GRAMMAR

1. What is Grammar?
+ Traditionally, Grammar could be defined as a system of rules of word-
formation and sentence building.
+ Grammar is a mental system that allows human beings to form and interpret
the words and sentences of their language.
2. Types of Grammar:
2.1 Traditional Grammar:
This is a term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods
found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science. It is
over 2,000 years old and includes the work of classical Greek and Roman
grammarians.
2.2 Theoretical Grammar:
This is an approach that goes beyond the study of individual languages.
2.3 Pedagogical Grammar/Teaching Grammar:
This is often in the form of a book, specifically designed for teaching a foreign
language, or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue.
2.4 Reference Grammar:
This is a grammatical description that tries to be as comprehensive as
possible so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing
grammatical facts.
2.5 Prescriptive Grammar:
Prescriptive Grammar aims to lay down the rules on how language should be
used and to set up a standard of correct usage.
2.6 Descriptive Grammar:
Descriptive Grammar describes the system of grammar of the language. It
explains how it is possible for you to speak and understand, and it tells what you know
about the sounds, words, phrases and sentences of your language.
2.7 The Immediate Constituent Grammar- the IC Grammar:
IC Grammar aims to display sentence structures by using the immediate
constituent analysis.
 A construction is divided into its major constituents and the process continues
until no further divisions can be made.
* Phrase Structure rules (see chapter III, phrases part)
2.8 Transformational Generative Grammar- TG Grammar:
Its main aim was to find out mechanisms, which account for the generation of
the variety of sentences of a language out of a few kernel sentences
Transformational operations consist in rearrangement, addition, deletion and
combination of linguistic elements.
3. Grammatical units:
Morphemes are used to build words
Words are used to build phrases
Phrases are used to build clauses
Clauses are used to build sentences.
4. Syntactic relations:
The grammatical relations between units in a sentence are called syntactic
relations.
The three categories of syntactic relations are:
+ Subject-Predicate relations
+ Coordinate relations
+ Subordinate relations
MORPHOLOGY
What is Morphology?
- the study of the internal structures of words, and of the rules by which
words are formed.
- the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs) and the
way they combine in word formation.
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF WORDS = MORPHEMES
1/ Morphemes:
Morphemes are abstract units. They are the minimal (smallest), meaningful
units in a language.
2/ Morphemes, words and syllables:
 a morpheme can be a word, part of a word, contains one or more syllables.
e.g: boy = 1 word = 1 syllable = 1 morpheme (boy)
3/ Morpheme and morph:
a morph is a unit which is a segment of a word-form. It has a constant form and
realizes or is related to a constant meaning.
4/ Allomorphs and morphemes:
allomorphs are morphemic variants. They can be understood as any of the
different forms of a morpheme (i.e alternative representations of a morpheme).
4.1/ Phonetically conditioned allomorph: is determined or conditioned by the
following phonetic sound.
e.g: a -> an when the following noun begins with a vowel.
a book, a university, a green apple.
an apple, an uncle, an old man.
4.2/ Lexically conditioned allomorph: the plural marker –en is determined by
the particular words:
e.g: ox -> oxen; child -> children
but box -> boxes; kid -> kids
TYPES OF MORPHEME
1/ Free: Free morphemes are those which can be used as minimal free forms.
They do not need to be attached to other morphemes. They can be used as words.
e.g: book, boy, girl, depend, house
2/ Bound: Bound morphemes must be joined to other morphemes. They are
always parts of words and never words by themselves.
e.g: boys, boy’s, boyish, independent, uncomfortableness
Bound morphemes are of the following two kinds:
2.1/ Inflectional/ Grammatical morphemes
2.2/ Derivational/ Lexical morphemes
INFLECTIONAL/GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES
1/ Definition:
Inflectional morphemes (IM) are bound morphemes that are purely
grammatical markers, representing such concepts as tense, number, gender, case ...
 IM do not change the parts of speech of the words or morphemes to which they
are attached. They modify a word’s form in order to mark the grammatical subclass to
which it belongs.
2/ Forms and meanings:
+ S/ -ES: plurality e.g: boys, boxes
+ ‘S : possession e.g: boy’s boxes
+ S/ -ES : third person sing., simple present tense e.g: works
+ ING : present participle; gerund e.g: working
+ ED : past participle e.g: worked
+ ER : comparative degree of comparison e.g: taller
+ EST : superlative degree of comparison e.g: tallest
DERIVATIONAL/LEXICAL MORPHEMES
1/ Definition:
Derivational morphemes (DM) are bound morphemes that add new meaning to
an existing word. When they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, a new word
is derived or formed.
The derived words may be in a different grammatical class or in the same
grammatical class.
e.g: nation (n) => national (adj)
man (n) => superman (n)
2/ Types and meanings: (for further information, see illustration file
attached_Most common prefixes, suffixes and their meanings).
2.1. Prefixes: A prefix is a bound derivational morpheme which is placed
before and connected to a root to form a new word with a new meaning. E.g: kind
(adj) => unkind (adj).
2.2. Suffixes: A suffix is also a bound derivational morpheme which is placed
after and connected to a root to form a new word class with a new lexical meaning.
E.g: kind (adj) => kindness (n)
ROOT, BASE and STEM
1/ Root:
 a root is a morpheme in a word that has the principal meaning. Roots constitute
the nuclei/cores of all words.
(a morpheme, not necessarily surviving as a word in itself, from which words
have been made by the addition of prefixes or suffixes or by other modification).
Note: Most roots are free morphemes, but some are not.
e.g: Euro-crat, octo-pus, wis-dom, phonet-ic v.v...
For more information, see Appendix 1
2/ Base:
a base is anything we attach affixes to (either inflectional or derivational or
both), whether it is just a root or something bigger than a root.
3/ Stem:
a stem is the actual form to which an inflectional suffix is attached to
e.g: nation: root = base; national: base; nationalize: base
work: root=base; worker: base=stem => workers
WORDS
1/ Definition:
A word is a linguistic sign, i.e, an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning.
A word is a minimal free form.
A free form is an element that can occur in isolation and whose position with
respect to neighboring elements is not entirely fixed.
2/ Types of words:
2.1. Simple words: are those made up of only one stem and can not be broken
down into smaller meaningful units. E.g: house, car...
2.2. Compound words: composed from the combination of two or more free
morphemes. E.g: classroom, armchair,....
2.3. Complex words: are those made up of stem(s) and one or more inflectional
and/or derivational affixes. E.g: workers, houses,...
3/ Word classes:
3.1. Open: lexical words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
3.2. Closed: function words: pronouns, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions.
How many words, different words, simple, compound, complex words are there in
each of the following sentences?
1/ They were going to a better school with the most modern equipment.
2/ My friends are presently working in the international sales division at an
international firm.
3/ Diana’s hair is shorter than Becky’s hair.
4/ I once was lost but now I am found.
5/ Those old men have drunk ten small barrels of red wine easily.
6/ The old man is getting/ got better and better every day.
WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
1/ AFFIXATION
Affixation is the process of coining new words from the existing ones by
adding affixes to a base. Affixation is classified into prefixation and suffixation
+ Prefixation: adding a prefix to a base, with or without a change of word class.
(see appendix 1, pp 431-435, kinds of prefixes)
+ Suffixation: adding a suffix to a base, with or without a change of word
class. (see appendix 1, pp 436-441, kinds of suffixes)
2/ COMPOUNDING => COMPOUNDS
is a process of forming new words by adding one base to another.
e.g: girlfriend, classroom Noun + Noun
icy-cold, deaf-mute Adj. + Adj.
Note: Most compounds are self-explaining; that is, the meaning of the whole
compound reflects the meanings of individual parts. However, the meanings of the
individual parts of a compound may be expressed wholly in the meaning of the
compound.
3/ BLENDING => BLENDS
is a process that creates words from parts of two already existing lexical items,
usually the first part of one word and the last part of the other.
e.g: motel = motorist + hotel; brunch = breakfast + lunch
netizen = internet + citizen/ network + citizen; huda =
4/ CLIPPING/ ABBREVIATION
 Clipping is a process whereby a new word is created by subtracting of one or
more syllables from a word. The shortening may occur at:
+ the beginning of the word
e.g: telephone => phone; aero/airplane => plane
+ the end of the word
e.g: photograph => photo; examination => exam; lab; gym
+ at both ends of the word
e.g: influenza => flu; refrigerator => fridge; Elizabeth => Liz
5/ ACRONYMY => ACRONYMS
Acronymy is a process in which a word is formed from the initial letters (or
larger parts) of words.
New acronyms are freely produced, particularly for names of organizations
e.g: U.N = United Nations; F.D.I = Foreign Direct Investment
Note: Many acronyms are pronounced as words
e.g: laser = light amplification by stimulating the emission of
radiation.
radar = radio detecting and ranging
scuba = self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
6/ CONVERSION
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word-class
without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation.
e.g: love (v) => love (n); bottle (n) => bottle (v);
daily (adj) => daily (n); calm (adj) => calm (v);
7/ BACK FORMATION
Back formation is the reverse of affixation. It is a process whereby a word
whose form is similar to that of a derived form that undergoes a process of de-
affixation, i.e the removal of an affix from an existing word.
e.g: typewriter (n) => typewrite (v); television (n) => televise (v)
8/ COINAGES
Coinages are words created outright to fit some purpose, especially
used in the advertising industry.
 e.g: OMO, VEDAN, CAMAY, VISO, DASO
9/ WORDS FROM NAMES
are derived from proper names of individuals or places.
e.g: sandwich, hamburger
10/ REDUPLICATIVES
are either identical or only slightly different
e.g: tik-tak, goody-goody, walkie-talkie, zig-zag
11/ ONOMATOPOEIC WORDS
are the words created to sound like the things to which they refer. They may
imitate the sound of animals, of natural phenomena v. v...
e.g: cock-a –doodle-doo, meow/ miaow, chirp, bow, buzz, squawk (parrot),
croak (frog), squeak (mouse)

SYNTAX
The term “syntax” is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis which means “arrangement” or
“setting out together”
1/ Definition:
- Syntax is a branch of grammar dealing with the structures of sentences.
- Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences in a
language.
2/ Syntactic categories:
Words can be group into 2 syntactic categories
- Lexical categories: Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions.
- Non-lexical categories: Determiners (a/an, the, my, your, this, that, some...),
Auxiliaries (be, do, have, can, must...), Conjunctions (and, but, or, so...), Degree
words (so, very, too, almost, quite...)
3/ Grammatical categories:
- Person: First, Second, Third
- Number: Singular, Plural
- Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Neutral, Animate,
Inanimate
 - Case: Nominative (Subject), Accusative (Object), Dative
(Indirect object), Genitive/Possessive, Locative, Ablative
(direction from), Allative (direction toward), Instrumental.
- Tenses: Present, Past, Future
- Aspects: Complete (perfect), Incomplete (progressive)
- Moods: Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive.
- Voice: Active, Passive
4/ Grammaticality:
Grammaticality is not based on what is taught in school, but on the rules acquired or
constructed unconsciously as children.
e.g:
Grammatical judgments do not depend on whether the sentence is meaningful or not.
e.g: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
A verb crumpled the milk.
Grammaticality does not depend on the truth of sentences.
e.g: Those fathers have been pregnant for three months.
You all have had 10 marks for the mid-term test.
=>a sentence is grammatical if native speakers judge it to be a possible or acceptable
sentence of their language.
=> Grammatical (well-formed) sentences are those that are in accord with the
rules and principles of the syntax of a particular language.
e.g: The teacher is reading a book.
=> Ungrammatical (ill-formed) sentences violate one or more syntactic rules or
principles.
e.g: * Teacher the book a reading is.
PHRASE
1/ Definition:
A phrase is any group of words which is grammatically equivalent to a single
word and which does not have its own subject and predicate.
2/ The elements of a phrase:
 + Head: The Head is the element at the lowest level reserved for the word around
which the phrase is built.
+ Specifiers (trợ từ): Determiners (the), Auxiliaries (will), Degree words (very,
quite, almost), Intensifiers (a word, especially an adjective or an adverb, for example
so or very, that makes the meaning of another word stronger)
=> Semantically, specifiers help to make more precise the meaning of the head.
=> Syntactically, specifiers typically mark a phrase boundary.
+ Complements: provide information about entities and locations whose
existence is implied by the meaning of the head
e.g1: the book about the war
( the: determiner; book: head; about the war: complement)
3/ Types of phrases:
3.1. Noun Phrase (NP)
The functional formula: (Det.) (Intens.) Head (Complement)
E.g: The old car in the drive
The head: the central part; obligatory
Other elements: optionally occur
3.2. Verb Phrase (VP)
The functional formula:
(Auxiliary) – Head – (Object/Complement) – (Modifier)
E.g: does not eat vegetables regularly
3.3 Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
The functional formula: (Deg.) – Head - (Complement)
E.g: quite unaware of any wrong doing
3.4 Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
The functional formula: (Deg.) – Head
E.g: very carefully
3.5 Preposition Phrase (Prep.P/PP)
The formal version: Preposition – Noun Phrase
E.g: in the house
3.6 Verbal Phrases
 a/ Participles (V-ing, V-ed): function as pre modifiers or post modifiers
b/ Gerund: functions in the range of NPs
c/ Infinitive: is used as noun or modifier
=> Practice exercises (Phrases)
CLAUSE
1. Definition: A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a Subject and a
finite verb.
Clauses can stand by themselves or they can be dependent on other structures.
2. Types of clauses:
2.1. Independent: An independent clause contains a Subject and a verb and
expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An
independent clause is formed with
subject + verb (+ object/complement/ adverb mod.)
e.g: Students normally spend four years in university.
2.2. Dependent: A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when,
because, if, although, that/if/whether or who etc. A dependent clause does not express
a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself. A dependent clause
is formed with
subordinator + subject + verb (+ complement)
e.g: ... although students normally spend four years in university.
Dependent clauses consist of the following three kinds:
=> Dependent Noun Clauses: function as Nouns
=> Dependent Adjective Clauses: function as adjectives
=> Dependent Adverb Clauses: function as adverbs
=> Practice exercises (Clauses & Sentences)
SENTENCE
I. Definition of sentence:
- A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description.
- A sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete
thought.
-Sentences can be understood as a single free utterance, minimum ( simple sentence)
or expanded (compound, complex sentence)
-Sentences are made up of parts which belong to the set of
distinct categories, each with its special characteristics.
-In traditional grammar, sentences are classified into different types in two ways.
SYNTAX RULES
1. Phrase Structure Rules (PS Rules)
1.1/ Definition:
+ PS rules are the rules that determine the basic constituent structures of
sentences.
+ PS rules are said to generate structures.
1.2/ Rules:
a/ Rule 1: generate phrasal categories
e.g.: S => NP + VP : root node
NP => Det + N
VP => V + NP
b/ Rule 2: generate terminal nodes
(terminal nodes are nodes that do not branch and that immediately
dominate the lexical item)
e.g.: Det. Ns V are terminal nodes
2. Recursive rule:
the category on the left side repeated on the right side
3. Transformational rules (T-rules) or Transformations
3.1/ Definition: it is a special type of rule that can move an element from one
position to another (transformation).
3.2/ Rules:
a/ Inversion Transformation/ Subject-Auxiliary Inversion (SAI):
It is used in Yes/No questions. The auxiliary is moved from its position within
the VP to a position to the left of the subject to signal a question.
e.g: Will the boy leave?
Can the cat climb this tree?
b/ General Transformation rule/ Move-Alpha rule:
 It is used in WH-questions. Both the auxiliary and the WH word are moved to
the left of the subject to signal a question.
e.g: The boy will find what?
What will the boy find?
c/ Other common T-rules:
c1/ Deletion rule:
+ The conjunction (complementizer) deletion
e.g: You mean (that) you didn’t know (that) I knew.....................
+ Verb phrase deletion:
e.g: You can cook, and I can, too.
c.2/ Insertion rule;
+ There insertion: e.g: There is a book on the table.
+ -ING insertion: e.g: She walk upstairs crying silently.
c.3/ Passive transformation:
e.g.: He was bitten by the dog.
4. Deep structure:
generated by the PS rules in accordance with the head’s sub categorization
properties (i.e. the first underlying structure to which a transformation applies)
5. Surface structure:
is the result of applying transformations to an underlying structure (when no
further transformations apply)
Phrase Structure Rules -------🡪 DEEP STRUCTURE ---------🡪
Transformations -------------🡪 SURFACE STRUCTURE
6. Properties of Kernel clause:
* A Kernel clause/ Independent clause forms a sentence on its own.
* A Kernel clause is structural complete, not reduced by ellipsis.
* A Kernel clause is declarative, not imperative, interrogative or exclamatory.
* A Kernel clause is positive, not negative.
* A Kernel clause is unmarked with respect to all the thematic systems of the
clause.
e.g.: My father wrote the letter (Kernel)
 The letter was written by my father (Non-Kernel)
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES
1. Traditional points of view: described the English sentences consisting of two parts
S = Subject – Predicate
S= SVOCA
2. Modern points of view: the structure of English sentences is described under a
system of PS rules (IC Grammar)
S = NP + VP
3. The roles of NP in a sentence:
3.1/Thematic Role Agent: The agent is a mind-possessor who acts, usually
intentionally.
e.g: Huong has been teaching English for twelve years.
3.2/ Thematic Role Instrument: The instrument is a thing with which the action
is done.
The instrument is typically either the object of with or the clause subject.
e.g: They opened the safe with an electronic device.
Penicillin killed the gram-positive bacteria.
3.3/ Thematic Role Theme: covers three different classes of theme
+ the first is the role of the often inert entity, which is in a certain state
or position or is changing its state or position or unable to move or act.
e.g: The girders were rusting
The ball rolled down the slope.
The news would have shocked the community.
+ the second is the role assigned to clauses
e.g: For Charlotte to outdo Branwell would shocked the community.
Patrick believed that Emily had the greatest talent.
+ the third class is that of affected mind-possessing entities
e.g: A wealthy hunter killed the Bengal tiger
The Bengal tiger died.
In an active voice sentence, the theme is typically the subject of the verb or the
direct object of a verb.
 3.4/ Thematic Role Experiencer: The experiencer is the one who experiences a
mental state or process such as thinking, knowing, believing, understanding, seeing,
hearing, fearing, hoping, being surprised etc.
e.g: The trooper hoped for a promotion.
Montaigne’s words inspired the young poet.
They will see a huge bronze gates between two pillars.
3.5/ Thematic Roles Source and Goal:
a/ Source: refers to the location from which someone or something
originates
b/ Goal: refers to the location that serves or should serve as the
destination.
e.g: The delegates left Mexico City (source) for Buenos Aires (goal).
The government (agent) took over a billion dollars (theme) from the
poor (source)
3.6/ Thematic Role Benefactive: The role of the individual for whose benefit some
action is undertaken.
e.g: The chef baked Jessica a cherry pie.
The chef baked a cherry cake for Jessica.
3.7/ Thematic Roles for Non Argument Noun Phrases (location and time)
e.g: Dangers waited for them on the mountain.
They have been waiting for us for an hour.
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REVISION TEST (2) 1819
I/ TRUE/FALSE:
1. Prescriptive grammar aims to lay down the rules on how language should be used
and to set up a standard of correct usage.
2. Descriptive grammar aims to present the grammar that underlies the actual usage of
speakers of the language.
3. Grammatical relations between units in a sentence are called syntactic relations.
4. Vocabulary is classified into lexical categories and functional categories.
5. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.
6. The word mailbox is created through derivation.
7. Stem is the actual form to which an inflectional affix is attached to.
8. Free morphemes are classified into derivations and inflections.
9. Noun is a word that names a person, a place or thing.
10. Verbs are subdivided into transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs.
11. Complex words are those made up of stems and one or more inflectional and/or
derivational affixes.
12. Single word noun phrases always consist of a headword which is a pronoun.
13. Derivation is the process by which a new word is built from a base.
14. Clippings create a new word without the use of affixation by simply assigning an
already existing word to a new syntactic category.
15. Conversion is a process whereby a word whose form is created by shortening a
polysylabic word.
16. The head of an adjective phrase (AdjP) is an adjective.
17. A phrase in its complete form has two components: head, and complement.
18. Subordinate relation is the kind of syntactic relation in which two or more units or
constituents of the same rank are joined together.
19. A simple sentence is a sentence that contains only one clause, a main clause.
20. Complex sentences are formed by joining a number of simple sentences together.
II/ MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. The word realisation is an example of…

A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding D.
Clipping
2. The word burger is an example of…
A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding D.
Clipping
3. The word greenhouse is an example of…
A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding D.
Blending
4. The word brunch is an example of…
A. Affixation B. Inflection C. Compounding D.
Blending
5. The word hospitalisation is an example of…
A. Affixation B. Compounding C. Blending D.
Conversion
6. “unaware of any wrong doing” is an example of…
A. a NP B. a VP C. An AdjP D. An
AdvP
7. “from the bottom of my heart” is an example of…
A. a NP B. a VP C. An PrepP D. An
AdvP
8. “anyone fond of kumquats” is an example of…
A. a NP B. a VP C. An AdjP D. An
AdvP
9. “very old memories” is an example of…
A. a NP B. a VP C. An AdjP D. An
AdvP
10. “walked a great deal” is an example of…
A. a NP B. a VP C. An AdjP D. An
AdvP
11. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “We have proved him wrong”
fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
12. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “I put the plate on the table”
fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
13. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “The baby seems tired” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
14. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “She gives me pretty presents”
fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
O
15. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “Mary is kind” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
16. Which of the following clause types does this clause “when questioned by him”
fit?
A. Time clauses B. Place clauses C. Conditional clauses D.
Purpose clauses
17. Which of the following clause types does this clause “where appropriate” fit?
A. Time clauses B. Place clauses C. Conditional clauses D.
Purpose clauses
18. Which of the following clause types does this clause “unless you understand this”
fit?
A. Time clauses B. Place clauses C. Conditional clauses D.
Purpose clauses
19. Which of the following clause types does this clause “before you get into trouble”
fit?
A. Time clauses B. Place clauses C. Conditional clauses D.
Purpose clauses
20. Which of the following clause types does this clause “in order that we remember”
fit?
A. Time clauses B. Place clauses C. Conditional clauses D.
Purpose clauses

III/ SENTENCE STRUCTURE ANALYSIS (TREE DIAGRAM)

1. They were afraid to make any move.

2. He believes that the patient recovered.
3. The zombies departed from Hector’s house.
4. The old man is quite ignorant about technology.

REVISION TEST (3) 1920

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true (T) or (F).
1. The grammatical relations between units or constituents within the structure of a
sentence are described as the syntactic relation of a sentence.
2. A word is a linguistic sign, i.e. an arbitrary union of sound (form) and meaning.
3. A morph is a unit which is a segment of a word form.
4. Well-formed sentences are those that are in accord with the syntactic rules of the
language; this does not entail that they always make sense semantically.
5. Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes that are grammatical markers.
6. Any form that an inflection is attached to is called a stem.
7. The units that form the internal structure of words are roots and affixes.
8. Free morphemes are classified into derivations and inflections.
9. Vocabulary is classified into lexical categories and functional categories.
10. Derivation is the process by which a new word is built from a base.
11. The word blackbird is created through derivation.
12. Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words.
13. Compounding is the process of forming new words by adding one base to another.
14. Zero-derivation is the process of subtracting one or more Syllables from a word.
15. Blends are words formed from the initial sounds of letters of a string of words.
16. Syntax deals with how sentences are constructed. . .
17. A phrase includes a single word or group of words that do not contam Subject
Predicate structure.
18. The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on.the.category of the
head
19. Single noun phrases always consist of a headword which is a pronoun.
20. A clause is a group of words with its own subject and predicate.

II. BLACKEN the most correct answer A, B, C or D.

21. The word realization is an example of
A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding `D.
Blending
22. The word brunch is an example of
A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding `D.
Blending
23. The word doghouse is an example of
A. Derivation B. Inflection C. Compounding `D.
Blending
24. The word re-appear is an example of
A. Affixation B. Inflection C. Compounding D.
Conversion
25. The word development is an example of
A. Affixation B. Compounding C. Blending D.
Conversion
26. “quite bad” is an example of
 A. a NP B. a VP C. an AdjP D. an
AdvP
27. “very quickly indeed” is an example of
A. a NP B. a VP C. an AdjP D. an
AdvP
28. “extremly difficult” is an example of
A. a NP B. a VP C. an AdjP D. an
AdvP
29. “wonderful news” is an example of
A. a NP B. a VP C. an AdjP D. an
AdvP
30. “must have been played” is an example of
A. a NP B. a VP C. an AdjP D. an
AdvP
31. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “I have sent the invitation” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
32. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “He put the flowers by her bed”
fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
33. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “He died young” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
34. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “You are making me angry” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
35. Which of the following patterns does the sentence “Tom hire a car” fit?
A. S-V-O B. S-V-O-C C. S-V-C D. S-V-O-
A
36. Which of the following relations does the sentence “I don’t like it and I don’t want
it” fit?
A. Coordination B. Subordination C. Embedded D. Both
B&C
37. Which of the following relations does the sentence “He knows that Edgar loves
her” fit?
A. Coordination B. Subordination C. Embedded D. None
of them

38. Which of the following clause types does this clause “If she knew the answer” fit?
A. Time clause B. Place clause C. Condition clause D.
Purpose clause
39. Which of the following clause types does this clause “as the bell has gone” fit?
A. Time clause B. Place clause C. Condition clause D.
Purpose clause
40. Which of the following clause types does this clause “so that he could
understand” fit?
A. Time clause B. Place clause C. Condition clause D.
Purpose clause

III. Analyze the structure of the phrase and sentence below by drawing tree
diagrams.
1. New books on planet discovery.
2. The man went into the store.
3. Anyone fond of this author should read this book.
4. The man thinks that his son is a genius.
5. The fact that he failed the exam surprised me.

REVISION TEST (1) 1718

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Which of the following word formation processes is a highly productive process of
forming words in English?
 A. back formation B. conversion C. clipping D.
compounding
2. A …………… is a minimal free form.
A. word B. morphemeC. base D. root
3. How many inflectional morphemes are there in the following sentence “When the
autumn comes, colorful leaves fall gently from trees”?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6
4. Which of the following serves as specifiers of verbs?
A. Determiners B. Auxiliaries C. Degree words D. None
5. The underlined word in the sentence “Get me a kilo of mangoes.” is a/an … (*)
A. clipped word B. blended word C. abbreviation D.
compound word
6. The prefix multi- in the sentence “My problem multiplied until they completely took
over my life.” means …
A. to become an annoyance B. to become uncontrollable
C. to become troublesome D. to become many
7. non- is the affix to form … in English.
A. nouns B. adjectives C. adverbs D. A&B
8. Which of the following nouns has the plural form?
A. honey B. flour C. ice-cream D. butter
9. The process of coining new word by using affixes is called…
A. inflection B. prefixation C. suffixationD. B&C
10. Which of the following words does not belong to the closed word classes?
A. between B. necerthless C. mine D. type
11. Which of the following words cannot stand before a noun?
A. alive B. lively C. live D. living
12. The word biochemical in “Winter Seasonal Affective Disorder is caused by a
biochemical imbalance because of the lack of sunlight” is a/an…
A. derived word B. clipped word C. blended word D. acronym
13. What is the base of the word grammaticalization?
 A. grammar B. grammatic C. grammatical D. grammaticalize
14. Which of the following indefinite pronouns has the plural form?
A. other B. both C. everyone D. none
15. Which of the following verbs can have a subjective complement?
A. seek B. look for C. discover D. appeare
16. Which of the following words does not belong to the open word classes?
A. whether B. time C. quickly D. very
17. The type of word formation to form the word quake from earthquake is called… (*)
A. compounding B. affixation C. clipping D. blending
18. What is the type of the verb in the sentence “They lived a happy life.”?
A. intransitive B. mono-transitive C. di-trasitiveD. complex transitive
19. Person is a grammatical category of … class in English.
A. nouns B. verbs C. adjectives D. A&B
20. There are … inflectional morphemes in the sentence “The builders removed the
lovely old kerb stones along the quay and replaced with modern generic kerb.”
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5
21. “Finding” in “Finding Nemo is one of the best Disney animated films.” is a/an …
A. participle B. gerund C. adjective D. none
22. The underlined word in the sentence “They left her alone.” is a/an …
A. direct object B. indirect obj. C. subj. complementD. obj.
complement
23. How many clauses are there in the sentence “Since the amount of winter daylight
you receive changes the farther you are from the equator, Seasonal Affective Disorder
is most common in people who live at least 30 degree latitude north or south”?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6
24. How many adverbial modifiers are there in the sentence “Every afternoon, she sat
by the window looking at the children playing noisily in the playground”.
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6
25. What is the type of the non-finite reduced clause in the sentence “Students
handling in their essays late will lose ten marks.”?
A. appositive clause B. adverbial clause of time
 C. adverbial clause of reason D. relative clause
26. The underlined phrase in the sentence “She spent long hours reading books in the
library” is a/an …
A. direct object B. indirect object
C. subjective complement D. objective complement
27. How many noun phrases are there in the sentence “Current economic weakness
may be a result of high energy crises”?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
28. What is the type of adverb “Hopefully” in “Hopefully, the book will inspire
readers to wider interest in weather, atmospheric science, and earth science in
general.”?
A. adjunct B. disjunct C. conjunct D. intensifier
What is the syntactic relation of the underlined words and the italicized words in
sentences 29 -> 32?
29. Switzerland is not in the European Union, nor is it a member of NATO.
A. Subject-Predicate relation B. coordinate relation
C. subordinate relation D. embedded relation
30. Lunch is not ready for Ann to take to school.
A. Subject-Predicate relation B. coordinate relation
C. subordinate relation D. embedded relation
31. Don’t be angry with the rain; it simply does not know how to fall upwards.
A. Subject-Predicate relation B. coordinate relation
C. subordinate relation D. embedded relation
32. Players in A.C Milan are all good footballers, in addition, many of them have
years of experience playing together.
A. Subject-Predicate relation B. coordinate relation
C. subordinate relation D. embedded relation
33. What is the grammatical relation of the underlined words in the sentence “Pat’s
birthday party was the joy for her family.”?
A. modifier-modfied B. possessor-possessed
C. subject-predicate D. head-complement
What is the type of the underlined adverbial clauses in sentences 34 -> 37?
34. The underlined words in “Being late, she didn’t get tickets for the show” is a/an
…
A. reduced clause of reason B. reduced clause of time
C. noun clause D. complement clause
35. As the shuttle crashed, NASA has been demoralized.
A. concession clause B. reason clause C. time clause D.
purpose clause
36. Type this again as I showed you a moment ago.
A. manner clause B. reason clause C. place clause D.
purpose clause
37. The shooting star moved so quickly that I almost missed it.
A. concession clause B. reason clause C. result clause D. manner
clause
38. A complementizer cannot introduce a/an … in English.
A. relative clause B. object clause C. subject clause D. B&C
39. The function of the underlined phrase in the sentence “Kate brings a smiles to the
face of the terminally-ill boy when she gives him a birthday card.” is a/an …
A. subject B. object C. complement D.
predicate
40. How many adverbial modifiers are there in the sentence “The days continue
growing dark early in my hometown when the winter comes.”?
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

II. PROBLEM SOLVING (TREE DIAGRAM)

1. Return home after summer holiday.
2. New books on planet discovery.
3. The house was surrounded with a large fruit orchard.
4. Either you have to study hard, or you will fail the exam.
5. The girls are pleased that they will have a long holiday.