

Measurement of rain fall

• Amount of rainfall for a certain period of time is measured as depth of water in centimeter (cm) or
millimeter (mm) and expressed as mm per hour or cm per hour.
• Rainfall at a place is measured by a rain gauge which is a cylindrical vessel placed in open area
used to collect rain water
• No. of rain gauges are placed uniformly in a catchment area for accuracy.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 29

Rain gauge
• There are mainly two types of rain gauges
• Non recording type rain gauge (ordinary rain gauge)
• Recording type rain gauge (automatic rain gauge)

Non recording type rain gauge (ordinary rain gauge):

These are most commonly used type rain gauge. They are called "non recording type" because
they do not record the rain, but only collect the rain water. The collected rain water is then measured by
means of graduated cylinders.

Recording type rain gauge (automatic rain gauge):

gauge)
These
hese types of rain gauges record the rainfall directly. There is no need to measure the collected
water. These rain gauges have a mechanical arrangement by which rain fall is recorded automatically on
a graph paper. Tipping bucket type, weighing type, floating
floating type automatic rain gauges are types of
automatic rain gauges.
Weighing type rain gauge: It weighs the rain which falls into a bucket placed on the platform of a spring
or a lever balance, or any other weighing mechanism. The increasing weight of the bucket helps in
recording the increasing quantity of collected rain, with time, by moving a pen on a revolving drum.
TIPPING BUCKET GAUGE
In this type of rain gauge, the rain
water is first caught in a collector and then
passed through a funnel. The funnel
discharges the water into a two
compartment bucket. When 0.1 mm of
rain water gets filled up in one
compartment, the bucket tips, emptying
into a reservoir, and moving the second
compartment into place beneath the
funnel. The tipping of buckets causes a
pen to mark on a revolving drum.

Estimation of flood

 A flood may be defined as an overflow coming from some river or from other body of water
 A river may get flooded due to excessive rainfall or excessive snow melt.
 When any structure is to be constructed on a river, it must be considered the flood level.
The flood is estimated by any of following methods:
1. Estimation of flood by Rational formula
Q = C i A /3.6
Where:
Q is the estimate of the discharge in cubic meters per second (m³/sec or cumecs)
C is the run-off coefficient, depends on catchment’s surface
i is rainfall intensity in millimeters per hour (mm/hr)
A is the catchment area in square kilometers (km2)

2. Estimation of peak flood by empirical methods

• Various investigators gave empirical formula for the determination of peak discharge.
Some of them are:
• Dicken’s formula: Q = CA3/4
Where, Q = discharge (cumecs)
C = Dicken’s coefficient = 35
A = area of catchment (km2)
• Meyer’s formula: Q = 177 p √
Where,
p is a coefficient depends on frequency of floods. Max.value of p is one.

Stream/River discharge
• Discharge is the volume of water flowing per sec at a given section.
Q=A×v
Where,
Q = discharge in m3/sec or cumecs
A = cross sectional area of river in m2
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 v = velocity of flow in m/sec
• It is very important to measure the discharge
discharge of river to design and construct of irrigation projects,
hydropower projects etc. on a river.
• The process of measuring the discharge of a river or stream is called "stream gauging".

Velocity area method for computing stream flow:

• Direct method of stream gauging where c/s area & velocity are measured
• c/s of river is divided into number of vertical strips & area and velocity of each strips are
determined which give discharge of each strips
• Total discharge of river is the sum of all discharges

Depth

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5 + Q6
where, Q1 = A1 v1 and so on….
A1 is cross sectional area & v1 is velocity of strip-1

Measurement of c/s area:

Area of first strip is A1 = [(0+ d1)/2] * b
Area of second strip is A2 = [(d1 + d2)/2]*b
and so on……
b b b b b

d1 d4
Measurement of velocity:
Velocity at each depth is determined and mean of two velocities is used to determine discharge.
Following methods are used to measure velocity.
1. Float method
2. Current meter method

1. Float method:
• In this method, floats ( materials which float in water) are used to measure velocity
• Floats are allowed to travel along a selected reach (longitudinal portion )
• Time taken by a float to travel a certain distance is measured and velocity is obtained by
following relationship,
Velocity = distance travelled / time taken
Generally, two types of floats are used
 Surface float:
• floats made of light material like wood which are allowed to travel on surface of water.
• it gives surface velocity. Since velocity varies as per depth of river, mean velocity is taken
as 0.85 times surface velocity.
water surface

Flow river bed

fig. float method

• Velocity rods:
• Is a wooden rod with a cast iron ring at its bottom
• Is immersed in water to a depth of 0.94 times total depth and allowed to flow. Velocity is
approx. equal to mean velocity.
 fig. velocity rod method
CURRENT METER METHODS

• A current meter consists of rotating part

(wheel), a tail vane & a weight attached at
lower end.
• It is suspended from boat or bridge by a cable
in river and flow causes revolution of wheel
of current meter
• The no. of revolutions per second are
recorded.
• Relationship between velocity and no. of
revolutions are established in lab or
manufacturer.

Generally,

v = aN+b
v = vel. m/sec
N = no. of revolutions per second
a, b are constants

STEPS TO MEASURE VELOCITY BY

FLOAT METHOD:

Step 1. Choose a suitable straight reach

(ideally at least 3 channel widths long).
Step 2. Mark the start and end point of your reach.
Step 3. Drop your object into the stream upstream of your upstream marker.
Step 4. Start the watch when the object crosses the upstream marker and stop the watch when it crosses
the downstream marker.
Step 5. You should repeat the measurement at least 3 times and use the average in further calculations.
Step 6. Measure stream’s width and depth across. Use a meter stick or a staff to measure the depth at
regular intervals across the stream. Ten depth measurements is the minimum required but more is better,
especially in larger streams. Average your cross-sectional areas (A): Using the average area and corrected
velocity, you can now compute discharge, Q.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 34

Questions: Following data were collected at a gauging station on a river. Compute the discharge.

Solution:
15
12
9
6

1 2 3 4

distance from one bank (m) 0 3 6 9 12 15

water depth (m) 0 1.5 3.2 1.6 1.4 0
mean vel. (m/sec) 0 0.12 0.24 0.16 0.14 0

section 1 2 3 4 5
width 3 3 3 3 3
average (0+1.5)/2=0.75 (1.5+3.2)/2=2.35 (3.2+1.6)/2=2.4 (1.6+1.4)/2=1.5 (1.4+0)/2=0.7
depth
area 3*0.75=2.25 =3*2.35=7.05 7.2 4.5 2.1
velocity (0+0.12)/2=0.06 (0.12+0.24)/2=0. (0.24+0.16)/2=0. (0.16+0.14)/2=0.1 (0.14+0)/2=0.07
18 2 5
discharge 2.25*0.06=0.13 7.05*0.18=1.29 1.44 0.675 0.147
5

total discharge = 0.135+1.29+1.44+0.675+0.147 = 3.687 cumecs Ans.

Ground water hydrology

 Ground water is the water present below the ground surface.

 The rainfall percolates below the ground surface, passes through the voids of soil and rock, and
joins the ground water table.
 The occurrence of ground water mainly depends upon porosity and permeability of soil or rock.
Porosity is the voids present in soil mass and Permeability is ability of soil mass to pass water
through it.
Zones of underground water:
As we move down below the earth’s surface, water is found in different form
in different zones.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 35

Unsaturated zone: contains both water & air through which water moves downward.
Saturated zone: lies below water table, contains water in pores.
The plane of separation between these two zones is the water table.
Capillary fringe zone: lies just above water table in which water is held due to capillary rise.
Aquifers:
• A water bearing stratum (layer) having enough ground water and also capable of transmitting water.
• A saturated layer of permeable materials such as gravel, sand.

Types of aquifers:
1. Unconfined aquifer:
It is the aquifer in which
free water surface (water
table) exists. It extends
from water table to
impervious stratum.

2. Confined aquifer:
It is an aquifer
which is sandwiched
between two impervious
strata. Water is under
pressure in this type of aquifer.
Darcy’s law

 This law gives velocity of flow of ground water through soil.

 Since the water table is not horizontal. It has high and low points, thus water moves from higher point
to lower point.
considering a certain portion of soil having length "L" and
let, difference in elevation of two points be "H" and “A”
be the cross-sectional
sectional area of the soil,
According to Darcy, H
Q ∝ H/L ....(i)
Q ∝ A ....(ii)
From (i) & (ii)
Q ∝ (H/L)A
Q∝iA Soil sample l
Q =kiA
where,
k = coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient
= H/L (unit less)
When i=1 and A= 1 m2 then Q = k
Then we can say permeability may be defined as the rate of flow of water (Q) through a unit cross
sectional area of soil under unit hydraulic gradient. It’s unit is m/sec.
Exercises:
1. Define hydrologic cycle.
2. What are the main components of hydrologic cycle?
3. What do you mean by infiltration and what factors affect it?
4. What are the factors affecting run off?
5. What is precipitation?
6. Explain various forms of precipitation.
7. Write about stream gauging.
8. How do you measure rainfall?
9. Explain any one procedure to measure discharge of a river.
10. Describe Darcy's law.
11. Describe ground water with neat figure.
12. What is aquifer and what are its types.
13. What do you mean by infiltration? Explain the factors that influence infiltration in your own
words.

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 38

 Unit
Unit-8 Waterpower Engineering
 Hydro means Water
 Power means Energy
 Hydropower means energy generated using water resources.
 Hydropower engineering is the technology of generating electrical energy from running water

Principle of Hydropower

Power potential is given by

P = γQH kW
Where,
γ = (gamma) unit weight of water (9.81 kN/m³)
Q = discharge (m³/sec)
H = total head
Head -Water
Water must fall from a higher elevation to a lower one to release its stored energy. The
difference between these elevations is called head
Above formula gives theoretical power potential
The efficiency of a HP Plant can not be 100%
Considering efficiency of HP plant
Power potential,
P = ηγQH (Kw)
Where,
γ = (gamma) unit weight of water (9.81 kN/m³)
Q = discharge (m³/sec)
H = total head
η = efficiency
Question: Consider a mountain stream with an effective head of 25 meters (m) and nd a flow rate of 600
liters (ℓ) per minute. How much power could a hydro plant generate? Assume plant efficiency () of
83%.

Solution:
effective head (or net head), H = 25 m
flow rate or discharge, Q = 600 l/min = 600/1000 m3/min = 0.6 m3 /60sec = 0.01 m3 /sec
efficiency,  = 83 % = 83/100 = 0.83
power, P = 9.81QH = 9.81×0.83×0.01×25 = 2.035 kW

Advantages of Hydropower
 Renewable type of energy
 High efficiency
 Long span of life
 Reliable source of energy
 Flexibility
 Low power cost
 Low operation/maintenance cost
 Non polluted energy source
 Other uses of reservoir
 Employment opportunities

Disadvantages of Hydropower
 High initial cost
 Long construction period
 Loss of large land area due to reservoir
 Displacement of people from reservoir area

History of Hydropower
 In the early 1800's, American and European factories made use of the water wheel to run
machines
 In 1878 the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed in Northumberland, England
by William George Armstrong. It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery
 The first hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating in September 30,
1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, USA(12.5 kW)
 Made using fast flowing river
 The first HP in India was established in 1898
in Darjeeling.
 The first HP plant in China was established in
1912
 History of Hydropower in Nepal
 Pharping hydropower is the first hp in Nepal (1907-1911) 500 kW
o Used 2 turbines, each produced 250 kW
o Established during PM Chandra Shamser Rana’s time.
o Equipments donated by British Gov.
o Electricity supplied for Rulers family
o Not in operation currently
 Sundarijal HP (1936) is the second HP of 640 kW for Kathmandu valley
 Govt. electricity Dept. made 5 year plan to add 20 mW but not met
 Morang HP co. built 677 kW Sikarbas hydroplant at Chisang khola in 1942 for Brt JUTE MILL
though it was destroyed by landslide in 1960
 Nepal electricity corporation (NEC) was established in 1962 for transmission and distribution of
electricity
 “Panauti HP plant” 2400 kW in 1965 & “Trisuli HP plant” 2100 kW in 1967 were made
 In 1977 small HP development board was established
 In 1985 Nepal electricity authority was established for generation, transmission & distribution
Power situation in Nepal
 Theoretical power potential = 83,000 MW
 Technical power potential = 45,000 MW (Technically possible)
 Economic power potential = 43,000 MW (Technically possible and economically justifiable)
 Available power is 652 MW
Major Hydro Power Project
 Biggest HP plant is “Kaligandaki A” (2002) of 144 mW
 “Kulekhani 1” HP plant (1982) of 60 mW
 “Kulekhani 2” HP plant (1986) of 32 mW
 “Marsyangdi” HP plant (1989) of 69 mW
 “Khimti khola” HP plant (2000) of 60 mW

Power Development of Nepal

 Major HP (NEA) = 472,994 kW
 Small HP (NEA) = 4,536 kW
 Private sector = 174,526 kW
Total = 652 mW
Under Construction:
 Upper Tamakoshi - 456 MW
 Gamgad - 400 kW
 Chamelia - 30 MW
 Kulekhani III - 14 MW
 Rahughat - 32 MW
 Upper Trisuli - 60 MW

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 41

 General layout plan of hydropower project

Tail race canal

Components of HP plant:

1. Dam or weir or barrage

2. Reservoir
3. Intake
4. Water ways
a. Headrace canal/tunnel
b. Tailrace canal/tunnel
c. Settling basin/ Desanders
d. Supply conduit
e. Fore bay/ surge tank
f. Penstock
5. Power house

Dam:
It is a barrier constructed across the river which raises water level at u/s to form reservoir. Earthen
dam, concrete dam, RCC dam is mostly used types of dam.

Reservoir:
When barrier is constructed across a river in the form of dam, the water gets accumulated
at u/s forming a pool called reservoir. It is a large artificial lake created by constructing a dam across
a river.
Intake:
Structure constructed at the entrance of power canal/tunnel through which water from
river/stream is conveyed towards the power house. It consists of gate or valve to control the flow of
water into conveyance system (power canal/tunnel). It stops large floating materials and boulder
(large size stones) from entering by means of trash racks. It also prevents from entering heavy
sediment with the help of silt traps.

Power canal:
Open channel from intake to fore bay to convey water.

Tunnel:
Underground passage made without removing the overlying rock or soil. Generally rock tunnels
are provided for HP project.

Settling basin (Desander):

a basin provided along supply channel in order to remove sediment particles from water and
allow silt free water to PH.

Fore bay:
is an enlarged body of water provided at d/s end of power canal just u/s of penstock (starting point
of penstock). Its main function is to store some water temporarily during shut down of turbine. It also
prevents penstock from water hammer effect. Water hammer effect is rise in pressure on penstock
when sudden closure of valve to stop turbine operation. it also evenly distributes water to no. of
penstocks.

Surge tank:
When length of penstock pipe is long, a cylindrical tank is provided near d/s end of long
penstock, surge tank. The main function of surge tank is to prevent penstock from water hammer
effect. When PH is at very short distance from diversion structure there is no need of penstock. Also
most of PH with open canal does not need surge tank as fore bay works as surge tank.
Penstock:
It is high pressure pipe having large diameter which convey water from reservoir, or fore bay or
surge tank to the turbine. It is made of steel or rcc. It should be strong enough to withstand exerted
pressure.

Power house:
A building constructed for housing and protecting of various equipments such as turbine,
generator, gate valve etc.
Tail race:
It is a channel through which water coming from turbine is discharged to river.

Hydropower Plant Types:

A. Based on capacity: B. Based on head:
1. Micro HP <100 kW 1. Low head plant <15 m
2. Mini HP 100 kW to 1000 kw 2. Medium head plant- 15 to 70 m
3. Small HP = 1 MW to <10 MW 3. High head plant -70 to 250 m
4. Medium HP =10 to 50 MW 4. Very high head plant >250 m
5. Large HP > 50 MW
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C. According to facility types
 SINGLE PURPOSE :
Production of electricity only
 MULTIPURPOSE :
Production of electricity along with other purposes like irrigation, flood control or fisheries

D. Based on storage characteristics:

1. Run of river (ROR) plants:
 utilize the stream flow as it comes, without any storage being provided
 A weir or barrage is constructed across the river to maintain the head of hp plant
 Suitable only for perennial river with sufficient discharge
dischar at dry season
 The ROR type HP Plant has three possible layouts which are, ROR with canal option , ROR
with pipe option and ROR with tunnel option
Eg., Khimti hp (60 mW), Bhotekoshi hp (36 mW)

Fig. ROR HP Plant layout with canal option

 Fig. ROR HP Plant layout with tunnel option

2. Peaking Run of river (PROR) plants:

 ROR plant provided with ponding
 Water is stored during non peak hours of a day and stored water will be used to produce power
during peak hours.
 layout of PROR is similar to that of ROR HP plant.
Eg. Marsyangdi (69 MW), Kaligandaki-A(144 MW)

3. Storage (Reservoir) Plant:

 In storage project, dam is constructed across river to store large amount of water.
 The excess water is stored during rainy season and that stored water is used in dry season.
 It is suitable for rivers having fluctuating flow rate of water.
 PH is located at the foot (toe) of dam or at certain distance away from dam.
 The main components of storage HP Plant are:

 dam (of sufficient height to store required amount of water)

 spillway (to discharge excess flood water)
 headrace tunnel
 surge tank
 penstock
 power house
 Tailrace canal.
 There are only Kulekhani -I (60 MW) & Kulekhani- II (32 MW) storage hydropower plant in
Nepal.
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 Fig.: storage hydropower plant with PH located at certain distance from dam

4. Pump storage hydropower plant

 Same water is used again and
again
 Plants having water reservoir at
u/s as well as d/s, collects water at
u/s reservoir by pumping
 Support to fulfill peak demand of
power.
 Pumping is done during off-peak
hours using another source of
energy or power generated during
off-peak hrs.
 Turbine sometimes works as pump
reversibly

Fig.: Sectional view of pumped storage plant

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Based on constructional features:
1. Valley dam plants
2. Diversion plants
3. High head diversion plants

Valley dam plants

 Consists of a dam across river to create necessary head

 PH is located at the toe of dam
 Water flows through penstock embedded in the dam
Example: karnali – chisapani (proposed)

Fig. Valley dam hydropower plant

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 47

Diversion Plant
 Water is diverted away from the river through power canal
 PH is located at a suitable point at power canal and water disposed back to river
 Weir may be provided to create some additional head

Prepared by: Er. Bikram Khadka, Sukuna S.S. 48

High head diversion plant

Water from river is diverted through tunnel from u/s point of river to d/s point of the same river.

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Flow duration curve (FDC)
A curve plotted between the discharge of stream in y-axis
y axis and percentage of time that discharge is
equaled or exceeded in x-axis.
FDC may have different shape according to time period discharge is recorded. FDC drawn from
daily discharge (flow rate) is different from that of weekly discharge.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of time

Example
Date Flow Rate (discharge) Date Flow Rate (discharge)
April 1 0.25 m3/S April 6 4.50 m3/S
April 2 0.40 m3/S April 7 3.00 m3/S
April 3 1.60 m3/S April 8 2.40 m3/S
April 4 1.00 m3/S April 9 1.90 m3/S
April 5 0.60 m3/S April 10 1.30 m3/S
Arranging above data in descending order
Date Flow Rate
April 6 4.50 m3/S
April 7 3.00 m3/S
April 8 2.40 m3/S
April 9 1.90 m3/S
April 3 1.60 m3/S
April 10 1.30 m3/S
April 4 1.00 m3/S
April 5 0.60 m3/S
April 2 0.40 m3/S
April 1 0.25 m3/S
No. of flow rates=10
Total no. of flow rates is assumed as 100 %
 Flow rate % time
4.50 m3/s (1/10)*100=10% 4.5
3.00 m3/s (2/10)*100=20%

Discharge (m3/S)
2.40 m3/s 30%
1.90 m3/s 40%
1.60 m3/s 50% 3
1.30 m3/s 60% 2
1.00 m3/s 70%
1
0.60 m3/s 80% QT
0.40 m3/s 90%
0.25 m3/s 100%
Qmin
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of time

T
When we plot above date on graph, we get FDC as shown in fig
 Discharge QT or more available ate T % of time.
 Qmin = Q100 is the minimum discharge available at 100% of time (always)

Firm power or Primary Power(PP)

 Amount of power which a plant can deliver throughout the year
 Corresponds to the min stream flow and available all the times
 Could be increased by ponding
Secondary Power(SP) or Surplus power
 Excess power available in the plant exceeding PP
 Available only during some part of year
 Available when discharge of river exceeds min discharge

FDC
Discharge (m3/S)

Secondary power

Primary Power
Percentage of time
MEAN LOAD:
It may be defined as the average load during a given period of time
PEAK LOAD:
It refers to the highest demand of load during a given period of time (4/3 times greater than mean
load).
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For example, the maximum demand during a day is in between 6 pm to 10 pm.

LOAD FACTOR:
It is defined as ratio of average load during a time period to peak load during the same period. It
can be daily load factor, weekly load factor, monthly load factor according to time period.
average load
Load factor=
peak load

Daily load factor =

UTILIZATION FACTOR:
It is defined as the ratio of peak load over a period of time to the installed capacity.
utilization factor =
It is also defined as the ratio of quantity of water actually utilized for power production to that
available in river. It varies from 0.4 to 0.9.
utilization factor =

CAPACITY FACTOR (PLANT FACTOR):

It is the ratio of average power generated for a given period of time to the plant capacity.
It is also the ratio of actual power produced by the plant for a given period of time to the power it
would be capable of producing at its full capacity for that period of time.

Capacity factor =

Also, Capacity factor =

Numerical Examples:

1. A hp plant has an installed capacity of 30,000 kW. The yearly output of the plant is 17,000 kW.
The peak load is 25,000 kW. Determine annual load factor, capacity factor.
2. The load on a hydropower plant varies from minimum of 10 MW to 35 MW. Two generators of
capacities 22 MW have been installed. Calculate load factor, plant factor and utilization factor.
3. A ROR plant operates at 25% load factor with an installed capacity of 16 MW. Find the flow rate
in the stream if the efficiency and head are 85% and 20 m respectively. Find maximum load
factor of the plant when flow rate is 35 cumecs.
4. A ROR plant is purposed to construct on a river having net head 50 m. The river carries a minimum
flow of 20 cumecs. Assuming the plant efficiency of 65%, determine the maximum plant capacity.
Power grid system
 Several power plants which are inter connected to form a power grid system
 Such a power system is capable to satisfy demand without any interruption even breakdowns and
shutdowns of any hp plant
Types:
1. Isolated system:
 No link to national grid

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 Power supply Load center

2. Interconnected power system:

 Linkage with national grid
Components of power grid system
 Load dispatch center
 substation
 distribution
 House hold

Turbine Generator Sub station Transmission

Sub-station
Consumer Transformer
transmission

Turbine:
 Hydraulic machine which convert hydraulic energy of flowing water to mechanical energy.
 It is connected to generator.
 Consists of wheel (called runner) & blades or buckets.
 Flowing water strikes the blade or bucket of turbine causing rotation of turbine.
 Following are main types of turbines
 Francis turbine
 Pelton turbine
 Kaplan turbine

1. Francis turbine

fig. Francis turbine

 fig.PELTON WHEEL

fig. Kaplan turbine

Short questions:

1. What is hydropower?
2. What is primary power?
3. What is load factor?
4. What is capacity factor?
5. What is utilization factor?
6. What is turbine?
7. Define peak load and mean load.
8. Differentiate between Run of River hydropower plant and storage hydropower plant.

Long questions:
1. Describe hydropower development in Nepal.
2. What is FDC and what are its uses?
3. Draw a typical layout plan of ROR hydropower plant.
4. Explain about power system.
5. Draw general layout plan of hydropower project. (SLC-2071)

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