Gop Uty 05 (CT2)

Job Qualification Program
GOP-UTY-05
COOLING TOWER II
DOCUMENT : GOP-UTY-05
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Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

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ORIG. PREPARED BY : SBH
Prepared By: ____________________________________________

Shabbir Hussain (UTY Engineer)
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Reviewed By: Unit Manager Training, Unit Manager Operations
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Approved By: Department Manager(Training)
Change Record
S. No. Rev. No. Date Page No. Section Description of Change
01
02
03
04
05
Distribution List
1 LAN
2 Training Manager (Original Copy)
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Content
1. Purpose ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Abbreviation......................................................................................................................... 3
3. Technical Terms ................................................................................................................... 3
4. Introduction to Cooling Tower............................................................................................. 4
5. Operating Principles ........................................................................................................... 11
6. Cooling Tower Terminologies ............................................................................................ 14
7. Laws Governing Cooling In a Cooling Tower...................................................................... 22
8. Construction of Cooling Tower .......................................................................................... 25
9. Process Description ............................................................................................................ 27
10. Equipment Description ...................................................................................................... 31
11. Water Chemistry Major Problems ..................................................................................... 36
12. Lab Result Limits ................................................................................................................ 52
13. CT-II Excursions Handling Plan ........................................................................................... 53
14. DCS Schematics .................................................................................................................. 54
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1. Purpose
The purpose of this document is to give detail introduction on the Cooling tower II at EDC/VCM plant
2. Abbreviation
JQP Job Qualification Program

SOP Standard Operating Procedure
T/A Trade Apprentice
TAE Trainee Assistant Engineer
UMO Unit Manager Operations
VP Manuf. Vice President Manufacturing
3. Technical Terms
CT Cooling tower
CW Cooling water
TDS Total dissolved solids
KW Kilo Watt
I.A Instrument Air
P.A Plant Air
P & ID Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
CCPP Combined cycle power plant
MCC Motor control center
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4. Introduction to Cooling Tower
Most of the water employed for industrial purposes is used for cooling a product of process. The
availability of water in most industrialized areas and its high heat capacity have made water the
favored heat transfer medium in industrial and utility type applications. Direct air cooling is finding
increasing use, particularly in water-short areas but is still far behind water in total numbers of
applications and total heat transfer loading.
During recent years, the use of water for cooling has come under increasing scrutiny from both
environmental and conservational points of view and as a result, cooling water use patterns are
changing and will continue to do so. For example, many systems pass cooling water through the plant
system only once and return it to the watershed. This creates a high water withdrawal rate and adds
heat to the receiving stream.
What is a Cooling Tower?
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere through the
cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of
water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in
the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-
bulb air temperature.
Why are Cooling Water Systems Needed In Industries?
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or
heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat
absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power plants, petroleum refineries,
petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants,
and for other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in
crystallization, etc.
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Classification of Cooling Towers by Heat Transfer Methods

With respect to the heat transfer mechanism employed, the main types are
 Dry cooling towers operate by heat transfer through a surface that separates the working
fluid from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat exchanger, utilizing convective heat
transfer. They do not use evaporation.
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 Wet cooling towers or open circuit cooling towers operate on the principle of evaporative
cooling. The working fluid and the evaporated fluid (usually water) are one and the same.
 Fluid coolers or closed circuit cooling towers are hybrids that pass the working fluid through
a tube bundle, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The
resulting heat transfer performance is much closer to that of a wet cooling tower, with the
advantage provided by a dry cooler of protecting the working fluid from environmental
exposure and contamination.
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Classification of cooling towers with respect to drawing air through the tower
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
 Natural draft — Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises
due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air
is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an
upwards current of air through the tower.
 Mechanical draft — uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower.
o Induced draft — a mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top)
which pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of
recirculation in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin
arrangement is also known as draw-through.
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 Forced draft — a mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces
air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity
is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more
susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a forced
draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft
design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high static pressure.
Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This
fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-through
 Fan assisted natural draft-A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup, though
airflow is assisted by a fan.
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Categorization of Cooling Towers by Air-To-Water Flow

With respect to air-to-water flow, there are three types of cooling towers:
 Cross flow: Cross flow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water
flow. Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material.
Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the
fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out
into the atmosphere.
Advantages of the cross flow design:
o Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
o Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.
o Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.
Disadvantages of the cross flow design:
o More prone to freezing than counter flow designs.

o Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
o More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counter flow designs, especially in dusty or sandy
areas.
 Counter flow: In a counter flow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow
(see diagram at left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then
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drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the
tower, and then flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.
Advantages of the counter flow design:
o Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.

o Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.
Disadvantages of the counter flow design:
o Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
o Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively affected.
o Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the cold
water basin
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5 .Operating Principles
A cooling tower is Semi enclosed device for evaporative cooling of water by contact with air. The fan
centered at the top draws air through cooling tower cells through a suction chamber beneath the fan.
Draft turns the air upward toward fan outlet. Water falls from the distribution boxes in a cascade of
small drops over the splash bars and across the air stream. As the water droplets come in contact with
the air stream, evaporation takes place. As the liquid changes to vapor, heat is consumed called the
latent heat of vaporization, it amounts to about 1,000 BTU per pound of water evaporated.
This heat is taken mainly from water that remains, lowering its temperature. Sensible heat, defined as
heat that changes temperature, is also part of cooling picture, because when water is warmer than air
there is some tendency ( in addition to evaporation ) for air to cool the water. Air then gets hotter as
it gains sensible heat; water is cooled as sensible heat is transferred to air.
What Is Involved In The Cooling Process?

Cooling involves transfer of heat from one substance to another. The substance that losses heat is
said to cooled, and the one that heat receives the heat is referred to as the coolant. All cooling
systems rely on this give and take action, with water being the most widely used coolant.
Why Is Water Used For Cooling?

Several factors make water an excellent.
a) It is normally plentiful, readily available and inexpensive
b) It is easily handled
c) It can carry large amount of heat per unit volume
d) It does not expand or compress significantly within normally encountered temperature ranges
e) It does not compose
Heat Transfer Process Involved In Cooling Tower

 Latent heat of vaporization due to change to stage of some portion of the water from
liquid to vapor.
 Sensible heat transfer due to the difference in temperature of water and air. Approximate
80% of this heat transfer is due to latent heat and 20% from sensible heat. Theoretical heat
removal per Lb. of air circulated in a cooling tower depends on temperature and humidity
moisture content air. An Indication of humidity is wet bulb temperature. Ideally, then, the wet
bulb temperature is the lowest temperature to which the water can be cooled. Practically the
cold water temperature approaches but does not equal to the air wet bulb temperature in
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cooling tower, this is due to fact that it is impossible to contact all the water with fresh air. The
performance of cooling tower depends upon:
i. Cooling Range
ii. Approach
iii. Air to water ratio
iv. Wet bulb temperature
v. Contact time to air
vi. Tower height
vii. Types of fillings.
viii. Fan characteristics.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is simply the movement of heat from one body to another, the hotter being the source
and the cooler the receiver. In cooling water systems, the product or process being cooled is the
source and cooling water the receiver.
Cooling water usually does not contact the source directly; the materials are usually both fluids,
separated by a barrier that is good conductor of heat, usually a metal. The barrier that allows heat to
pass from the source to the receiver is called the heat transfer surface, and the assembly of barriers in
a containment vessel is a heat exchanger.
In many industrial heat exchangers both the source and receiver are liquids. If the source is steam or
other vapor that is liquefied, the heat exchanger is called a condenser; if the receiver is a liquid that is
vaporized, the exchanger is called an evaporator.
The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of a tube or pipe located concentrically inside another--
the shell. This is called a double pipe exchanger. In this simple exchanger, process liquid flows through
the inner tube and cooling water through the annulus between the tubes.
Heat flows across the metal wall separating the fluids. Since both fluids pass through the exchanger
only once, the arrangement is called a single-pass heat exchanger.
If both liquid flow in the same direction, the exchanger is parallel or concurrent flow; if they move in
opposite directions, the exchangers is a countercurrent type.
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Removing Undesirable Heat

Once the water completes its job and cools the source, it contains heat that must be dissipated. This is
accomplished by transferring heat to the environment. In once-through systems cool water is
withdrawn, heated and returned to a receiving stream, which subsequently becomes warmer. In this
type of system each pound (0.454 kg) of cooling water is heated 1 °F (0.56 °C) for each Btu (0.252 cal)
removed from the source.
In open recirculation systems, water is evaporated; this phase change from liquid to gas discharged
heat to the atmosphere instead of to a stream. Evaporating water dissipates about 1000 Btu per
pound (555 cal /kg) of water converted to vapor. When evaporation is used in the cooling process, it
can dissipate 50 to 100 times more heat to the environment per unit of water than a non-evaporative
system.
Sensible Heat Transfer

The two most common ways heat is transferred from process fluid to cooling water in the heat
exchange process are conduction and convection. Heat flows from a hot fluid through a heat
exchange surface to the other side by conduction. Heat is then removed from this heated water then
mixes with other cooler water in a heat transfer process called convection.
The five factors controlling conductive heat transfer are:

1- The heat transfer characteristics (thermal conductivity) of the barrier.
2- The thickness of the heat transfer barrier.
3- The surface area of the barrier.
4- The temperature difference between the source and the cooling water (the driving force).
5- Insulating deposits on either side of the barrier.
On these five factors, the first three are in the design of the exchanger. Items 4 and 5 are operational
characteristics that change depending on the conditions of service. Deposits on either side of a metal
barrier have a lower thermal conductivity than the metal itself, so the rate of heat conduction is
reduced by any deposit. For example, a buildup of 0.1 in. (0.25 cm) of calcium carbonate scale on a
heat exchanger tube wall may reduce the rate of heat transfer by as much as 40%.
This reduction means that the cooling water may not remove sufficient heat from the process.
Therefore, production must be slowed or the flow of cooling water must be increased to maintain the
same cooling rate that prevailed before fouling developed. Frequently the latter is not possible, and
the productivity of the process unit or the entire plant is reduced.
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6.Cooling Tower Terminologies
The following are some of the terms used in conjunction with cooling towers.
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)

The temperature of the air measured by the ordinary thermometer is called as the dry bulb
temperature of air, commonly referred as DBT. When ordinary thermometer is exposed to the
atmosphere, it indicates the dry bulb temperature, which is nothing but the atmospheric
temperature.
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT)

The wet bulb temperature of air is also measured by the ordinary thermometer, but the only
difference is that the bulb of the thermometer is covered by the wet cloth. Temperature of the
ordinary air measured by the thermometer when it is covered by wet cloth or wick is called as the wet
bulb temperature, commonly referred to as WBT. When the air comes in contact with the wet cloth it
absorbs some moisture and gives up some heat, sue to which the temperature of the air reduces. This
reduced temperature measured by the thermometer is called as the wet bulb temperature.
Cooling Range CWR-CWS

The difference in temperature between hot water entering the tower and cold water leaving is called
cooling range.
Approach CWS-WET Bulb

The difference between temperature of cold water leaving the tower and wet bulb temperature of
surrounding air is called as approach.
Heat Load
The rate at which heat is thrown off by tower, expressed in BTU per hour (or per minute). It equals
water circulation rate multiplied by cooling range.
Drift
Water lost as mist or fine droplets. These are entrained by the circulating air flow and discharged
independent of the water lost by evaporation.
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Blow Down
The continuous or intermittent discharge of a small amount of circulating water. Evaporation of water
in the tower increases its dissolved solids concentration. Blow down removes enough of this water to
maintain the dissolved solids concentration below maximum allowable limits for trouble free
operation.
Make-Up
The water required to replace normal system losses caused by evaporation, drift, blow down and
small leaks.
Cycles of Concentration
The ratio of dissolved solids in the make-up water with dissolved solids in circulating water is called as
Cycle of concentration. The cycle of concentration is equal to ratio of hardness in circulating water to
hardness in make-up water.
Absolute Humidity “H”

Equal the pounds of water vapor carried by one pound of dry air. When the partial pressure ‘‘p’’ of
water vapor in the air at a given temperature equal the vapor pressure of water PS at the same
temperature, the air saturated and the absolute humidity is designated the saturation humidity H S.
Percentage Absolute Humidity

It is defined as the ratio of absolute humidity to saturation humidity and is given by:
% abs. Humidity (HA) = H/Hs x 100

* H=p/(P-p)
*Hs=ps/(P-ps)
Percentage Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of moisture in the air relative to the total amount of
moisture the air can hold. For instance, if the relative humidity was 50%, then the air is only half
saturated with moisture. Warmer air can hold more moisture than colder air.
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Why Is Relative Humidity Important?

Without humidity, there would be no clouds, no precipitation, and no fog. Humidity is simply water
vapor in the air, which is needed to form rain. Additionally, water vapor holds heat in the air. It is a
greenhouse gas, which means it is a can absorbs heat and warms the atmosphere. This is why humid
air feels warmer.
It is define as the partial pressure of water vapor in air divided by the vapor pressure of water at the
given temperature
% Relative humidity (HR)= p/ps x 100.
Humid Heat
Cs is the heat necessary to increase the temperature of one lb. or one gm. of gas, plus whatever vapor
it contain by 1 0F or 1 0C.
CS = CpS + H
Where CpB and CpA are the specific heat of gas and vapors, respectively.
Humid Volume
Is the volume in cubic feet of 1 lb. of dry air and the water vapor it contains?
Dew Point or Saturation Temperature
Is the temperature at which a given mixture of water vapor and air is saturated, i.e., the temp at
which water exerts a vapor pressure equal to the partial pressure of the water vapor in the given
mixture?
Once-Through Cooling System
Once-through water is taken from the plant supply, passed through the cooling system, and
returned to the receiving body of water. Heat has been picked up from the source. The chief
characteristic of once-through water system is the relatively large quantity of water that is
usually used for cooling. A typical chemical treatment program for corrosion control may use
various types of inorganic phosphates alone or synergized with zinc. When applied at the low
levels required for economical treatment of once-through systems, these materials form no
visible film on the metal surface; nevertheless, they can reduce the corrosion rate by as much
as 90% over no treated systems. Corrosion protection is provided because the chemicals act at
the point of potential metal loss, hindering the corrosion reaction and thereby reducing the
amount of metal removed from the surface. Where scale is a problem, it is most often calcium
carbonate resulting from a change in the stability index of the water.
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Poly phosphates are typically used for scale control in potable water systems. In no potable
applications, phosphates, specific acrylate polymers or phosphate /acrylates combinations are more
effective scale inhibitors. These inhibitors function in two ways to prevent calcium carbonate scale on
heat transfer surfaces and in distribution lines:
1- They interface with the potentially scaling ions and prevent crystal growth. Inorganic
polyphosphates and organ phosphorus compounds are normally used alone or together for
this purpose (threshold treatment). Occasionally acid is used to adjust the stability index of
the water thereby preventing CaCO3 scale. Acid will not control iron and manganese
scales. Usually it is not the most economical method for treating high-volume once-
through systems for prevention of CaCO3 scale.
2- They condition crystal nuclei to prevent their growth on heat transfer surfaces and
transmission lines. This process of crystal modification uses various polymers and
phosphate compounds -- both organic and inorganic -- and sometimes natural organics.
Fouling the deposition of particulate matter, manganese, or microbial masses, is a complex
mechanism governed by variables such as particle size and charge; water velocity, composition, and
temperature; and bacterial populations.
One approach to handling this problem is to condition foulants such as iron and manganese as they
develop by continuously applying specific polymers so that the conditioned material will be carried
out of the system. The success of this approach depends on adequate water velocities throughout the
system. Low velocity areas, such as in shell side exchangers, reactor jackets, and compressor jackets,
are likely to accumulate some sludge and may not be amenable to protection.
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A second approach involves dispersing the suspended solids into very tiny particles thereby
preventing their agglomeration into sufficiently large particles that would readily settle out of the
water.
These small particles can be more easily carried through the system. Chemicals frequently used
include surfactants and low molecular weight polymers. The choice of the best dispersant depends on
the problems to be solved. Polymers can be tailor-made to optimize dispersant performance for
specific foulants. This is especially true for foulants such as iron and manganese.
Most fouling problems in all types of cooling systems are complicated by microbial activity. Slime
deposits on tubes not only interface with efficient heat transfer, but act as a trap to enmesh
suspended solids, further impeding heat transfer. In addition, by-products of bacterial metabolism
influence water chemistry, including the tendency for scale to form or metal to corrode. Proper use of
biocides and bio dispersants can be major step toward solving a once-through fouling problem.
Rarely do corrosion, scale, and fouling occur independently of one another. Usually two or all three
develop together to cause loss of heat transfer and premature metal loss. For example, microbial
fouling can cause scaling and corrosion to occur; corrosion can contribute to iron fouling and
encourage more corrosion to occur. To break this cycle, proper problem identification is important for
selecting and applying a practical, economical solution to any deposit problem.
Closed Recirculating Cooling Systems

A closed recirculation system is one which the water is circulated in a closed loop wit negligible
evaporation or exposure to the atmosphere or other influences that would affect the chemistry of the
water in the system. These systems usually require high chemical treatment levels, and, since water
losses are negligible, these levels are economical. High-quality makeup water is generally used for
best system operation. These systems are frequently employed for critical cooling applications, such
as continuous casters in the steel industry where the slightest deposit from any source could cause
equipment failure.
Figure shows a simplified closed recirculation system. Heat is transferred to the closed cooling water
loop by typical heat exchange equipment and is closed loop to a secondary cooling water cycle. The
secondary loop could use either evaporative or once-through water cooling, or air cooling.
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Velocity of water in closed systems is generally in the 3 to 5 f/s (0.9 to 1.5 m/s) range. Temperature
rise usually averages 10 to 15 °F (6 to 9 °C), although some systems can exceed this substantially.
Generally closed systems require little or no makeup water except for pump seal leak, expansion tank
overflows, and surface evaporation from system vents. This periodic makeup requires regular analysis
for control of correct treatment chemical residuals.
Closed systems usually contain a combination of different metals which provide a high potential for
galvanic corrosion. The potential for dissolved oxygen attack is generally quite low in closed systems
because of the small amount of makeup water-- the main oxygen source. However, in systems that
require substantial makeup because of loss of water from leaks, oxygen is continually supplied and
oxygen corrosion presents a serious problem. Oxygen can, at elevated temperatures or at points of
high heat transfer, cause severe pitting corrosion.
Since relatively little makeup is added to most closed recirculation systems, it is practical and
desirable to maintain the system in a corrosion-free condition. This is normally achieved by applying
chromates, nitrite / nitrate-based inhibitors, or soluble oil-type treatments at rather high
concentrations.
Theoretically, scale should be a minor problem in a closed system since the water is not concentrated
by evaporation. In a tightly closed system, none of the common scale-forming constituents deposit
on metal surfaces to interfere with heat transfer or encourage corrosion.
With high makeup rates, however, additional scale forms with each new increment of water added so
that in time, scale becomes significant. In addition, there is opportunity for sludge, rust, and
suspended solids to drop out at low flow points and back on heat transfer surfaces to form a hard
deposit.
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Therefore, scale retardants and dispersants are usually included as part of a closed system treatment
program where makeup rates are high. Often soft water or condensate is used for makeup to closed
systems depending on the characteristics of the systems being protected.
Because water circulating through a closed system is not exposed to the atmosphere, fouling by
airborne silt and sand is rare. However, fouling by microbial masses may occur in closed systems
where makeup rate is significant or process leaks encourage bacterial growths. These are controlled
with biological control agents formulated to be compatible with the chemical treatments and
operating conditions found in closed systems.
It is desirable as a part of routine maintenance to flush closed water systems with high-pressure high-
velocity water to remove accumulated debris if makeup rates are high.
Open Recirculating Cooling System

An open recirculation system incorporates a cooling tower or evaporation pond to dissipate the heat
it removes from the process or product as shown in figure. An open recirculation system takes water
from a cooling tower basin or pond, passes it through process equipment requiring cooling, and then
returns the water through the evaporation unit, where the water is evaporated. The open
recirculation system repeats this process of reuse, taking in sufficient fresh water makeup to balance
the water evaporated and that blow down from the system to control the chemical character of the
reticulating water. This greatly reduces water demand (e.g., withdrawal from a river) and discharge.
By virtue of the evaporation, this takes place in cooling tower the dissolved solids in water become
concentrated. The loss of water due to evaporation is made up by the makeup water as compared
with the makeup water.
For example 4.0 cycles of concentration indicate that the circulating water is four times in
concentration of makeup water.
As the water becomes concentrated (dissolved solids), it develops the scale forming tendencies. Poor
quality water, having more dissolved solids contents will show more scale forming tendency upon
concentration than good quality water. In open circulating cooling water like we have, where water is
concentrated by evaporation, the problem of scale formation is more troublesome. The types of
scales formed are calcium carbonate, calcium, Magnesium silicate and the calcium sulfate. Due to the
fact that calcium carbonate is considerably less soluble than calcium sulfate, the type of scale formed
in circulating water is principally calcium carbonate in majority of cases. These scales when formed
greatly reduce the heat transfer efficiencies of the heat exchangers and it is essential to take steps to
prevent these depositions.
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Spray Ponds
A spray pond consists of a piping and spray nozzle arrangement suspended over an outdoor open
reservoir of pond.
Spray ponds must be located where atmospheric air can circulate freely through the spray, because
their capacity depends in part on wind velocity. A wind velocity of 4 miles/hr. or more considered
good.
Besides wind velocity, the cooling capacity of pond for a given number of nozzles also depends on
how finely the nozzles break up, the water, the height of the nozzles above the pond, and the height
of the spray.
The nozzle rows are usually from 4 to 7 ft. above the pond surface. Nozzle capacity varies from 20 to
50 GPM at pressured of about 10-psi. It is common practice to deliver form 0.2 to 0.5 GPM of spray
water per square feet of pond area. Drift lost is usually from 4% to 8% depending upon such factors as
nozzle pressure, the height of the nozzles above the water, and the height of the louvered fences.
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7 .Laws Governing Cooling In a Cooling Tower
1. Fluids require heat to change from a liquid state to a gaseous state and give up heat in changing
from a gas to a liquid. When a portion of water is vaporized the remaining water is cooled. When
100 gallons of water is cooled by 10°F the evaporation loss is 1 gallon.
2. The temperature at which a change of stage occurs, for a pure substance, is constant during the
change but this temperature will vary with the pressure. An increase in pressure requires an
increase in temperature to change water to vapors. The lowers the partial pressure of water
vapors in the air, it will be easier for the water to vaporize in that air and hence the cooler will be
the remaining water.
3. Heat will always flow from a body at a higher temperature to a body at lower temperature. Some
heat is therefore transfer by direct heat transfer to the air through tower.
The above three laws govern the process whereby cooling towers operate. The largest factor in
cooling tower operations is the process of evaporation. Evaporation rate depends upon following
factors:
1. Evaporation increases as temperature increase

2. Evaporation increases with the extent of exposed surface area.
3. Evaporation is much greater in dry air than in air containing water vapors.
4. Evaporation increases as the vapor is removed from the surface of liquid.
5. The rate of evaporation is determined by the pressure on the exposed surface. In this case,
atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the exposed surface
What is an AVGF?
 An AVGF is a highly efficient gravity filter that operates automatically without a single valve,
backwash pump, flow controller or any instruments.
 The filter operates on the loss of head principle.
 As the filter bed collects dirt during the filter run, head loss increases and the water level raises
in both the inlet and backwash pipes. The backwashing thus begins when the siphon is
established.
Principle of Operation of AVGF

 The AVGF operates automatically on the head loss principle.
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 The AVGF is accepted as being the most accurate control besides eliminating the need for
continuous analysis of filtrate turbidity which is seldom practical.
 The head loss at which the AVGF initiates backwashing is determined by the height of the
inverted U turn of the top of the backwash pipe.
 The level of water in this pipe is proportional to the head loss across the filter bed.
Water from the inlet container passes down the inlet pipe and enters the filter through inlet weir box.
Air is released through the air vent provided. Water flows down through the filter bed and strainers
into the clear water collector. Dirt and suspended impurities are trapped on the bed. Clean water
flows upward through the effluent duct and after the backwash chamber is filled, it flows through the
effluent pipe to service and comes out as filtrate outlet.
Filtering
Water from the inlet container passes down the inlet pipe and enters the filter through inlet weir box.
Air is released through the air vent provided. Water flows down through the filter bed and strainers
into the clear water collector. Dirt and suspended impurities are trapped on the bed. Clean water
flows upward through the effluent duct and after the backwash chamber is filled, it flows through the
effluent pipe to service and comes out as filtrate outlet. Filtration over a period of time as the filter
bed collects dirt during the filter run, the head loss increases gradually, and the water level rises in the
inlet and backwash pipe. Just before the water passes over into the downward section of the
backwash pipe, a small portion flows into the ejector supply line, through the ejectors, and into the
sump. The water flowing through the ejector evacuates air from the backwash pipe. This pulls water
rapidly over into the pipe so that large volume of water flows down the backwash pipe and starts the
siphon action.
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Filtration over a period of time

As the filter bed collects dirt during the filter run, the head loss increases gradually, and the water
level rises in the inlet and backwash pipe. Just before the water passes over into the downward
section of the backwash pipe, a small portion flows into the ejector supply line, through the ejectors,
and into the sump. The water flowing through the ejector evacuates air from the backwash pipe. This
pulls water rapidly over into the pipe so that large volume of water flows down the backwash pipe
and starts the siphon action.
Backwashing
Once the siphon has been established between the filter and the sump, the pressure immediately
above the filter bed is lower than the pressure in the backwash chamber. This causes water from the
backwash compartment to flow down through the effluent duct, into the collector chamber and
upwards through the strainers, expanding the bed and cleaning it. The backwash water with dirt
passes up the backwash pipe, over the U-bend and out through the sump to waste.
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8.Construction of Cooling Tower
The subject of this operating manual refers to the DezhouYatai Group Company LTD. Induced Draught
Counter flow Cooling Towers to dissipate heat generated in the process at our plant.
Description
The induced draft cooling tower makes the heat exchange between the cooling fluid and the induced
air through the tower. The air is then rejected to the atmosphere, loaded with vapor resulting from
the heat exchanger. The tower is mainly composed of:
1. A frame work and its cladding;

2. A system of fluid distribution and dispersion above the fill;
3. The exchange surfaces forming the filling;
4. A basin collecting the fluid cooled and from which the circulating pumps feed the
various utilities.
5. A fan removing the air necessary to the heat exchange;
6. Drift eliminators which catch practically all the water droplets in the air before it is
rejected to the atmosphere.
Design Data
Engineering : DezhouYatai Group Co.Ltd.
Type : Induced draft Counter Flow
Flow : 22500 m3 / h
Hot water temp. : 41°C
Cold water temp. : 31°C
Wet bulb temp. : 27°C
Cooling Range : 10°C
Approach : 4 °C
Wind load : 2.31 m/s
Drift losses : 0.0005% Design Basis
Evaporation losses : <1.6% Design Basis
Number of cells : 5
No. of fan per cell : 01
Tower axial dimensions : 19.5 X 19.5 m
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Fan stack height : 2m

Tower exposure : Open
Concentration factor : 3--5
TDS in makeup water : 232 mg/l
Return pressure : .20 MPa
Pit : Concrete
Fan stacks : FRP
Fill : S-CORRUGATED, CPVC
Water distribution piping: Header : Q235/UPVC
Nozzles : ABS (Engineering Plastics)
1. A frame work and its cladding

2. A system of fluid distribution and dispersion above the fill;
3. The exchange surfaces forming the filling;
4. A basin collecting the fluid cooled and from which the circulating pumps feed the
various utilities.
5. A fan removing the air necessary to the heat exchange;
6. Drift eliminators which catch practically all the water droplets in the air before it is
rejected to the atmosphere.
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9.Process Description
There are five cells T-4401A/B/C/D/E in cooling towers each separated by wall. Each cell comprises of
layers of PVC fillings. There are six pumps P-4402A/B/C/D/E/F for normal cooling water circulation and
three pumps PU-8402A/B/C for Fast Track. Normally two pumps are in operation while one of them is
on backup in fast track. Each cell has one induced draft fan located at the top of the cell.
The hot water falls down and collected in basin (cooling water pit) V-4403. Cooling Water from basin
is supplied through three cooling water pumps PU-8402A/B/C (one is stand by) to all the users of PVC-
II and Utilities plants for Fast Track. The pumps take suction from basin through 18 inch suction line
equipped with strainers and discharges through 14 inch line into 20 inch common header. . The
Supply header is equipped with temperature indictor TE-8402 and pressure indictor PT-8402 with
signals to DCS. If supply header pressure is decreased to .45 MPa low pressures alarm is generated on
DCS panel through PISA 8402.
PU-8401A-C is provided on emergency power supply Bus of PVC-II substation. PU-8402A/B/C will
continue to operate on DEG power in case of GTG failure.
The hot water from PVC-II returns to the cooling tower through 20” dia pipe. The return header is also
equipped with temperature indictor TI-8401, PI-8401 and FI-8401 with signals to DCS. Hot Water
enters the hot water channel of the cooling tower and rises up through the risers, located at the
corner of each cell. Hot water is then led to the top of the cooling tower through 2” dia pipe.
The flow of water to each cell is controlled by butterfly valve on 4” reducer on return line. Water from
the top of the cooling tower falls by gravity through eight down spout (in each cell) located in each
portion of the cell. All down spouts are equipped with fourteen splash plates through which water is
sprayed down. Water is further splashed down by passing through series of fillings. The splashing
increases the surface area and time of contact with air. Thus the hindrance of flow results in better
and efficient heat transfer.
The cold water is collected in main sump or pit from where it is again pumped to its users as CWS. The
hot air is released into atmosphere through drift eliminators to avoid any carryover of mist or fine
water droplets. With the passage of time due to evaporation and drift losses cooling water becomes
concentrated in terms of TDS which can cause other operational problems. To cater this problem
continuous blow down CBD is done via 6 inch CWR line from utilities return line. The blow down
comes directly into waste water. This line is equipped with flow gauge FG-4404.
Because of evaporation, drift and blow down in cooling tower, water level decreased and to
compensate that make up water is provided with fresh IW. The level of cooling water pit is controlled
on AUTO through LCV-4402. Also by pass line of this controller is provided.
A provision has been given to inject H2SO4by dosing pump to maintain the pH in the basin which is
controlled by AIC-4401. Sodium hypochlorite, BULAB-9063, BULAB-9067, BULAB-8006 BULAB-7024,
and BULAB-6057 are added through respective dosing pumps to maintain water chemistry
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IW Water Supply
The IW is being used for makeup is supplied from OSBL PQA reservoirs through 26 inch line up to TEE
near BOC Plant, from there line dia reduced up to 18 inch. The water flows by gravity to EPCL
underground reservoir. From this pit PU-8104 process the RW for removal of suspended solids
through Sand filter (FL-8102) to FW tank (VE-8101). From FW tank through PU-8104 IW tank V-4601 is
filled. Make up water for Cooling Tower is also supplied from this vessel through PU-8104.
Make Up Water Quality

Make up is Kinjhar Gujjo Canal Water
PH 7.5
Total Hardness, ppm CaCO3 111.86 PPM
Cl, ppm Cl 43.9
SS after Sand filter 2
Side Stream Filter (N-4404A/B/C/D)
Since cooling tower system is an open recirculating system and wind velocity is quite high in this
region, suspended solids enter the cooling water from the atmosphere. In order to have an effective
control over these suspended solids, four side stream filters have been provided at east side of
cooling tower.
Instrumentation
The Cooling Tower and circulating lines are equipped with the following instruments.
LT-4402 Located at pit.V-4403
LCV-4402 Controls the CW pit level by adjusting the flow of makeup water. High
low level alarms also generated on DCS.
FIQ-4401 Located on IW 10” make up line for flow monitoring.
PI-8402 Located on CW 20” supply header for pressure monitoring.
PISA-8402 Low pressure alarm generated on DCS Panel
TICA-8402 Located on CW 20” supply header for supply temperature indication.
AIC-4401 Located on CWS 20” header to monitor pH of the system.
FIQ-8401 Located on CWR header to monitor CWR flow.
FG-4404 Located on CW 6” blow down line for controlling blow down through
manual valve.
TI-8401 Located on CW 20” return header for return temperature monitoring.
VAC-4401E Installed on induced draft fans for vibration monitoring. In case of high
vibration this switch will automatically trip the fan.
LIAC-4401E Installed on induced draft fan to monitor gear box oil level.
XA-4401E Installed on induced draft fan motor for over load trip.
N-4407A/B/C/D/E MOV motor installed on P-4402 discharge valve
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N-4406A/BC/D/E MOV motor installed on P-4402 suction valve.

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10.Equipment Description
Cooling Water Pit V-4403
This pit is made for Cooling water storage and recirculation

Capacity (m3) : 5731 m3
Dimension (m) : 99.76 m (L) 20.2m (W) +69.38m (L) x 4m (W) 2.5m (H)
Cooling Tower Fan (B-4420A/B/C/D/E)
These are installed at the top of cooling water. One on each cell. These fans induced atmospheric
air to be drawn up through the tower, warm water falls downward and it being cooled with air.
Mechanical Equipment Data

Number ……………………………………… 5
Manufacturer………………………………. BaodingHuiyang Aviation Propeller Factory
Type ....................................................Airfoil Type
Diameter (mm)...................................9.2 m
Number of blades / fans ....................10
Blade material ....................................Wing Type FRP
Speed .................................................119 RPM
Pitch Angle .........................................Variable as per requirement. (0-18)
Gear Box
Manufacturer BaodingHuiyang Aviation Propeller Factory
Type PX8045R2 - RRV8
Lubrication Gear oil
Ratio 11.3
Motor (B-4420A) Variable Frequency

Type ....................................................Rotor Caged Type
Nominal power ..................................220 KW
Nominal voltage .................................400 V
Frequency ..........................................5-50 Hz
Speed .................................................1480 RPM
Protection ..........................................IP 55
Insulation class ...................................F
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Motor (B-4420 B/C/D/E)

Type ....................................................Rotor Caged Type
Nominal power ..................................220 KW
Nominal voltage .................................6.6 KV
Frequency ..........................................50 Hz
Speed .................................................1480 RPM
Protection ..........................................IP 55
Insulation class ...................................F
Transmission shaft
Manufacturer BaodingHuiyang Aviation Propeller Factory
Type LF-92III
Each fan fitted with H.V security (high vibration) switch located at the gear box which trips the fan in
case of high vibration, high lube oil temperature, and low lube oil level.
Cooling Water Pumps (P-4402A/B/C/D/E/F)
Functions
These are installed to supply cold cooling water to the various process area of the plant; normally
five pumps are in service & one is standby, P-4402A/B/C/D/E/F
Capacity - 4500 m3/hr.
Discharge pressure - 5 kg/cm2
Head - 50m
Power - 900KW
Voltage - 6.6 KV
Cooling Water Pumps (FT) (PU-8402A/B/C)
Functions
These are installed to supply cold cooling water to PVC-II process area of the plant; normally two
Pumps are in service & one is standby, PU-8402A/B/C.
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Discharge pressure -. 88MPa
Head - 70m
Power - 220KW
Voltage - 415V
Side Stream Filter (N-4404A/B/C/D)

Function
Vessel and pump is installed in order to remove SS from CW.
Important Features

Dimension (ID) - 3.4 m
Material - C.S
Operation - Gravity Operated.
Acid Vessel (V-4412) & Injection Pump (P-4416A/B)

Function
A vessel (V-4412) and two acid injection pumps (P-4416A/B) were installed in order to inject sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) into the cooling tower basin, to control the pH 7.5 - 8.2.
Sulphuric Acid Storage Tank V-4412
Capacity - 10 m3
Material - CS
Size - 10.2 m, L=4m
Vessel equipped with Silica gel pot at absorbs moisture content.
Sulphuric Acid Dosing Pumps P-4416A/B

 Capacity - 0-25 l/hr.
 Discharge pressure - 3 kg/cm2
 Motor - 0.07 KW
 Material - PVDF
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Sulphuric Acid Unloading Pump P-4419

 Capacity - 0-6 m3/hr
 Discharge pressure - 1.5 kg/cm2
 Motor - 1.1 kw
Tank (V-4413)
Capacity 2000 L
Material PE
Function
Two injection pumps are installed in order to inject Dispersant into the cooling tower basin, to keep
the dissolved solids in suspension. It also controls biological growth by preventing colonies build up.
Dispersant Dosing Pumps P-4417A/B
Capacity - 4-6 l/hr.

Motor - 0.012 KW
Material - PE
Corrosion Inhibitor (BULAB-9063) Vessel & Injection Pump
Function
Two injection pumps with vessel are installed in order to inject corrosion inhibitor into the cooling
tower basin. This is actually a Zinc Phosphate based corrosion inhibitor.
Corrosion Inhibitor Dosing Pumps P-4415A/B
Capacity - 0 - 3 l/hr.
Motor - 0.24 KW
Material - PE
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10. Major Problems of Water Chemistry
1. Microbiological Growth
2. Corrosion
3. Scaling
4. Deposition
Micro Biological Contamination

Cooling water system provides an ideal environment for biomasses to growth.
Sources
The make-up water supply, wind and insects can all carry microorganisms into a cooling water system.
Factors Effecting Microbial Growth

a. Hydrocarbons or other carbon sources (Nutrients) can serve as food for slime forming
organisms.
b. Oxygen or Carbon dioxide presence enhances microbial growth.
c. Intensity of light expedites growth rates.
d. Slime tends to flourish between 40 and 150 0F.
Typical Microorganisms
1. Algae
2. Bacteria
a. Aerobic bacteria
b. Anaerobic bacteria
Bacteria can further be classified as: -
1. Slime - forming Bacteria
2. Iron deposition Bacteria
3. Nitrifying Bacteria
4. Denitrifying Bacteria
5. Sulfate -Reducing Bacteria
6. Fungi
a) Anaerobic Sulphate Reducing Bacteria grows under-deposits and produces H2S gas which corrodes
iron metallurgy
Fungi Dangerous only for wood structure
Algae May Foul tubes of the exchangers
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Microbiological Control
Two Types of biocides are used to control Microbiological growth
1-Oxidizing Biocide
a) Sodium Hypo Chlorite(Hypo)
b) Chlorine
c) Bromine(Bulab6041)
Reactions
NaOcl +H20 NaOH +HOCL (Biocide)
Cl2+H2O Hcl + HOCL
HOCL +NaBr(bromine) NaCl +HoBr(Biocide more effective at high pH)

Oxidizing biocide destroys
a) the organism’s cell walls
b) components of the cell’s protoplasm
c) cellular enzymes
2-Non-Oxidizing Biocide (Bulab6010)

1) kill bacteria under immune conditions
2) Only reaction mechanism is different from oxidizing
3) Very effective biocide for Sulfate Reducing Bacteria(SRB).
Bromine is more effective from chlorine and hypo as Hocl produced by both decomposes into OCl- at
high pH which is very weak biocide. Decomposition reaction of HoBr is very slow at high pH.
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HOCl & HOBr Equilibrium Curves

100% 0%
90%
HOBr pH % HOBr % HOCI HOBr: HOCI
10%
% Hypohalous Acid (Undissociated)
7.5 94 50 1.9: 1
% Hypohalite ion (Dissociated)

8.0 83 24 3.5: 1
80% 8.5 60 9 6.7: 1 20%
9.0 33 3 11.0: 1
in aqueous solution
in aqeuous solution
70% 30%
60% 40%
50%
HOCI 50%
40% 60%
30% 70%
20% 80%
10% 90%
0% 100%
6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
pH
Bacterial Growth Rate Versus

System Temperature
Relative
Growth
Rate
Thermo phobic Usual

organisms population
Of Thermo phillic
organisms organisms
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Temperature (o F)
Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention

Corrosion can be defined in very practical sense as the deterioration of metal caused by
the reaction with its surrounding environment. Because water is one the most common heat transfer
fluids, it is not surprising that most of the problems associated with corrosion and deposits are water
related. Chemically water is expressed as H2O. However dissolved gases (such as oxygen, carbon
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dioxide ammonia and chlorine) dissolved salts (such as calcium magnesium chloride sulfate
bicarbonate) & suspended solids make water something other than pure H2O
Reaction of oxygen with metal is called corrosion. Zero oxygen in cooling water, zero corrosion.
Mechanism of Corrosion Reaction

Our current knowledge of what takes place during the corrosion process has been sufficient to create
effective tools to combat corrosion in most situations.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which a difference in electrical potential develops b/w two
metals or b/w different parts of a single metal. This voltage can be measure when a metal is
electrically connected to a standard electrode; the electrical potential of a metal may be more or less
than the standard in which case the voltage is expressed as either “positive” of “negative”. The
difference in potential allows current to pass through the metal causing reactions at anodic and
catholic sites. These sites constitute the corrosion cell, the anode is the region of lower potential and
the cathode is the region of higher potential. At the anode the metal ions of in to the solution. In
general, lower the potential of anode, the greater the amount of metal dissolution and more serious
the corrosion problem.
Type of Corrosion
A General Corrosion
A uniform loss or general thinking of the metal characterizes this type of corrosion. Nearly all metals
have microscopic differences in their structure, which produce anodic and catholic changes in the
exposed surface. As corrosion occurs at the anodic areas a shift of the anodic and catholic areas
occurs, resulting in loss of metal of new anodic areas. This results in a general loss of the metal.
B. Localized Corrosion
Pitting is one of the best examples of localized corrosion. It takes place at small discrete areas where
overall metal loss is negligible. The pit develops at a localized anodic site on the surface and
continuous to grow because of a large catholic area surrounding the anode. High concentration of
metal chlorides often develops within the pit & hydrolyzes to produce an acidic pH environment. This
solution remains stagnant having a high salt content and low oxygen concentration. The reaction whit
in the pit becomes self-sustaining with very little tendency for them suppressed ultimately causing
penetration through the base metal.
C. Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when dissimilar materials are in contact in a conducting fluid (water).
Accelerated corrosion attacks the least resistant alloy, while the more resistant alloy is protected. The
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resistant of alloys can be described by the galvanic series. Which ranks these materials according to
their chemical reactivity in seawater. The metals close to the active end of the series will behave as
the anode and corrode, but those closer to the noble end will behave as the cathode and will be
protected.
Galvanic corrosion obviously must be considered in the design of heat transfer equipment. Alloys
close to one another in the galvanic series should be used. Less obvious are the damaging effects that
can occur when dissolved noble metal is transported through the water and is capable of depositing
on an active metal. For example, copper ions can plate out onto steel heat transfer tube surfaces,
establishing local corrosion cell.
D. Crevice Corrosion
Concentration-cell or crevice corrosion (under deposit attack) is an electrochemical attack that is due
to differences in the corrosive environment between a shielded area and its surroundings. Attack
usually occurs in areas containing small volume of stagnant solution, such as at tube sheet supports,
under deposits or tubercles, and at threaded joints. Corrosion is usually initiated because the oxygen
concentration within the crevice is lower than that of the surrounding area. The outside area is higher
in oxygen concentration and becomes the predominant catholic region. Anodic dissolution occurs at
the stagnant area. Once attack is underway, the area in the crevice or under a deposit becomes
increasingly more aggressive because of a decrease in pH and an increase in electrolyte concentration.
Differential aeration is a specific type of concentration cell and is the most common cause of
corrosion in cooling systems, regardless of how it got started (crevice, deposit, etc.).
E. Stress Corrosion Cracking

Corrosions can be accelerated by the stress, either residual internal stress in the metal or extremely
applied stress. Internal stresses are produced by non-uniform deformation during cold working
(bending, shearing punching etc.) by unequal cooling from high temperature and by internal structural
rearrangements involving volume change.
Virtually each alloy system has its specific environment conditions, which will produce stress corrosion
cracking, and the time of exposure required to produce failure will vary from minutes to years. Typical
examples include cracking of cold-formed brass in ammonia environments, cracking of arsenic
stainless steel in presence of chlorides. Presence of chlorides does not generally cause cracking of
austenitic stainless steels where temperature is below 350C. However, where temperature are high
enough to concentrate chlorides on the stainless surface, cracking may occur where the chloride
concentration in the surrounding media is a few parts per million.
F. Biological Corrosion
The metabolic activity of microorganisms, frequently the anaerobic sulfate reducing bacteria cause
corrosion of ferrous and to a less extent, copper materials as they affect changes in the film resistance
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create corrosive environments crate surface barriers. This sets up concentration cell or deposition
type corrosion.
G. Erosion Corrosion
It occurs in areas where turbulence intensity at the metal surface is high enough to cause mechanical
or electrochemical disruption of the protective film. Corrosion occurs at these sites and forms
horseshoe or crescent-shaped indentations facing upstream into the water flow. The process usually
is accelerated when abrasive solid particles, such as sand, are entrained in the water. Because
turbulence increased with velocity, metal surfaces in areas of higher water velocities are prone to
attack. For example, turbulence intensity is much higher at tube inlets than it is several feet down the
tube, resulting in the phenomenon of inlet-end, erosion-corrosion.
Factors Effecting Corrosion
A. Chemical Factors
1. PH
2. Dissolved salts
3. Dissolved gases
a). Oxygen
b). Carbon dioxide
c). Chlorine
d). Ammonia
e). Hydrogen Sulphide
4. Suspended solids
5. Microorganisms
B. Physical Factor
1. Relative metal areas
2. Temperature
3. Velocity
4. Metallurgy
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(Corrosion at tube surface)

Fe0 2Fe+ 4e-(anode)
O2+H20+2e- 4OH-(Cathode)
Fe+ + OH- Fe (OH) 2
Fe (OH) 2 +O2+H2O Fe (OH) 3
Fe (OH) 3 Fe2O3 (Dissolved iron) + H2O
Zinc is used as a cathodic inhibitor while Ortho Po4 is used as anodic inhibitor
Zn+2OH- Zn (OH) 2
Zn (OH) 2 precipitates’ out at catholic area and prevents it from corrosion by farming a thin protective
layer.
Ortho Po4 reacts with Fe+ and farms iron phosphate complex which precipitates out at anode and
prevents it from further corrosion. Corrosion always takes place at anode.
Note: Bulab 9063 is used as corrosion inhibitor which contain Zn/Po4.Znlimit =1.5-2.5 while Ortho
Po4=4.5-7.5ppm
Zinc/Po4 is only effective for carbon steel and stainless steel metallurgy.
Bulab9027 is used for copper metallurgy. It contains tolytriazole which farms Cu –Azole complex
layers at cathode and prevent copper metallurgy from corrosion. In fact corrosion is prevented from
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multi-layers; initially copper oxide (strong) and followed by cu-azole layers that’s why it also prevent
anodic corrosion
The operating limit of azole in CT-II is 0.5-1ppm.
Azole film O2 Cl-
Metal
1-2 molecules thick
Scale Deposition
Hard layer which cannot be removed easily called scale. Water, formed deposits, commonly referred
to as scale, can be defined as a crystalline growth of an adherent layer (barrier) of insoluble salt or
oxide on a heat exchanger surface. The rate of formation is a complicated function of much variable
including temperature, concentration of scale forming species, pH, water quantity, and hydrodynamic
conditions. The normal solubility of scale increase with temperature, but few, such as calcium
carbonate and calcium sulfate, has the opposite trend. Unfortunately, these scales are commonly
found in cooling water systems. The most occurring scales in cooling water system are listed below;
Most Common Less Frequent
Calcium Carbonate Iron Oxide

Calcium sulfate Zinc phosphate
Calcium phosphate Iron fluoride
Magnesium silicate silica Iron carbonate
Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3 is perhaps the most common scale found in cooling water systems. Calcium and bicarbonate
alkalinity are both needed to form this extremely tenacious scale (alkalinity is the concentration of
HCO3, CO3 , OH, ions present in the water.) An increase in heat and / or pH will cause the bicarbonate
ion to decompose to carbon dioxide and calcium carbonate.
Ca ( HCO3 )2 -------- CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
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The greatest concentration of CaCO3 will occur at the hottest areas along the heat transfer surfaces.
The bicarbonate salt is moderately soluble; the carbonate salt has very low solubility.
Calcium Sulphate
CaSO4 scale is found in cooling water systems is produces by treating CaCO3 alkalinity with HSO4 to
control pH of cooling water.
Ca (HCO3)2 + H2SO4 ------ CaSO4 + 2CO2 +2H2O
The solubility of CaSO4 increased until the temperature reaches approx. 38C and then gradually
decreases. The scale is 100 times more soluble than that of CaCO3 at normal cooling water
temperatures. The result is that the system can be run at higher cycles of concentrations.
A rule of thumb can be used for the safe upper limit of calcium and sulfate concentrations in
circulating water, in the absence of scale-inhibiting chemical. It is based on the product of the two
concentrations and expressed by the formula.
[Ca+2 in ppm] x [SO4-2 in ppm] = 500,000
Where the bracketed values are the respective ionic concentrations
Calcium Phosphate
Calcium phosphate scale is also common in cooling-water systems. It is the reaction product of
calcium and orthophosphate. Although calcium phosphate is rarely present in natural water, calcium
phosphate scale can occur when a phosphate-based treatment is added to cooling water as a
corrosion inhibitor Phosphate may also be present in river water or partially treated sewage waters
that are used for makeup.
Silicate Scales
Calcium and Magnesium silicate scales are very difficult to remove by chemical mean. Usually the
formation of silicate scales can be prevented by limiting silica levels to approx. 175 ppm in the re
circulating water. However precise limits to prevent magnesium silicate deposition are that the
magnesium and silica concentration are controlled so that the following solubility product is not
exceeded.
(Mg. ppm as CaCO3) * (SiO2) < 3500
Iron Salts
Soluble Iron is present in many make-up water supplies, especially in well water. It quickly oxidizes
and deposits as a Ferric Hydroxide or Ferric Oxide flock. Iron corrosion products are probably the
single largest cause of deposit problem in cooing water system
Organic phosphate (Bulab7024) is used as a scale inhibitor. It reacts with metal ions (ca+, Mg+) and
farm water soluble complex. Most effective for calcium carbonate and calcium Sulphate scaling.
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Polymer is used to prevent system from calcium phosphate and Zinc hydroxide scaling. It is used as a
stabilizer in zinc/po4 program. It has two functions
It destroy calcium carbonate crystal by breaking bond b/w calcium and carbonate ionBulab7041 and
Bulab9067 are polymers but Bulab7041 has extra property of iron dispersant as it is a ter polymer
(high stress polymer).
CO 3 CO 3
Ca
Ca Ca Polymer
CO 3 Molecule
CO 3
Ca
Ca Ca
CO 3 CO3
Crystal Growth Inhibition
Polymers compete for sites on the crystal
CO 3 CO 3
Ca
Ca Ca
CO 3
CO 3
Ca
Ca Ca
CO 3
Crystal Growth Distortion
Crystal lattice distorted by polymer

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Deposition and Control

Deposits are initially very soft and become hard due to high temperatures.
Mud deposits because of suspended solids and low flow
These are because of inorganic compounds .High suspended solids (inorganic) farm deposits. General
dispersant is used to disperse these deposits from the system a process by which charged particles are
prevented from agglomerating into larger particles rendering them less settle able is called dispersion.
Most cooling water particulates have a net negative charge. Dispersants also have a net negative
charge.
Because of same charges dispersant particles repel deposits from the system and these deposits are
removed through blow down.Bulab8006 is used as a general and bio-dispersant. If metal surface
contains deposits, biocide will be ineffective to kill bacteria. That’s why bio-dispersant is used on
continuous basis to remove these deposits including waste of bacteria from the system.
Fouling
It is because of organic materials like bacteria waste. Fouling occurs as result of biofilm development
on system surfaces. Low flow areas are more prone to foul with biofilm and solids. Fouling may occur
inside the tube of exchangers and between the fills of cooling tower.
Fouling is the accumulation of solid material other than scale in a way that hampers the
operation of plant equipment or contributes to its deterioration.
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Fouling control in cooling water systems has become more important than ever during the last several
years. This is primarily because cooling system is being operated for longer periods between cleanings
and at higher water temperatures and heat transfer rates.
The incidence of fouling is also greater as a result of the increased use of poor quality water.
Moreover, fouling may also be caused by corrosion products and by product of their reaction with
inhibitor, as well as process contamination.
Surface fouling results in decreased heat exchanger efficiency equipment plugging. Corrosion also
increases because fouling prevents corrosion inhibitors from reaching the metal surfaces. Fouling
control is necessary not only to improve heat transfer but also to assist in corrosion control.
Foulants Sources
Naturally Occurring Foulant

In Water in Air
Mud and silt Gases
Natural Organic Dust/dirt (from oil)
Dissolved solids Vegetation (organic)
Microorganism’s Micro organisms
Foulants Produced Artificially

In Water In Air In the system
Coagulants, flocculants Gases (organic) Corrosion Products
Phosphates Ammonia Inhibitor reactants
Detergents Hydrogen sulfide Process contaminants
Sewage Sculpture dioxide Wood preservatives
What Influences Fouling

The most important factors influences fouling are:
Water characteristics
Distilled water will not foul; however most waters contain the dissolved and suspended materials that
can causes a significant fouling problem under certain conditions.
1. Temperature
2. Flow velocity
3. Microbial growth
4. Corrosion
5. Process contamination
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Biofilm formation can be controlled by

a) Maintaining cooling water velocity @0.8m/sec
b) By decreasing suspended solids in the system
c) Proper dosing of biocide
d) Proper bio-dispersant
At EPCL Bulab 8006 is used as a general and bi-dispersant.
Chemicals
Bulab 8006
It is general and bio-dispersant. Its major function is to disperse (keep in suspended form) suspended
solids and biological waste. It contains negatively charged particles and all suspended solids and
biological waste are also in negative form. That is why they collide with each other and remain in
suspended form. Finally, these particles are removed through blow down. Recommended dose for
Bulab8006 is 10ppm on continuous basis. Currently it is going to be shock dosed through pneumatic
pump.
Bulab 9027
It is used for as a corrosion inhibitor for yellow metal (copper).It contains to lytiazole which forms a
protective layer of Azole complex with copper oxide and prevents system from corrosion. Current
limit for azole is 0.5-1ppm and per day consumption of bulab9027 is 9kg/day i.e. 5ppm.It is shock
dosed on daily basis. Buckman recommended to dose it on continuous basis as it is more effective on
continuous base .e.g. if it is shock dosed, initially azole concentration will be above the limit of 0.5-
1ppm and with passage of time it will decrease.
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Bulab 9083
Molybdate was recommended by Buckman in April 2012.It is an anodic inhibitor. Corroded metal has
1:3 are ratio of cathode/anode area. At anode corrosion takes place while cathode enhances
corrosion reaction due to flow of electrons through it.
Followings are reactions which take place during corrosion.
2Fe Fe+2 + 2e-(at anode)
H20+O2+2e_ 2OH- (at cathode)

Before November 20, 2012 zinc and ortho Po4 are going to be used as catholic and anodic inhibitor.
Followings are the reactions of both:

At Cathode
Zn+2OH- Zn (OH) 2
Zn (OH) 2 is not soluble in water under normal condition and it forms a protective layer which
prevents the system from further corrosion.it is called passivation layer.
At anode;
2Fe+ + ortho Po4 iron phosphate complex
Iron phosphate complex is not soluble in water it precipitates out and forms protective layer at anode.
These both chemicals stop corrosion reactions and prevent system from corrosion.
Draw backs of Zinc/Po4

Zinc/PO4 is best corrosion inhibitors under normal conditions. They only form passivation layer at the
surface of metal. If metal surface is not uniformed i.e. it contains pits, then both chemicals will form
passivation layer only on smooth layer not inside the pit.
In EPCL, HCL leakage took place in September 2009 and pH of cooling water decreased to <2.Because
of low pH, plant metals corroded at different areas forming small pits .That’s why corrosion is taking
place inside the pit. Zinc/PO4 are not preventing corrosion inside the pits but only preventing surface
corrosion. We have only two options either to replace our exchangers with new or use Molybdate to
prevent pitting corrosion in the system.
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(Red color of cooling water because of acid leakage due to high corrosion rates)
(Metal corrosion due to acid leakage)

Molybdate is the only chemical believed to form passivation layer inside the pit. It will stop corrosion
reaction inside the pits. That is why Ortho Po4 was replaced with Molybdate. It will farm iron
Molybdate complex at anode inside the pit and will prevent system from corrosion.
Bulab 7024(Scale inhibitor)

It contains organic phosphate which deforms calcium carbonate lattice structure and converts it to
highly soluble complex
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Bulab 7041 (iron-dispersant)

It is high stress polymer having dual function. First it disperses iron rust from the metal surface and
second it prevents Zn (OH)2 Scaling. As Zn (OH)2 is water insoluble,Bulab7041 disperse it from the
metal surface.
Bulab 9050(Zinc Supplement)

It contains only Zinc. As we are using Zinc/Molybdate corrosion inhibitors, that product provides Zinc
for CW system.
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12 .Lab Result Limits
S.NO. Parameters Range Unit

1 PH 7.9~8.2
2 Conductivity: <2500 us/cm
3 Cl2 0.5~0.8 PPM
4 T Zinc 1.5~2.5 PPM
5 Ortho PO4 4.5~7.5 PPM
6 Organic PO4 1.5~2.0 PPM
7 Molybdate 2~5 PPM
8 Total hardness 350~650 PPM
9 Calcium hardness 200~500 PPM
10 Magnesium hardness NA PPM

11 SS <20 PPM
12 Turbidity <20 PPM
13 Cycle of concentration 5
14 AZOLE 0.5~1.0 PPM

15 Dissolved FE <1 PPM
16 Total FE <5 PPM
17 Alkalinity 90~130 PPM
18 Chloride <300 PPM
19 Sulphate 650 PPM
20 Corrosion rate 3 MPY
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13. CT-II Excursions Handling Plan

Sr. No. Excursions Actions To Be Taken
Open CBD@100m3/hr. or more if possible. Drop 5% CT-II basin level
1 High chlorides > 300ppm
through IBD in each shift.
Maintain 1.4-2ppm total chlorine for three days. Follow contingency
Low pH < 4.5(HCL
2 action plan already submitted to operations/process and approved in
Leakage)
Sub-SOC.
Stop acid dosing and isolate leaked exchanger. Maintain Molybdate
3 Low pH b/w 5.0-7.7
b/w 4-5ppm and zinc b/w 2-3ppm for three days.
4 High pH > 8.5 Shock dose extra 40kg Bulab7041 (Polymer).
5 High sulphate> 650ppm Maximize blow down and maintain Molybdate b/w 4-5ppm.
Shock dose extra 40kg Bulab7041 (Polymer) and 40kg of
6 Ca Hardness > 500ppm
Bulab7024(scale inhibitor)
7 High Alkalinity > 150ppm Shock dose extra 40kg Bulab7041 (Polymer).
Stop acid dosing and maintain Molybdate b/w 4-5ppm and zinc 2-
8 Low Alkalinity < 90ppm
2.5ppm.
High dissolved iron > Shock dose extra 40kg Bulab7041 (Polymer) and open CBD @
9
1ppm 100m3/hr.
High conductivity > Open CBD @ 100m3/hr. and drop 5% CT-II basin level through IBD in
10
2500us/cm each shift.
High suspended solids >
11 Shock dose extra 40kg bio-dispersant Bulab8006.
20ppm
Overflow cooling tower, decrease cycles of concentration, and
maintain 1.4-2ppm total chlorine and 20ppm Bulab8006, 5-6ppm
Oil leakage (Max
12 Molybdate and 2-3ppm zinc for 1 week after that excursion. Isolate
COD=100ppm)
leaked exchanger from the process if COD found > 100ppm in CWS
sample.
EDC/VCM leakage max Decrease cycles of concentration, maintain 1.4-2ppm total chlorine
13
limit 2ppm in CWS and 20ppm
Bulab8006, 5-6ppm Molybdate and 2-3ppm zinc for 1 week after that
leakage.
Isolate leaked exchanger from the process if VCM or EDC found above
2ppm in cooling water supply.
High free chlorine > Open CBD @ 100m3/hr. and drop 5% basin level through IBD. Shock
14
3ppm in CWR 20kg Bulab9027 in CT-II.
4
High TBC > 10 cfu/ml in Maintain total chlorine b/w 1-1.4ppm through hypo/bromine or shock
15
CWR sample dose 75kg Bulab6010 (non-oxidizing biocide).
Positive SRB in any
16 Shock dose 75kg Bulab6010.
exchanger
High corrosion rate >
Maintain total chlorine b/w 1-1.4ppm and Molybdate b/w 4-6ppm till
17 1mpy or corrosion rate >
both parameters become normal.
imbalance
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14. DCS Schematics

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Job Qualification Program

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Prepared By: ____________________________________________

S. No. Rev. No. Date Page No. Section Description of Change

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

JQP Job Qualification Program

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

4. Introduction to Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Classification of Cooling Towers by Heat Transfer Methods

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Categorization of Cooling Towers by Air-To-Water Flow

Advantages of the cross flow design:

Disadvantages of the cross flow design:

o More prone to freezing than counter flow designs.

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Advantages of the counter flow design:

o Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.

Disadvantages of the counter flow design:

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

What Is Involved In The Cooling Process?

Why Is Water Used For Cooling?

Heat Transfer Process Involved In Cooling Tower

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Removing Undesirable Heat

Sensible Heat Transfer

The five factors controlling conductive heat transfer are:

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

6.Cooling Tower Terminologies

Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)

Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT)

Cooling Range CWR-CWS

Approach CWS-WET Bulb

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Absolute Humidity “H”

Percentage Absolute Humidity

% abs. Humidity (HA) = H/Hs x 100

Percentage Relative Humidity

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Why Is Relative Humidity Important?

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Closed Recirculating Cooling Systems

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Open Recirculating Cooling System

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

7 .Laws Governing Cooling In a Cooling Tower

1. Evaporation increases as temperature increase

Principle of Operation of AVGF

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

Filtration over a period of time

Cooling Tower-II EFFECTIVE DATE

8.Construction of Cooling Tower

1. A frame work and its cladding;