Human Physiology NEET Study Materials Download PDF

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ilima
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ilim l ilila
a
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ilim m m m
m m mm a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
mm a
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t/taea//ttaa ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta mmtaamm aa mttaa aa//ttaa tt
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ss:: ss: ss:: ss : sspss / / /
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ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttpp t t t t h h t ttpp t t t tttt t t h h tt h
hh h hh h hh h hht hh hh hh hh h
b b bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
we ee bbeebb eewbbeebb eew w eew
i w e e bbeebb eew eew iw
Unit w w w w i w i i w i w i w w w i w i
iwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvii vvriuiuvv i v iwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi vvriuiuvvi
5
vvriuw uuavvrruuv v iw uuavvrru
I
uu u r uu r r u
r u r rr uu vr u u r uu r r u
r u r rr
alarrilialar ilimalariliala ilimalailiala alailila
ilim alarrilialar alariliala
ilim ilimalailiala alailila
ilim
I
ilim m m m m m m m ma a m ilim mm m
@
mm m m m aa m
m m m ttaea//ttaa a
ttaea//tta a a
/e/ttee//t t mmttaa m aa//ttaa a
aa//tta aa
tte//t t
t//taea//ttaa // // e ttaa // /t
/ t //tt e / / e
ee e ee e ee e m ee// ee ee ee ee ee em
t. mm/tt..mm
. / t..m/m//tt..mm
t / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ t .
t mm/tt..mm
. / t ..m/m//tt..mm
t / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
t
/// /// / // / / ss:: ss : /// /// / / / :://s:: / :: s :
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp t tttphpttttpp t ttphpttttpp
t t t t p
ttp t t ttpp ttt t t
t t t ttt h
hh h hh h hh h hh h hhtt hht hht hh hh hh hh h
b eb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
wveiw e e bbeebb e e e e w w w
eew
i i w eew bbeebb eew eew
Parts of the body concerned vvruuvv with the uptake vvruuvv and digestionrruuvrruu gumline.Root is embedded in the jaw bone and
vvholds the
® v v
w
iiwvvi i w w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w i i w v i i v v v v
ww
ii vvi i w v v i w
i
u
w vv i i w i w
i
uu
wvviwi
uuav
u u u
alaiof lila food and elimination alailiala of indigestible alaililaremains form ithe tooth ilsecurely alariliala in place. ilialailiala
uruarru u r u u r r r u r a uu r uu rru u r r r r u r r r r
r ilim
r
ilim a a a
lil ii l l a r r ilimalailila a l ilila
a
ilim a
mmtaamdigestive system. mttaa Digestive system aa of man consists aa//ttaof • Beneath
ilim
mmtaamm the enamel isttaapresent, dentine, which aa is made up //ttaa//tta
m m mm m m m a m m i m mttaa m m mm m m m a m
a a a t tt a a t
//ttee// alimentaryee//canal ee or gut andeesome accessory ..m/m/digestive
a t t
eof a hard substance mm/tsimilar
eem/ ee to bone. Dentine
mm/tt..mm is regenerable
aa t t t // / t t
/ ee / / eemee// t aa
//tee// t / / / / t
/t / / ee e e
ee ee
eem ..m em ..m/m//tt..mm
organs. ::///s/s::///living tissues.ss:p:/p/ss::/
. mm .. m t . mm/tt..mm
. t .
t mm/tt..mm
. / /t t /tt ..mm t . . m t .
t . .
t . m t .
t . / / /t t /
.
tt / t t /// ///t /// // / / / tt / t // / / /// // /
sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss::
s s ::///s/s::///
p sst:p:p/ss:: p psst:p:p/ss:: t p
t p t t ss • Dentine forms p the bulk of the tooth..
p p sst:p:p/ss::
There is a pulp t p
t pcavity
t t
inside thehhdentine. It is a jelly- hhtt hlhike substance and carries
p
ttpttt p p ALIMENTARY t ttp t CANAL t t t t t t t p
ttpttt p p t
ttthhttp tt tt t t t t t t
hhtt hht hhtt hht
•
hh hh hh hh
The alimentary canal is a long tube (8-1 Om long) which
hhtt hht hhtt hht
bb or buccal eebbeebb the nerves fibres, blood vessels andb sensory cells. bb
• The oral cavity bbleads througheethe bbeebpharyne"'C into eeabbtube
b eb consists bbof several organs: bbeemouth,bb vestibule, bbeoral
cavity, eeww pharyn,"'(, oesophagus, stomach, smallw intestine,vviw
ew b b b e
b e ee e we
like oesophagus (food tube), vvruuv which runs udovvnwards
i ee w e
i w w w w i w
i i wvvii w w e eiww ee w i w w w w i w
i i
large
i w
i w vv intestine anduuvanus.
i i i i
vrruuv wv i vvruui i vv uu i w
i w i i i w v i vvruui i vv uuavvrr
through lialarilialathe throat and ilithorax. alariliala The oesophagus alailiala invades ilialailila
v v uu r uu r r ru u r r vv uu vv u u r r u r r r
u ur r r a u u r r
®ilil i i The mouth is a itransverse slit. Itmmais bounded by two soft,
aarrlalar alariliala alailiala ilimalailila r rr
the
idiaphragm, a muscular transverse aa//ttapartition that/ttaam
ilm ilim m m ilim m mm
t//taea//ttaa movable lips: ttaea//tupper
taa and lower. ttaeaThe
/e/tta lips are covered /e/ttee//twith
m m m m m m m m m
m a //ttaa
/separates thorax from ee eabdomen, and leads eemeeinto the stomach.
mm m m m aa t a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa t a
/ a a t t / t /
skin ontt..m the
m//tt..mmouter side and lined
..m with mucous tt.:.m/m/membrane
/ / / e t t / / / / / e e ee
During the oesophageal phase of ..m/m/swallowing, food tt.:.m/m//is
ee e ee e eem eem / ee e
..m/m tt..mm mm/tt..mm ..m tt..mm
on the sst:p:p/ssinner
/ / ::// side. Mouth sst:p:p/ssleads
/ ::/ into the vestibule.
mm/tt..mm m
sst:p:p/ss:: pushed through
m
sst:p:p/ss:the
/ :/ oesophaguss::/by
sttppss:involuntary muscular
t t. . / / t
/ t / t
/ t / /
/ / // t .
t . m / tt.. / t
/ .
t . / / / t
/ t / t
/ t / // / : /
/// /// :: s : /// /// /: :: s
ss::/ss:: ppststttpps ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp • Vestibule t p
t p t t is a narrow hh hspace
t tpp tt t enclosed between hh h the lips and
t t
t t p p movements hht hhcalled peristalsis.
t p
t p t t t tpp t t t t
t t
cheeks externally and the gmns and teeth internally. Its • §fomach is the most distensible and the v1ridest organ of
t
hht hh t t t h t tt t t t t t hh h h
hh h h hhtt hht hh hh
b ebbthe alimentary bcanal. It is a thick muscular b ebb bJ-shaped
liningbcontains mucous ebglands. b ebb The vestibule b ebbleads into e which is placed ebweobliquely eborgan
b bb b eb
behind
ethe e diaphragm ewe oniwethe weeleft
the oral cavity.
e b eb e b e b b
w e e ebw e w e ebw
i ebb e bw b
wveiw
side. Stomach uvariuruv helps in mechanical uriualvaruru archurning and uriualvarchemical
e w e i w e i i w i i
w vi w e i w i i
• larurOral
w i w w i w i
uvaruruv (l:JUccal) rnvlly uriualvaruris a large space uriualvbounded above iby
wvi w vii viw
w vi w v i w vi w uv vi u v vi r uv v wi vi w vi w vi
v uvruw i w v i vi w uv vi v uv
uv ur aruaru
digestion ialmiliaof food. It alsomiacts liamil as ailm food i reservoir. amil Stomach
u ur arurlialaru arurliala
milamilthe palate, below
l iaby
l
mil the throat andammon
ar
ilamthe
i l ar
il sides by the jaws.
ar al ar r
u l l ar a i l ar l i l ial
· is tdifferentiated into/atathree am pa_rts mta - -cardiac, fundic mtamand /atamm
i ia mi mi l l ilam i l
i mi
milam mtilam
tt/aaem/t/atam The throat esupports //tataem/t/at the tongue. tt The tamjaws bear teeth. /me The
amm
taem/t/atam tam ta
pyloric
t/aee/t which opens t einto
e/ first / e/part ofeesmall t ee/ intestine.
/ a t/a t/a am m / t
a a /at t/at t a / t e/ t/ a
/ a t t / /me e/
buccal cavity
e e/me m e . m eis lined by stratifi . m etem/mee/
. e d squamous epithelium.
t m. m etem. e e/m m e e/m
. em . m .
/m
m
eme
. t m. m etem. m .m
•
m . . m . t m / .
/ :/t/.s:/:/t ://st.://t
The tongue
/t/.st:m/:/t/. is a voluntary musculo-sensory and glandular
. tm t/.st:m/:/t/. :/t/.s:/:/t . tm t.m/t. t/.st:m/:/t/. ://t.://t
: / /.tm
t
. /t/.tm
/: :
/ :
/ / s: / :/ t/.tm. /t/.tm
/: :
/ /t/.st:m/:/t/.Oesophagus
: / / : / :
/ / s: /
structuretpthht tpt which occupies tpthht tpt the floor ofhhtthe tptphsttptmouth. It is tptpsst:p/tpss:
s:/pss: pss: ps s
ps ps : ps pss: ps s s s : ps s s tps ptps s p
tptphsttpt tpthht tpt httphttp tptphst tpt ttphttp httphhtt httphtt
attached to the floor h of the mouth by a fold called theh h
t
h h h t h t h h t h t h h t h h t h h h
h h
lingual b ebbfre,mlmn. ebbeeb b b
•
b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
Human tongue has four taste areas (sweet, salt, smrr and
b eb bweeb b ebb
ew b eb eb e w w e ebw e i w evewi e b e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
e w i e w wuvviw viuwviw
i
bitter). Areas of sweet and salt can overlap.
e w i i e w i i
vi v i iwviwi
w u v uv v i w
r
i viw
uv uv v i wuvviw
r r
u u v w
viruvi
u vi iwviwi
w uv uv v i w
r
i viw iwvi
uv v u
w
r uv v i r u r
u uvavriuwr
m•ilamil Tongue helps
uv r r u ar uv r u r
mintilamm chewing the food, mil aidsmi in swallowing amthe
urialaru r ar uialar u l u
ar lialar i
a larilial urialaru r a r u
uialar ar ar u l u
ar lialar ila ila r i
a larilial
l ar i
a l l ia i l l ar ial l l i l ia
il mi i l
i i m ilaimamil il mi i m mm
tt aem/t/atam food, mixing taem/the a food and saliva, plays a role in /atspeech,
taem/t/atam amm t/at amm t t amm /atam tam/tam t amm / tam /tam/tam
a /ataem/t/ata /tam
/ /a t / a t
and cantm recognise four tastes.
/a t/a t t e/ e/ /at
t ee/t /a t/a
e/mee/ e/ e t t e / t e/
e/me
m/e.tm .m
/
etem
.me .m/t/e.tm
e/me
. .mt/e.tm .me m/e.tm
e/m
.m/t/e.tm . regions etem
.mstomach
/
.me t.mte.m
e
.mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
• Teeth
tm mof human tm
s:/t:/psare
ts:/: hard structures s:/t:pss:/: which are meant s:/tpss:for / holding :/t/. /:/t
. t m / . . m . t m /.
•
. . t m /. / ://st ://
Small intestine s:/t:/pss:/:is the
.
://slargest
.
(6.25
s:/t:pss:/: m slong), :/ s: narrow s:/tpss:and
t
/. t m /. / t/ / /
t . :/ t : / t m Fig.: Anatomical /
t . t / t / /
t . / t / / / :/ t : /
/:p/sts:/:/ :/
prey, tpt httpcutting, grinding tpt httand p crushing the tphfood.
/ s s
tubular part tpt hof palimentary p ttp canal tpt htthattp lies t hcoiled in abdomen.
s: p s s: : s p s
tphst tpt ps ps t h t t p tphst tpt p s ps t t
ps
t p tt p tphht httphttp
t t p
• hA_rrangement
h t h t
of teeth in each half of the upper and lower
p p t t
It is divided into three parts -proximal duodenum} middle
t ht ht h t h t
h h h h ht h h
hht h h h h hht h h h
jaw in theb order incisor, cat1ine, b ebb pre-molar,ebbmolar ebb and is weebiw b ebjeju b :rmm and distal
b ebb :ileum.
• Duodenum is the shortest and -wider e wpart. ewe Ileumiweis ethe weiw
b ebb b b b ebb b eb
2123
b eb
is
b eb
represented by a dentalviwformula which in humans
ebw
_
e b e b e e w e e e b ebw
longest (3.5 iruvm) part of the rsmall uvaruruv intestine. Ileum uvarur opens
e e w e w e i w i w i i w e w e w e i i
2123
w w i i w w v w vi w i i w w vriuv
.
wvi ii viw vi v w vi i i w w vi i i v w vi
2120
v w i
uvaruru v u v uv v w vi vi v i uv uv
The fonnula of rmlk teeth is __ .
uvaruruv r larur vru
into large ialmiliaintestine.
u ur u v r
u uv
ar r
u l r
a r
u l l ar u ia r
u uv u ar u l r u r
a r
u l r u a i l arurlial
2120
a r l ar l ia i l ia ia l a r l ar l ia a a i l ia l a i l l a
mil mi amil il il
taem/t/atam • Large
il ia milamil
i
milamil ilaim amil i mi mi
intestine is divisible in.to mta3mparts /-atam caecl]m�
milamil mtilam amm mtilam mtcolon
am taem/t/atam /t
tt/a®aem/t/atamMan has a fixed e/me upper jaw andeea/mmovable
tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam
lower jaw. e/meEach t a
andrecfum.
/a /a t/a t am / a /at /
t
t ee/ e/ e/a t a t e/ /
t a / t / t/a
e/me e
t/aee/t e/m
tooth consists of three parts: mcro\Vll,
. e neck, root.
e/m e
.m/t/e.tm . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm
@ /.tmC::riecum is a pouch-like small junction between ileum and
etem/me m/e.tm . . etem/m m/e.tm . m/e.tm . .mt.m
. m . t .
m t .
m /.tm / .tm . m . t .
m m . m t .
m / .tm t /
/:/pss:/ • Crown
.
/:pis /the exposed portion /pss:/ of tooth above s:tpss:the gums. s:/:/ts:/:
/ . / t t / . / / t
colon. Caecum /:bears a blind tube having lymphoid tissue
tt m:/t/.
/. /t / . : / t :/ t :/ t :
/ /: /t/. /t / . :/ t / t / / : / t : / t / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /:
s: s: s: ps s : s: / :/ s: s: /pss:/ s: s ps
Crown hht hh is covered 'With hht the
tpthht tpthardest substance hht hhcalled enamelhht tphhttp called ve:rmifo:rm
s
hht hh happendix: hh(asttphhtan outgrowth of hhtcaecum
: ps s p s t
tp ttp ps ps s p s
t tpt ttp tt p t
tphttp ttp tt p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tps tps tpt t tpt ttphttp h h h h h
that protects the crown. Neck is a narrow portion at the
b ebband consideredb asb vestigial in human beings).
hht hh
b b b ebb e b b ebb eb b ebb ebw e b eb b ebb b b ebw b ebb b eb
e e eb e w e w e w e i w e i e b e e w e e e w e e e
wviw e
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w
i viw i vi i
wuvviw i viw uv v i w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w i
i viw iwviw vi wuvviw viuwviw
i i vi
r
u
v i
uvaruruv ar rulvarur
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u u
uvarur ru ruv v
a r u uv
r larur ruar l ar uriualvar
ar lial ialmilia ialmilia i
ilamamil ar lial l
ialmilia ila ila ialmilia il il a i
ilamamil
mtilam
ialm i mtilam mtilam amm t m ilaimalm i mtilam m mtilam mtam amm t
am am t a am m am t /a
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/ t/ am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
ee/mee me me .me.m ee/ ee ee/mee e/ e me me em .me.m em
v v
w w
ii vvi i ww
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
r u
r u vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u v v i
u
i
u
w vv i
uu vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
uruarru u r u r rr r a u u r u u rr u r r rr r
254
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m mm m mm a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa // a t tt //
• Colon
/ / / t a
//tee// t / t // // eemee
eem eis the largest part eem e eem e mm
eem e
. m eem eem/ ee eemee m m .m
..m/m//tt..m mm .
tt.:.////tt. m of large intestine mm which
.
tt.:.////tt .m is thicker ..
//tt:://// tt . glands that
..m/m//tt..comprise
m of many mm .
tt.:.////tt .types
m of cells located
. mm
tt:.////tt. . m in //t::////t.
t . . t
//tt / /
/ / / /
/ / : : /
: / the epithelium. /
/ / t
/ t / /
/ / / /
/ / : : /
: /
/ ss::/ small intestiness:but
ss::/than : ss:thinnerthan caecum. ss:: ss Colon is divided sspss sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:pss: ss::pss ss ss
ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttppinto four parts tttphpt-tttppascending colon,
t t ttphpttttpptransverse colon,
t h h ttttphphttttp Fundic t ttpp t t tglands (Oxyntic ttttppglands)
t tt secrete HCl,
t ttphpttttppepsinogen
t h htt h
hh h hh h hh h h t hh
andh soluble mucin � acidic secretions.
hh hh hh h
descending co.Ion, sigmoid or pelvic colon.Rectum is the
b b
we thinnest and last bpart beebbof the alimentary eewbbecanal.
ebb eew bbeebb • Pyloric eew eebb
bbglands : Secretion bbeebis b rich in mucineeband beebb does not eebbeebb
ee w contain i w w i
v HCI.i w e e ww iwvviw iw iw
w w
vvriuiuwvvii w w w
vvriuiuvv i i i iwvviw w
vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuw i
• ilialCardiac
vvriuw iw
iwvviHUMAN uuavvrruuv iw iw uuavvrru
IIISJOLOGYruOf u GUT uu r r u u r rr glands u v v u u uu r r u u r u rr
alarrilial:arSecrete mucin alarilialaand very little
u
rilalar r
alarilis r
alailiala ailila u r r r
alailiala alailila
e The wall alaof
ilim i alimentary canal ilim iala made up of four ilim layers. m m mpepsinogen.
m ilim ilim ilim
m m m
ilim
m
m m m m m m m m a m aa taa mmttaa m mm
aa//ttaa m mma
aa//tta aa
tte//t t aa
Serosa t//taea//ttaais the outer most / ttaa made up /of
ttaea//layer / tta
ttaea/mesothelium
/ /e/ttee//t The epithelium t aa
// ee of the gastricee glands /t t //tt / /
ee e
/ e
eeMuscula:ris ee e e eem
t // / ee (fim<lic eeglands) ee e em e
. mm/tt..mmconnective tissue.
and
. t ..m/m//tt..mm
t
is..m
t t
composed
m//tt..mm of outertt..mm
/ / / /
/ tt..mm consists .of
/ mm/tt.various
. . m types of t t.mm/tt..mm
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t / / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
tt / / / / / / / / : : t t / / / / / / :
///
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ss::/ss::
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ttttphpttttpp conSists of hloose thtttphphttttpconnective tissue t ttphpttttpprichly supplied
t t t thtt t p p t p
t p
t tt usually basal t ttpp tttt t t t p tt t t t h t
hh h nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels hh h and in some hh
areas hhtt hhare hht hhin location and hh hsecrete
h gastric hh h
digestive enzymes as proenzymes; pepsinogen and
b eb with glands. Mucosa is the innermost layer lining the
bbeebb forms irregular bbeebb prorennin. bbeebb The chief cells bbeebb also produce small bbeebbamount bbeebb
wveiw lumen of the alimentary eewbbeebb canal. Thiselayer eiw eew ivi vviw
of w w
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i amylasewweand eiw gastric lipase. eProrennin
eiw is
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i w i w
vvruuvv finger-like foldings i w
i w
vvruuvvii w v uu
uuarsecreted v ii vvi w vnot
v i w
i w vv secreted in uvvuuvviw
i w i w
i w i
uuav
v u
rru small intestine. uu
rr r uu
rr r r r r in young u v u u mammals. It is u u r ruu r u r r rr
rulualathe
called vimaarin ilalailiala ilialailiala ilima a l l a
l ii adult mammals. r u
lialariliala
r r
ilim
rr
alailiala ilim
r
alailila a iliml ilila
a a
iliml ii m
imm mm m m m m a m i m m mm m aa//ttam
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DIGESTIVE aammtaaGLANDSm t a
ta /
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t //ttaa//tta Oxyntic cells aa mmtaamm (Parietal cells) ta
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eem/ ee eemee t
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eem m m . m numerous eem on the side walls emm the gastric glands. mThey m m .m
• The
t ..m/m//tt.human
t .m digestive/tt.glands
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m
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m m .
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/ ss::/ / / :
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ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp withsstppss::eosin. They tare ppststttppcalled parietalttttphpcells t as they httttphphttttpp
t tttphpttttpp t t t t h h t t p
t p t tt tt t t t h
hhSalivary h glandshh h hh h hht lie hh against the basement hh hh membrane.
hh They h
secrete
b b 01 There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, b hydrochloric
b b b b acid (HCI) and Castle's intrinsic bbeebb
ewe bbeebb eew bbeebb eew bbeeb eewwee that helps ineebthe beebbabsorption of vitamin eew bbeebb eew
i sublingual and esubmaxill e ary or submandibular.
w i w ww i i w i w
ifactor
w i i w i w B 12 . ww i iw i
• Parotid glands vv iwiwvviw iw
are the largest u vriruiuwvvi glands.ruThey
vsalivary u vvriuiuvv lie r uu vvruuvv
r Mucous cells v iwiwvviw
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v iw
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vpresent r uuavvrr
u uarr uu r u r r r a uu uu r u r r
on the sides alarrilialof
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ilim alaithe liala ears.
m
ilimalailila
m other types iliof arr and secreteilialamucus.
alarrilialcells
rilala
i Mucus isilim alaailiala
m
ilimalailila
m
m m mm m mm a m m aa mt a a m m m
mttaa which helps tto m m aa m m m m a m aa mt a a
The tparotid a a mttaa ducts, also called
/ ttaa//ttaa Stenson's ducts, / t
/ aa//tta open into //tte//t
t glycoprotein t a a / aa//tneutralize
t t the /acid t
/ aa//ttain
t / tte//t
/
t
// ee // /
eemeeupper second molar ee ee e em e t //
// eeIt protects stomach ee ee / ee ee e em e
. mm/tt..vestibule
theeem
. m opposite
./ .m/m//tt.the
t t .m t ..m/m//tt..mm tooth. Viral
t / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
stomach.
. m
. m t
eem
. . m t t..mm/tt..mm wall againsttt.HCl mm/tt..mmaction
. / / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
t
/// infection
t of the parotid /
/ / glands, causing / /
/ /swelling and pain / / and /// protein
t t / t digestive:://enzyme. / / / / / / / / / / :
ss::/ss::
/// ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss:: ss: sst:p:p/ss::
/// sstppss::
/ // :
st:tp:pss: ss:: ss
ttttphpttttpp is the diseasehhtttcalled tphphttttpp mumps. httttphphttttpp t ttphpttttpp 0 Thettpepithelium
t p t of gastric t ttpp glands
tt t also has the
t t
t ppsfollowing
t t t two t ttphpttttpp
t
hh h t hht hh cells and stemhhcells. hh h
hh eh Sublingual glands lie under theh front part of the tongue. typeshhtt hhtof cells : endocrine hh
The sub1ingual ducts,balso termed ducts b ebbofRivinus, open b ebbcells are usually
b eb under the tongue. eb b eb e b e ebwb ebb @ Endocrine
e w e ebw
i eglands. These eare bw b ebpresent
b in the basal
ebw b ebbparts
e wgastrin ew b eof b
evew bwb ebb b eb
e weiw
wvie w w
ii viw e i w e i
w w ev i
w w i
w w evi i
w the gastric
vi i
w vi w i w e i e argentaffin cells i
w w e v wi and i i
w w i i i
® Submaxill.arry v w v i i
uv of the lower vi uv u v uv
r larur(G-cells). Argentaflin v w
iruv vi w v i i
uvaruruv serotonin, vrui v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
u uv r
u uglands
v lie at theuruvaangles r ur r
u uvarurjaw. cells ar u r uv u cells produce r
u r u r
u arurliala
ar u l ar l ar i
a l i l ar ial lial lia ar u l ar l a r i
a l a a i l ar i
a l l a i l a li
a l
The submaxill il ia ducts, also milaknown
iamil as Wharton's milamil ducts, misomatostatin
amm
i andilialhistamine.
ilia G-ceHS amare
ilaim il present il i in the l amil
ilam i mi mi
milamil ary m tt aem/t/atam taem/t/atpyloric mtamm amm mtam gastrin. amm t mtam taem/t/atam /ta
open /under ttaaem/t/atam the tongue. e/t/ataem/t/at e/me/a e/met/a region tand
am
t/aee/t / a secrete and store /at /
t
t ee/ e/ e/
/m
the
t
a hormone
t a e/m /at
t e/ t/a / t a
e / t/a
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• The m etem/saliv
. m e ary glands secrete . m/e.tm. me a viscous fluid . m/e.tm. called saliva. /.tm .m/t/e.t®m. Serotonin misee./am vasoconstrictor . etem
m/and . stimulates
m m the . t . e t.mte.m
m/esmooth
m t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
tm. /.tm / t
. m t / t tm. tm /.tm . . t . /.tm t . / / /
t . : t /
s:
/. /t/.
ts:/:contains water,s:/:salts,
/:/pIt
/t s:
t
/ mucin and s:an
:/ : / t :/
/pss:/enzyme salivary p s
:
/
s:tps: s /: muscles./:/tSomatostatin
s:
/.
s: /: /t/. suppressess:
/t
/:pss:/ s:the
:/ t / t / /
/ s: releases:of : / t :/
/psshormones
:/ s:ps / / : /
ps s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s
tpstpt lts pH is nearly ps t p stptps digestive tract.tptphstHistamine p s pt walls tp tt of tp tp tp tt t p
s
tptpsttpt amylase or ptyalin. httphht tpt t tptneutral, beingh6.7. ht tphhtt fromtptpthe tpt ttp ttp dilates tpt t tthe
ht h to hht hht ht h
hht@ hh The salivary hglands are under neural hht hh control. Salivation blood t
hht hhvessels. Gastrin hht hstimulates h h the gastric hht hh glands
(flow ofsaliva) isbactivated b by the sight, b ebsmell,
b idea and talk b ebb release the b ebbgastricjuice. b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
b eb ebpresence ebw ebw ebw
ecells e are undifferentiated eb cells that are ebw e ebw e e
ew of food and by e b
the of food e in
e the buccal cavity.
w e e • Stem i w i eb e also
e present
e w e
vi vi iwviwi
w e w e
v i w w
i viw i vi i
wuvviw i
uv w
viruvi v w
v
i
e
iwviwi
w w e
v i w w
i viw iwvii w vi wuvviw viuwviw
i i
uvavriuw
r
The parotiduruvgland r u v secretion is very
r uv ur uvrich in salivary r
u u v
amylase, ur in r
u the
ar u epithelium of
u v rthe
uv gastric glands. r uv ur uThey
v u v multiply
u r
u uv r
u r u r r
u
@
l ar i lar u i l ar uialar i
a l r lialar
a li
a ar lial
land i replace other l a r r laru
u
cells.
i They play i l
an
a a r uialar ar ar
important l role ial
in
ar lialar ila ila li
a larilial
a starchilisplitting
m amil
a enzyme. The il misecretions of sub
a l millingual
mi and i
m mm iamila
mtilam il mi i l l i
amm
il mi i
m mm
submaxill tt aem/t/atamary glands are / a mm
tarich /
t tamin mucin. t/atamt/atam
a /
t ataem/t/atahealing. t am /a / t
a amm t/atam tam/tam /
t t
a /
t tam /tam/tam
a t/ataem/t/ata /tam
/a t
e/mee/ e / e/ / a
t ee/t t
e/mee/ e/ e e / e/
® Salivary m/e.tm
e/me amylase is mabsent
. . /t/e.tm. in herbivores.
e/me
.m/t/e.tm. tm.mt/e.tm .m e
liver (llepar)
e/m
m/e.tm. .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m m
e/me e e
.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m .tm.mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
tm. /. tm / t
. m /
t . / t m. /.tm / t
. / t/ : / t /
@
s:
/. /:/t
/:p/sts:Saliva has manys:/functions :/ts:/: :
/ t
s:/t:pss:/: ps
:/ :
s:/tpss:/ • It is the s: /
. /:/t
:/t/largest
s: internal gland
t
s:/t:/pss:/: ofsthe
t
://sbody
/
:/ which / t
s:/t:pss:/is : :/ s:
reddish
s
/ /
p s s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
:/
p s t ps ps t t p ps ps ps
t p tt side p p tpt tp p t p
ps
tpt t tpt It moistens t p
ht tphhttand lubricateshhthe
t tp
t tphhtbuccal mucosa,hhtongue ttphht brown tpstpt
httphht in colour. Thehht liver
tpt http lies
h ht htin the upper
tp tp ht tphhtt right tt
h h of hht hht ht h
t t
hht hh h
and lips, thus making speech possible. h
the abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm.
h
It also moistens b eb b food and changes b it
b to a semi-solid b b e The liverebis bb
b ecovered by nvo sheaths- b ebb an outer membranous b ebb b b b ebb b eb
b eb eb e b e eb e ebweeb w e i w e ebw ebw e w ewean iweew bw e weiw
wview mass for easyw
ii viw e i w eswallowing. i
w w ev i i
w w i
w w vi i
w serous vi i
w capsule
vi w consisting i w e i of e visceral peritoneum i
w w e vi i
w i and i w v i i i
v w vi uv cavity. uruv uru v i v u v ur uv v w vi w
iruconsisting vi uv uvof v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
u It neutralizes r uv r
u uv acidity in theuruvbuccal a r ur a r ar inner l r
a r larGlisson's
u i capsule r uv u v of a thin
ur uvarurlayer r r u dense ar r
u a l arurlial
a r u lar l ar ial i l ial ia
il mi l a ar u l ar l ar ial a a i l ial l a i l lia
Its m enzymesl
iliamilia help in digestion.
i
milamil milamil mconnective tissue. iGlisson's
mtlam
ialmilia capsulemisiliathe mil characteristic il il ilamamil i mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam
/ a tt aem/t/atam
/a t/a atam
taem/t/feature of mammalian t am a liver. /atamt/atam tamtam /at amm t/at t a mtam
/ t/ataem/t/atam /t
e/me t/aee/t / t ee/ e/ e/ /t e/ e e / e/me e
Gastriceeglands /me m/e.tm
e/me
.
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m/e.tm. .m/t/e®.tm. The liver ismedivided e/m into twotm main
e/m
m/e.tm. lobes - righttm mandetem
.meleft m m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
. m tm.
tt m:/t/. glands are:/t/of t .
m
. /:/t three types: the / t
. .
m t / /
t .tm t .
m t .
m /. . . m t . m / . . /
t . t . / t . / /
t .tm : t /
@
s :
Gastric
/.
/ s:/
/:which s: /pss: s: :/ t
/pss:/ :/cardiac glands
p s
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s:tpss: /: lobes. Numerous
s:
/ .
:/ts:/:
/ / /
t . thin branched s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/septa-like /
s
t : / /
s : : /
ps
t :
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s:/ s: s / / : /
ps s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p
tpt t tin
ps are located ps pt cardiac part of t stomach,
p s pt the pyloric t
tp ttp ptps pstpt tp tpcapsule,ptdividing p s tpt p tt p t
tp ttp tp tt
tptpsttpt
hht inhhpyloric part ofhhstomach ttphht t hht hh
extend tptphsttinwards from thetptGlisson's
hht hminute ht ht ht htt hht htt heach hht hh ht h
hht hh glands located and the fundic liver hht lobe h into numerous hepatichlobules.
b b ebb b ebb b ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
be b
e ebw e eebw e we i e b
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mtilam i mtilam mtilam mm
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m
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ew bbeebb e e bbeebb e e eew bbeebb eew eew
vi e e w w w w w i w w i w
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r ru u v vrruu v v v v
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r
alailila ilim
r
alailiala ilimalailila a ilima a
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r
ilimalailiala ilimalailila a iliml ilila
a a
Human ilim Physiology m m m m m mm a m i m m m m m 255 aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t/taea//ttaa ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta mmtaamm a a mttaa aa//ttaa t t
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e / /
eem e/ t a a
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eem/ ee
t // /
eemee
t
/ t /
eemee /
eem e m m eem m m m
t ..m/m//tt..m ® Ku:pffe:r's
t / /
m m . m
. (hepatic macrophages
tt.:.////ttceHs /
m m
tt.:.////tt
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or stellate /
. . m t .
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/ t ..m/m//ttand
t
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m m
tt.:.////tt
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. . m and some / . m m . . m
tt:.////tt enzymes such
/ / / t .
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: //t..
/ t
/ / / / / / : :: / /
::// ::/ pancreatic mmyfa.se, / /
:: s : / / : : :
/ /
ss::/ss:: also sst:p:pss: in the liverppswhich s:: ss sspss
ppststttpps DNAase, s:tp:pss
sRNAase and pancreatic sstppss
t tttphpttttpp t tttphppresent
t t t t tthttttpp are phagocytic
t h h ttttphphttttpcells that eat ttttppststttppss lipase. Thetttpancreatic t juice helps t ttphptttin
t the digestion h h ttttphphstarch,
of
ttt
hh h bacteria
hh h and foreignhhsubstances. h hh hh hh hh hh h
Fat storage cells are also found in the liver. proteins, nucleic acids and fats.
•
®
b b b b b bb bbeebbconsists of groups bbeebb of
we ® A epear- e b b b
bee shaped sac like b b ee
eewwstructure
b b called
b
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w
b e b
e bladde:r is ww iw e e
i w
e e The endocrine e e bbeepart bb of the pancreas eew eew iw
w i w w i i w i i iwvviw w i w w w i iw celils i
iwiwvviw
vvattached
u u
iw to the posterior
u u vvriuiuwvvi surface ofthe
r r u u vvriuiuliver
r
vv on the right
r ruuavvrruuv
v islets ofvvLangerhans. iw
u u
iw The vfollowing
u u vriruiuwvvi three types
r u u vvriuiuvvof
r r ruuavvrru
uu r r occuraarin u u r r
lil rilialapancreatic islets:
rr by co:nnective alarilialatissue. Rat andilialahorse alailila rr alariliala alailiala alailila
alarrilialaside
ilim ilim iliala do not haveiligall
m mm iThe ilim ilim m
ilim
m
m m bladder. The m main
m m function of m
the m a m m
gall bladder is to
aa mt store
a a (i) m mttaa m m alpha cells (a)
mm m- secreting hormone m m a m glucagon, a a mt aa
m
t//taea//ttaa and concentrate ttaea//ttaa / ttaea//tta /e/ttee//t t a a / t aa//ttaa
t / t
/ aa//tta
t / tte//t
/
ee e
/ /
ee e the bile secreted /
ee e by the liver.mm.mm e (ii)
ee// ee
t / / The beta cell.s ee ee / (�) - secreting hormone
ee ee insulin, eem e
mm/tt..mm ® Liver//thas ..m/m//tt..mm ..m m//tt..mm tt.:.////tt. mm/tt..m(iii)
m The delta/cells ..m/m//tt..mm(8) - producing m//tt..mm
..m/hormone somatostatin. tt.:.m/m///tt..m
ttttphphttttpthe stomach,ttttppststttpp•ss secretionttttof
t .
t . t high power of / t
/ t regenera.thm
/ / .. / /// : t .
t . t
/ t / t
/ t / / /
/ / :
/// ///
ss::/ss::
/ /
ss::p/ss::
/
ss::/ss:: ss:p: ss :://// ::/// Thus, the pancreas :://s::/ performsss:two ://s::
ppttttpps main functions
ss:: ss
® The tttphpttttpdeoxygenated blood
ttphpttttpp to the liverhhfrom ppststttpps ttphpttttpp i.e.,
ttttphpttttpp h spleen is carried via the hepatic
t t t t t
t t t t h
hh h h h
hintestines, pancreas hh and hh hh hh hh pancreatic juice hh hhwhich containshh digestive
portal vein and oxygenated blood via hepatic arteries. enzymes and production of hormones.
b eb bbeebb as hepatic educts bbeebb and duct Intestinal bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
wveiw ® Ductsbbofliver e e bb lobes are eknown e e eew w glands bbeebb eew eew
ee w w w i i eew
of v v igall
w w w
iwvvi bladder is knmvn
i i w w i w
i w
vvruuvv as cystic duct.
i i w
i
vvruuvvw i i w
u u v i i v v
vrruue The intestina1 v v
ww i
ii vvgla.. w
i TJ.ds lie in the wail v v i w
i
u
w vof i i w
v small intestine. i w
i
vvrThey
uu
w vviw are
i
uuav
u u u u r u u r r ruu r r r a uu r uu rru u r r u r ruu r r r
® aarThe r r r
l iliala wight and ilileft
r
alailiala hepatic ducts ilimalailijoin
la to form the
a ilima a
l ii l l a of2 types: r r
lialarilialacrypts ofLieberkuhn ilimalailiala and Brunner's ilim a
alaglands.
ilila iliml ilila
a a
ilim m m m m m i m m m m
aammtaamcommon hepatic t a
ta mmttaa duct. The latter
/
m
t a
t a m
/
mt
/ aajoins the cystic
t / t
/ aaduct
t // a
tta ® The aa mm crypts
t a
t a mm of Lieberku.hn
ta
t a m
/ /
m
mttaa are simple tubular
/ tta a mm
/ t
/ aa glands and //ttaa//tta
t a
t
//ttee// to form theee/bile /
/ ee duct. The bile /
eem/ eeduct passes dovmwards eemee t
//tee// throughout theeesmall / / ee ee ee / ee e e
eem mm/tt.to mmjoin the maint..mm ..m ..m the
..m/m//tform
t eoccur
em m m . mm intestine tbet\veen mm/tt..mm the villi. They ..m/m//tt..mm
m m .. m posteriorly .. . p2ncreatk
t t duct / ttot m m . . m . . t t . . . / t t
. .
tt / t
::///s/s::///
t t
/// ///t /// //t / /
sst:p:p/ss:: (ampu.Ha ttof
/
//ss::
sst:p:Vate:r).
/ //tt ///secrete
. . t t enzymes /// and
t t /// mucus. They::///sare
/ / ::// oftivo types scells
t / // : :
st:tp:pss:
/ /
s s p hepatopancreatic
p p sst:p:p/ss:: ampullap p t p p t t t p The ss:://ss::/ Paneth and Argentaffin
p pp sst:p:p/ss:: cells. ttppststtpps t p
t p t t
p p t t t t t t t
hh hh_mg is guardedhhtttthphtttt p p tt tt t t t
ttpttt
hhtt hht ampulla tt
hhtt hht opens into the ht
hhtt hduodenum. The open Paneth hhtt hhcells are found particularly hhtt hht in the duodenum. hh hh
by the sphincter of Oddi.
bbevia
b eb They secrete lysozyme (antibacterial substance).
ew • The liver bb bbcells secrete l,ile bb(hepatic
e bb bile pH 8.6) e bb ti:iehepatic eebbeebb bbeebb cells (en.terochromaffin bbeebb bbeebb
Argenfaffin cells)
iw are
i e e ee e e w w e w e e w w i w w i w
i w ee eew w w eew i
duct
iw iwvviw ito
w the gall bladder w
iiwfor i i storage (gall bladder w i i
ii vv bile pH is 7 .6)vvuuvv i w wvviw iwamong epithelial w
iiwvvcellsi i w
iicrypts i
u vv u u uu v vr ru u vv
r uu vvr ruu r ru u r r located
u vv i
u
i
u u u v vr u
r u lining the
r uu vvr ruu vv of r ruuavvrr
alarrilialaand
u rr hence on demand alarilialaviathe common
r alabileiliala duct to an opening
r alailila a u rr r
lialarilialidentifi
r alailila
ilim near the pancreatic ilim duct into the
ilim
duodenum. m mm
ilim
m ilim arriliala
alLieberkuhn. Theyiare
m
a ed withilthe alailialproduction
im m
a
mm
ilim
m
m
m m mm m mm a a a t aa mmttaa ofm se:rofonin. m
Serotonin
m
aa//ttaa m is a powerful m m
aa//tta a stimulant of aa
tte//t t a a
t//taea//t®taa The bile iseean //ttaa
//ttaeaealkaline viscouseegreenish //t aa//tta
tee yellow flueid. e / /tte//t
eAbout t a
t a //
// ee smooth muscle, //t t
ee eeresulting in contraction, /
ee ee
t
/ t e e // e
ee e eem and may mm/tt..mm
. mm/tt..mm 500-1,000 ./ .m/m//tt..mm ml of bile is //secreted t ..m/m//tt..mm by liver in / .mm Bile
tt.:.m/am///tt.day. . m m . . m play a role t . mm/intt..mmstimulating peristaltic
. t ..m/m//tt..mm activity of
t / tt.:.the
/ / /
t t . / t t // : /t / / / t t . / t t / / t / / / / / / / : /
/// ///
ss::/ss:: contains
/ /
sst:p:p/ss:: bile salts, bileppspigments st:tp:pss: (bilirubin sst:p:pss:biliverdin), ss::///s/s::/// / /
sst:p:p/ss:: :://s:: :: s
ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp t p
t p t t t t t t t t t ttphptand
t t t t p p t p
t p intestine.
t t p
t p t t t t t
t ppststttpps
t t t
t th
hh h hcholesterol
t
ht hh and phospholipid. hh hht Bile contains hh h no enzymes. tt
hhtt hht e The Brunner's hht hh glands are branched hh hh tubular glands hh hand are
® Bile salts (sodium carbonate, sodium glycocholate�
bb in the weebiw b ebbcorrfined to theb duodenum. They secrete
b ebbThey
aL1<:.aline watery
b ebb b eb
be b sodium e b b ebbtaurnclwlate)ebband
w e ebb phospholipids e ebw b ehelp
e e fluid, a littleebenzyme eb b and mucus. eb w e e b eopen b intoevewbw etheweiw
wveiw digestion
v w e w e
ii viw of fats in the
w i vi i
w w
uv
e v i i
small
w intestine by
vi
uvarur
i
w w
uv i i
bringing
v w about u v
r larur
vi i
w u v vi w
crypts ofLieberkuhn.
v wi
iruv
w e vi wi w e
The mixture vi i
w w
uvaruruv ruvru
e vi wi
of i w i w
secretions
v v i
w
is
w
uvarur ruvruv
i uv i i
called i uv
u
ar ur uv
their
l a r r
u uv emulsificationuruva(rconversion
l ar i l
r
u of i l ar r
large
u ial fat droplets intoial ar u
lia intestinal ar ur u
l
va r u
juice, or succus l ar ur
entericus.
ial a i l ar r
u ial l a i l a i
a larurliala
lia il a mi mi l ilaim a l amil l
i mi
il ia
milamilsmall ones). tamm/atiamm milamil taem/t/atam About mtilam
ialmilia
2 to 3 litres of tintestina. amm
amil il i
1mtjuice m is secreted amm
ilam
each
i
mtamday. /atamm atam /ta
tt/aaem/®t/atam Bile servese/the /tae/tfollowing functions tt aem/t/atam
/ a t
e/me/ a @
t am / a /a /
t t
a t a a /at /
t at
t ee/ intestine. / t a / t
e/me e e/ t/
e/me :
etIt
t/ais t
ee/ alkaline (pH .7m,8) etem/mt eande/ ise/poured e/ into e/m
. the eme The
e.g.,
m etem /me
. . m/e.tm . me t m. m/e.tm. / .t m.m/t/e.tm. m
e/m
. . m . m t m. m/e.tm . m t . / t
. m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. / t
. m
Neutralisation ofHCI / . t / t t .
m juice
m contains many
/ t
. m / . enzymes,
. t / . t aminopeptidases,
t / / t : t /
s:
/ .
/:/pss:/ s :
/t
: s:/ :/
/Emulsification
t
s : : / t
/pss:/ :/
ps
/:
s:tps: s /:
s: /
/ . /t/.
:/ts:/: dipeptidases,s:/:intestinal /
s
t s: : / t
/ :/ s: amylase, / t / /
s: : / t :/
/ s: s
/pss:maltase, / / : /
isomaltase� p s s:tps: s://s:/
:
/ s /
ps p s p s
t tpt t p ps ps p s p s
tpt ht tpt ttpintestinal p t
tphttp httphtt p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt httphhtand fat-solublehvitai ht tphhtt tptpsttpt limit dext:ri11ase, tpt t tpt tp ttp tt
hht hlipase,
hht hh hht hhAbsorption ofhfat -nins hht hh hht hh ht hsuc:rase,hht lactase, h h h
Excretion IH.l!deotidases or n.ucleophosphafases, nu.cleosidases�
b b ebb b ebb b ebb ebw b ebb and enteropeptidase b ebb (en.terok:in.ase}. b ebb These b eb enzymes b ebbact b eb
eb e eb Activation oflipase. e e b w e w e e b w e i w e i e eb e ebw e e w e ebw e e
viw vi w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w
i viw
uv
i
uv vi i
wuvviw i
uv w
viruvi v w on ail types vi w e w
iwviwiof food.e
v i w w
i viw iwvi
uv
i
v
w
uv vi wuvviw viuwviw
i i
uvavriuwr
uv u v r uv r r ur r
u ar u uv uv r uv r u r ur u r r
u
P,mueas r u
lliaariulialar
r
iilalm arulialar u
ial u
ar lialar lialarilial ® In addition l a r r
urialaru to the digestive i al a r u
uialarglands a
u
r larand other ial u r la ila
ar lialaspecialised i
r
lialarilial
i lobulated, greyish-pink mil mi i
mtamm ilaim
amipractically
l il mi i m l l i il mi mmucous i
m mm
m®i m The pancreas taem/t/is
mtamsoft,
taem/t/atam gland /ataem/which
t/a cells,
amm theamm entire
tam tam/digestive mm
atract tam has a /ta
m
ataem/t/ata /tam
tt aem/t/atam weighs about / a a60 grams. t/ a e/ t t
tglands /at
t thatproducee/ mucus. /at t/a
e/ e/ The t a t/at /
t a / t e/ t/
e/me /a t
e/me e/me
.mt/e.tm .me e/m /a
ee/ sticks
t
.me It.malso e mucus e/melubricates
e / eme the food .mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
. m/e.tm . ® It is located
tm.m/t/e.tm. posterior to/.tm m/e.tm
.the .
stomach in the / tm
. abdominal . m/e.tm . and it together.
t .m/t/e.tm
m . m lubricates t .m/t/e.tm
m . thet.mdigestive t . / tm
tract
.
t
/. tm / .
t /: / t s:/:
/ t :/ t :
/ / /.t m / .
:/ts:/: through t / t / /
t .
s:/t:pss:/: This
/ / / : / t / //t //
: /
s: /:p/sts:/:/ cavity. ps s:/t:/pss:The pancreas isps s:a/t:pheterocrine
s gland, t p s t p p ss: exocrine s:/:p/sts:/:/t so that foodpss:/tslips
s:/tpartly p s s ://s:/ it easily. p s p s :/ sprevents
p
:
t p s t p p ss: pst:ps:
s:/tinjury
ps
tpt t tpt
t p tpt ttp tp t ps
tpt t tpt tpt ttp ttp ttp membrane. tpt ttp tt httmucou.shttphcoat t tt ht
hht hh
t tphhttpartly endocrine.
hhand hht hh hht hh hht hh
to the delicate
hht hh mucous h h hht hh hThe h h halso
® The exocrine part of the pancreas consists of rounded protects the underlying cells from digestive enzymes.
lobules (acini) that secrete b b
an alkaline pancreatic b b ju.ice b e b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
b b eb b ebweeb bweeb b
evewiwe
wPROCESS Of eNUTRITION b ebb bw
be ebpH evew ebw ebw e wewe evew e weiw
wveiw with
v w
ii viw
w e i w e 8.4. About vi i
w w e
500-800 vi i
w ml of pancreatic
vi
uvaruru
i
w w
v i i juice is
u v
r larur
vi i
w uv ®
i
Utilisation v wi
iof
w v i wi e
food involves several v i i
w w evi
uvaruruv processes
wi i v i vi i
w
viz,ruvingestion,
w
u v i i
vriuv uv
u rsecreted
u v r
u uv per day. uruvaruruv ar r
u l ar u i r
u u v r
u u v r
u r u vru
ar u l ar ur r u a l arurlial
a r u l a r l ar ial i l ial ia l a digestion, a r l a r absorption, assimilation l ar ial a and
a egestion. i l ia l a i l lia
®milialmilThe ia pancreatic ijuice liamil is carried by ilamam theil main pancreatic mil mi mtilam
ialmilia amil il il
ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atam duct into the mm
tt aeduodenum
/ atam /at amm / at t/ataem/t/atam am tamm / at a mtam /at amm / at t a mtam
/ t/ataem/t/atam /t
/a t through t e/ the h.epatopancreatic
t t / a /a t t t /
.me the INGESTIOI\I
/me/ e/m etem/ t/aee/t e/mt ee/ e/ e/ e/mt ee/ e e e/me e
m etem/me
. ampu.lla. . etem
mThe . accessory pancreatic. m/e.tm . e duct directly tm.m/pours
/. m
e/m
eThe. . m/e.tm . m m . m/e.tm .cavity . m . m t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. /.tm /. / t
. m t / /
t . t ® tm. tm process of taking
/.tm food . t .
into the / t
. m
oral t t / tthrough / t/ .
the : t /
s :
/.
/:/pss:/ pancreatic s :
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ juice into the s: :/
p s
t s:/
/duodenum.:/
p s
/:
s:tpss: /:
s: /
/. /t /.
:/ts:/: mouth is called s:
/t :/ t
/:psingestion.
s: / :/ s: / t / /
s: :/ t :
/pss:/ s: s/ / / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s t tphst tpt ttp ttp s p s p t
tp ttp ttp tt p
tptpsttpt ® The tpstpt
httphhtpancreatic Juice
t tpt
httphht contains sodium
tp ttp
hht hh bicarbonate,hht tphhtt@p In the oral
tps tps httphcavity tpt t tpt httby p tt
hht hhbuds,
hht hh h h h h hthe foodhhtishhtasted h the taste h h
three proenzymes; trypsinogen, chymot:rypsinogen.
b b ebb b ebb b ebb ebw b ebb moistened with b b
mucus and saliva to make chewing and
b ebb b b b ebb b eb
be e b e b w e e eb w e w e i e eb e b ebw e e e e ebw e e
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
v i
w e
i viw
w i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv vi w
w e
iwviwi w e
v i w w e
i viw iwviwi v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
vi
uvaruruv a r rulvarur
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
vi
uvaruruv a r r
u u
uvarur ru ruv v
a r u uv
r larur ruar l a r uriualvar
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
ialm i mtilam mtilam amm t m ilaimalm i mtilam m mtilam mtam amm t
am am t a am m am t / a
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/ t/ am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
ew bbeebb ee bbeebb ee eew bbeebb eew eew
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
uruarru r u r rr r a uu r u u rr u r r rr r
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
256 ilim m
m m m
m m m
m a m i
mmtaamm mmttaa m m
m m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m
t//taea//ttaa t/taea//ttaa / ttaea//ttaa //ttaea//tta taa t / ta
ta/ / /t
/taa//ttaa //tt
eem e
/
eem e /
eem e eem e eem//tee// eem/ ee eemee eemee
mm . m m mm .m
/swallowing
t..m/m//tt..m
t /
mm
easy, //tmasticated .
..///tt.
t /
m to smaller ////
mm .. m
tt.:.////tt p articles by::////tt:://// .. tt .
/ t
/
m
..m/m//tMaltase
t ..
t / //
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
//// . mm .
tt:.////tt.
::////t::////t.
t .. t
/
/ ss::/ / :
:: ss: digested byss:salivary : ss : ss Maltose / / Glucose /
:: s : + Glucose ss:: ss : ss ss
ss::/grinding teeth to sspartly
ttphpttttppor ball by working ttphpttttpp of the tongue
enzymettpand pststttpp sst:p:p/ss:: Isomaltase ppststttpps ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp
ttttphpttttppmade into a bolus tt tt hh tt and
h h t tp
t
Isomaltose
p tt t t t
t t
hh hh Glucose + Glucose tt hh tt h
hh h hh h hh h hht hh hh h
then swallowed.
b b Sucrose bbSucrase Glucosebb+ Fructose bb bb
-==:.:+-
b b b bbeebb
we •
During swallowing, e eb bee b b food is pushed through
b
b
eewwee
b b the oesophagus b
eewwe b e b
w w
e ei w
i w
e e Lactase eebbee eewwee eew w iw
w i w w i i Lactose i i Glucose
iwvviw + Galactose w i w w
vvriuiuvvi i i
by involuntary iwvviw
vvriuw imuscular
w movements vvriuiuwvvi called peristalsis. u vvriuiuvv uuavvrruuv
v
vviw iw vvriuiuwvvi u r uuavvrru
u u uu r r u r r r a. -Dextrinase
u uu uu r r u r r
Peristalsis alarrilialaisr produced byilialainvoluntary alailiala of
contraction
u r rilala r alaa-
ilim ililaDextrins lalarrilialarr u Glucose r
alariliala r
alailiala alailila
ilim
ilimmuscles in the
i
oesophagus and
ilim
simultaneous m iim ilim ilim m
circular m m m
m m
m mma m aammta a m
mttaa m m
m m m
m a m aam
mt aa
contraction
m
t//taea//ttaa of the longitudinal /ttaea//ttaa muscles. //ttaeae//tta
/ /ttee//t
/eDigestion of proteinsttaa/ /t
/taa//ttaa //taa//tta
t //tte//t
e
ee e ee e ee e m® Proteins are ee// ee / ee ee ee ee e em
® tt.Contraction
mm/tt..mm
. of the / t ..m/m//tt..mm
longitudinal
t muscles //t t tt..mm
..m/m/shortens
/ the lower / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ t .
t.mm/tt..mmmade up of /amino t ..m/m//tt..mm acids. So proteins
t //t ..m/m//tt..mm are
t ////tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/// ::/// of the oesophagus, / / / //ss:: / sst:p:pss : /// :/// /
/ ss::/ during the :://sprocess
:: / of pss:p:pss :
ss::/sspart sst:p:p/ss:: pushing its ss::walls outward so ttphpthat
broken
sst:p:p/ss:down to amino sst:p:p/acids ppststttpps ttpttt
ttttphpttttpp it can receive t tttphpthe
thtt bolus. Afterhtt(his, ttphpttttpp circular muscles t
hh oft thtt digestion.
t pp
ttthhtt t t ttpp tt t t t
t t hhtt hht
hh h hh h h hh hht hh hh hh
the oesophagus relax. The contractions are repeated in a @ Enzymes that hydrolyse proteins are called proteases or
b wave that moves down the oesophagus, peptidases. bbeebMany of these enzymes are secretedb in their
b
wveiw
e bbeebbThere is least eperistaltic e bbeebpushing
b the food
ee bbeebb inactive eeforms
w
b
called p:roenzymes. bbeebb eew bbeeb eewbbeebb
towards the stomach. e e movement w w w i i w eew
in the rectumuuvvof
w
iiwvhuman
v i w
i w
being.
i w
i
vvruuvvw i w
i w
u
i w
i
vvruuvv w i i w
Saliva r uu v i i v v
vrruudoes not contain vv
ww
iiany
v v i w
i protein digesting vvi w
i
uu
w vv enzyme, so uvvuuvviw
i i w i w
i w i
r uuav
u u r u u r rr u r @
r a u
u r uu r u
r u rr r r u r r r
r r r r r
ilialailiala a
ilialailila a
ilim a
l ii l l a r r
r ala not occur inilialathe iliala oral cavity. ilialailila a ilil ilila
aa
DIGESTION
ilialailiala mm mm mm mm mdigestion
m of proteins ilialailidoes
ma m mm mm m mm mm mm ma
mm mm
taa ttaa
/ t // //ttaea//ttaa / /ttaea//ttaa ee //ttaeae//tta
Digestion of proteins / t
/ aam/m/ttaamin stomach//ttaea//ttaa
t //ttaea//ttaa e e //ttaeae//tta
e Digestion /
ee ee is the breakdown e
eem of large complex e e
em insoluble mm.mm eemee of the stomach eem e e emm e mm.mm
/ ..m/m//tt..mm food molecules
organic
t t / / tt.:.m/m///tt..minto small, simpler,
/ / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m soluble and::////tt.:.:////t®t. The gastric
/ / t
/ ..m/m//tglands
t ..m
t / ///tt.:.m/m///tt..m secrete gastric / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt.juice.
/ :
.
: /
: //tt.:.:////tt.
/
/ / : It contains sst:p:p/ss::hydrochlo:ricttppacid, sst:p:pss:proenzymes- ppsspepsinogen
/ / ss:: ss: sst:p:pss sspss / / :: ss ss ss
ss::/ss:: ttttphphttttp tthttttpp ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttppdiffusible particles t ttphpttttppby the action of
t tttphpdigestive
t thtt enzymes.
h h and tpro:rennin.
t p
t p t t t tt t t t tt h h t t h
hh h hh h hh hht hh
Hydrochloric
hh hh
acid maintains a strongly acidic pH of
hh h
b Digestion of carbohydrates @
be about e1.8 bbeebin

ew
i e Carbohydrateseebare beebb of three k inds- eew bbeebbpolysaccharides, eew bbeebb eiw w
b the stomach.
e bbeebHCl b kills bacteria eew bbeeband b other eew bbeebb
w w w w i w harmful i w
i w i organisms that emay be present alongwith
w i w food. w w i w i
disaccharides vv iwiwandvviw iwmonosaccharides.
u
i
vvriuiuwvvi Polysaccharides uuvvriuiuvvand i
HCl r ru u vvruuvv
rconverts pepsinogen vv iwiwvviw iw
and prorennin u
iwvvi
vvriinto
u u pepsin and uu vvriuiuvvi r ruuavvrr
u ur u u r u r r r r a u u r uu r u r r r r
disaccharides
ilimalarrilialarare broken down ilimalarilto iala monosaccharides alailialaduring
ilim alailila
ilirennin
mm respectively. ilimalarrilialar alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilim ilimalailila
the process m of digestion. m m m m m m a m m aa m m m m m m m m a m m aa m
mm ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta a a t
/e@/ttee//t The mucus and mttabicarbonates present aa//ttaa in the gastric//ttaajuice a
tta a
tte//t t
t//taea//ttaa ee e/ / ee e/ / e t a
t
// ee a // a / t
/ t
ee ee and protection ee ee
/ / e em/ / e
ee e
Digestion mm/tt..mm of carbohydrates ./ .m/m//tt..mm in oral ca11ity
m eem
t . . / t t / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m play an tt.important
/ m
. m t .
t . m role in lubrication
/ t t..mm/tt..mm
/ / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm of
t / // tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
® ::////In t /// oral cavity, the / s::/ is mixed with
ss::/sfood
/ /
ss::p/ss::saliva. The saliva ss:: ss: the mucosal /// /// epithelium ssfrom
/ :://ss::/ excoriation sby
/ / :://sthe :: highly
/ :: s
ppststttpps
:
ss ss:: tttphpttttpp called salivary ttphpttttpamylase ttphpttttpp concentrated sst:p:p/ss:: hydrochloric pp t ppacid. pptstttpps t t
ttttphpttttpp contains an enzyme t t t ( also hh hcalled
t t t p
ttp t t
hht hh
tt t t t tttt hh ht t h
hh h ptyalin) which hh hconverts starchhhinto h
maltose, isomaltose hhtt hht hh hh
® Rennin is present in the infant's stomach. It is
and small dextrinsbcalled b 'a' dextrins. b ebb b ebb absent
ebw b ebb in the adults. b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b eb e b e e b w e e b w e w e ebw
i e i w e wi e ebweeb w e ebw e wewe w evewbw
i e weiw
wvi w Salivary w
ii viw e i w i
w v i i
w v i
w vi w e vi w vi
Pepsin can digest i w e i
even collagens i
of
w vi i
co1mective
w i i v i
w i i
u Starch ---" uv v w
r uv + Maltose + Isomaltose r
vi
uvaruruv + a- Dextrms r
i
uvarur uv u v uv
r larurtissue fibres, but
u uv v w
iruv vi w
r
vi
varuruv rhair,
uhorn, u vru v r uvarur ruvruv
i uv
arurliala
uv
amylas
ar r
u l ar u e l ar u ial i l ar uial lial ar lia ar r
u l ar u not keratins of
l ar u i l
a a l a skin i l ar u ial l a i l a li
a l
milam
ialmilia i
milamil mtilamamil miammi Or nail. milialmilia ilaim
amil il i amil
ilam i mi mi
@ 30% of
tt/aaem/t/atstarch in the food tt aem/t/atamis hydrolysed
/a tt aem/in
/ a t/a the oral e/t/ataem/t/at e Sometimes t am at am /at amm / t
a a mtam /at amm t/at t a mtam
/ t/ataem/t/atam /ta
/
t/aee/t chyme is squeezed t
t ee/intoeoesophagus. t
/ e/ tThis / e/me e
cavity. etem/me m/e.tm
e/me
. m/e.tm
e/me
. .m/t/e.tm.me etem/m m/e.tm
e/m
. m/e.tm
e/m
.Imm ee/ meme .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
. m
tt m:/t/. . /.tm. / t
. .
m t / /
t t
. m causes t .
m m huruing
. of some /.t cells.
.
m It .is
m tcalled
. m heart /.tm. t t . / t . / /
t t
. m : t /
/ .
/:/pssSal / ivary_ amylase /t : / t
/:pss:/is absent in pthe : / t :
/
/pss:saliva / of many :
/
s:tps: s /:
(= / .
:/tpyrosis
:
/ / /
t .
or hypers:acidity). /t : /
/:pss:/ s:/ s:f
t / t / / : / t :
/pss:/ s: s / / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
tphttp •
s
: : s : s s: t p s s: / s: p s s: p t p s p
tptpsttpt herbivoroushtmammals
ps
tpt t tpt like cows t tpt ps
tptphsttpt juice is thoroughly tpstpt tp ttp withtpt hfood tpt tp tt it httphttp ttphtt
h hh httphht and buffaloeshhtand h Gastric httphht htffi1X:e( ht ht htuntil h h h h
hht hh predatory carnivorous h
inarnmals like IionS and tigers. h h t h
becomes a semi.fluid mass called chyme.
h h h
How�ver, saliv�b9fbpigs contains saliyary b ebb a!llylaBe. ebb ebb • Variou.sebw b ebb b ebb below ebbeebb eb eb b ebb b eb
ew b eb e b eb e ebw e w e w e i w evwi reactions
e are summarised eb e w w e ebw e e
e i e wuvviw viuwviw
i
-1!9.+
e w w i i e w w i i
vi Digestion of carbohydrates uv vi iwviwi
w u v in r uv v i viw
w
stomach
i r uv r uvv i
u
wuvviw
r r
Pepsi
u uv ar
w
viruvi
u n ogen uv vi iwviwi
w Pepsin
uv r uv vi i viw iwvi
w
r
u uv v u
w
r uv vi
ur u r r
u uvavriuwr
ar lialar i
a larilial urialaru r l a r uialar ar ar u l u
a larilial
ar i l ia l l ar i l ia l
@ The gastric
mtilam
l
iamijuice l also contains ilasmall
a i amount ofgastric
l
mm highly acidic/atamedium.
il mi amylase i
m mm(Proenzyme) miliamil a
il mi i l l i
amm
il mi i
m mm
amm mm tam ataem/t/ata amm tam tam/tam tam /tam/tam ataem/t/ata /tam
e/-1!9.+
but its tt aem/action
/a is inhibited /atby /
t tthe
a t /
t a e/ t/ at am /atam /at t/a t/at /
t a e/ t/
/a
e/me t t
e/mee/ e/ /
t e/t Rennin mee/mee/ e/ e t e /
m/e.tm . .m/t/e.tm . .m/t/e.tm
e/me
. tm.mt/e.tm .me Prorennin m/e.tm . me . /t/.tm . .mt.m .m/t/e.tm
e/me e e
. t.mt.m tm.mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
Digestion t .
m of carbohydrates /.tm in small / t
.i11testine
m /
t . / (Proenzyme) tm. /.tm / t
. m / t/. : / t /
:/t/. /:/t t
s:/t:/pss:/:secrete a large
/ t s:/:
s:/t:psamount
: /
s:/tpss:/ :
:/t/.s:/:/t
/
t
s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/
t / / t
s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s:
/ / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
: /
epss:/tpss:Bru.n.ner's glands ps ps of viscous, t
tpht
ps t p s: p s ps ps
tpt ttp tt tt p t
tp t
ps t p p t p
tpt http tpt ttp ps
tpt t tpt Rennin It Paracasei tpt ttp tp ttp t t
tpt t tp
hht hh enzyme-free, hht halkaline and watery hht hh mucoid fluid. hht hThis Casein
hht hh hht hh hnt h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
secretion enables the duodenum to withstand the acidic (Milk protein)
b chyme ( semifluid mass) b b entering from bthe b b stomach, until b ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
b e e b eb e b e e eb e w e i e + Ca -,--o. ebCalcimn ebw e (w ewe evewbw e weiw
wvie w it is neutralised w
ii viwe
by i w e
the alkaline pancreatici
w w ev i
w w juice and bile.
i
w w evi wi w Paracasei:n vi i
w vi w i we i w e paracaseinate i
w w ev i
w curd) i i
w w i i i
v w vi i
uvaruruv digesting enzyme, vi
uvaruru v u v
r larur u v v w v i
iruvPepsin w vi
uvaruruv ruvrui i v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
u @ The pancreatic a r r
u uv
l a r r
u uv
juice contains l ar r
starch
u i l i l r
a r
u ial ia ar
Calcium
l u
lia paracaseinate a r r
u uv
l ar u Peptones l ar r
u ial a i l ar r
u ial l a i l a ial arurlial
ialmilia iamil a ilamamil milmmi almilia amil il il
ilaim a ilamamil i mi mi l
called pancreatic mtilam amylase amm
ilawhich
t m convertsamm starch
t into taem/t/ataProteins Pepsitnamm ilaim amm t mtam amm t a mtam taem/t/atam /t
t am / a / t
a t/ a / t
a /
t a t/ a _ e/t/ae/t / at Prot�ose. s + Peptones/at /
t a t a / t
a
t e/ /
t a / t / t/ a
maltose, t/aee/t isomaltose andee/a- t e/ dextrins. e/m t e/ e/me e/mt ee/ e/ e/ e/m e e/me e
m etem/m
. . m/.tm . me t .
m m/e.tm .e / .tm.m/t/e.tm. m etm . m e . m/e.tm . m . m t .
m m/e.tm . e t.mte.m / .tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
/. .
tt m:/t/. Pan eat c :/t/. /:/t t m
: / /
t . : / t /: / t /: Digestion of /.proteins
t .
m / /
t. in small /t/ t
. m: intestine
/ t / t . / / t : / /
t . : / t / / : / / /: / t
s:tps: s://s:/
s /: t /
s: /:/psStarc
s: / h a-amylase cr i s:/psMaltose s: + Isomaltose s: /pss:/ + a-Dextrinspss:tpss: s: /:/ts:/: s: /:pss:/ s:/ s: s: /pss:/ s: s p s p
tp ttp @ P ancreatic tptpsttpt juice contains tpstptproenzymes - tpt ttrysinogen,
ps p s t p s tpt ttp tt p t p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpt t tpt hht hh
ps
httphht procarboxypeptidase tp ttp ht tphtt ttp tt
h•ht hh Intestinal J�l�e hht hhcontains maltase, hht hhisomaltase, sucrase hht hh
chymotrypsinogen. hand ht h hht hh h h and h h h h
a-dextrinase which enzyme belastase.
b b
(invertase), lactase and
b ebb e b b ebb act as follows: e b b ebb ebweeb
b
b ebb ebw b ebb b b ebw b ebb b eb
e e eb e w e w e w e i w e i eb e e e e w e e e
wviw w e
iwviwi w e
v i w w
i viw i v i i
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w i
i viw iwviw v i wuvviw viuwviw
i i vi
r
u
v i
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
ialm
mtilam i mtilam mtilam amm t m alm
am am t a am m am t /a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
am t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/ t/ am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t
e/t/ae/t /t e/
/a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
H11ma11
r
alailila Physiology ilialailiala
r a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim 257 mmilim l ilila
aa
ilim m mm m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e //
eem e
/
eem e/ taa
//tee// t / tt
eem/ ee
/ / /t
/
eemee
t //
eemee
eem e mm . m eem m mm .m
/ t..m/m//tt..m
t @ Mostly
// /
mm . m
tt.:.////tt. vertebrates ////
m m
tt.:./do .. m
//tt not have proteases
/ :://
.. tt .
//tt:://// for / t ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ //
mm
//tt
/ .. m
tt.:./Aminopeptidascs //// . mm .
tt:.////tt.
::////t::////t.
t .. t
/
/ /
ss::/ss::
/
ss::digesting: ss:: ss : ssppss as hair, ss:://ss::/ Large peptides / :: s--��--
/ : ss:: ssDipeptides + Amino
: ss ss
tttphpttttpp t pss
ttphpttttpkeratin some fibrous
ttttphpttttpp animalproteins ttttphphttttsuch tp
t p t ttpp acids t t
t ppststttpps
t tttphpttttpp
t ttttphpttttpp
h
t t
hh h 1 silk fibroin
hh h and wool protein, hh t
hht hh t hh hh hh h hh
hh h Dipeptidases
® However, some invertebrates like insects secrete Dipeptides Amino acids
b b bbeebb proteins. eebbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
we ee b b e e bb
enzymes for e e bbeebb such fibrous
digesting
w w w e e
i w w i w
i w i w
i w e e bb e e bb
w eew w w w
eew
i w iw
i
iwvviw iw Therefore, some w i
vvriuiuwvvi insects destroy w v fabrics andruuvvrruuvvDigestion of
vvriuiuvsilk i iwiwvvfatsiwiw vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuiuvvi
uu vvriuw u r u u r r ru u r r a u u vv u u r u u r r ru u r r ruuavvrru
alarrilialar woollen ga1n1ents. alariliala alailiala
ilim ilimalailila ® Fats and alarrilialaoils
rr ofthe ingested alarilialafood are triglycerides alailiala o They ilialailila
ilim
ilim ilim m ilim ilim m mm
m m m mm , are digested by lipases m o Saliva
m contains no
aa//ttalipase.
m m m Gastric taam
m m m
t//taea//ttaa The bile provides
@
//
m m
ttaea//ttaa alkaline mediu.. //
m
ttaea//ttrnaa for various reactions. a a
/e/ttee//t t a a
t a
t a m
/
mttaa m
/t
/ t
m
aa//ttaa / t
/ t a // tee//ttaa
ee e eem e ee e below mm.mm e ee/juice
/ ee contains gastric
/ eemeelipase, which. converts ee ee some fats into eem
t . mm/tt..mm
.
AU these
/ t t..m/m//treactions
..m
t
am Sllill.l
/ t
/ ..m/m/JJ.
t /tt..marised
m
/ /
/ /tt.:.////tt. t t. mm/tt..mm
. monoglycerides / t t..m/m/and
t
/ ..m fatty acids. /Fat
t t
/ ..m/m//tt..mis
t
m fargeiy digested
/// tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
/// /// t /
:://ss::/ / / :: s : /// /// /
:// ::/ / / :: s :
ss::/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps sst:p:p/ss:: .in the small sst:intestine.
ppss sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp I-
t pststttpp .
tttprypsrnogen ----
Enterokinase
ttt p
t p t t t -,� Trypsin hh ht t
t th t p
ttp t t t
t p
t p t t t t t
t tp p t t t t t
t th
hh h small
hh h hh hh of intestinalhh hh juice hhtt hht ® Bile saltshhofhhbile break do"\Vll hh fat hh droplets into many
(Proenzyme) ones by reducing the surface tension of fat droplets. This
b eb TrypSin bbeebprocess
b is calledbbemulsification..bbThis increases lipase
wveiw
Chyxnotrypsinogen
bbeebb e e bbeebb Chymotrypsin e e bbeebb eew bbee eew eebbpancreatic eew bbeebb
e e w w w w w i w w i w
i w i i w action o.n fat. eeLipase is present win i the
w juicew w i wand
(Pro
v v
w
iiwvvi ienzyme)
w w
u
i i
vvruuvvw i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
r ru u v vrruu v v
intestinal v v
juice.
w w
ii vvi i w w
u v vi i
u
w
u vv i
u u vvruuvvi
i i
r ruuav
u u
uruProcarboxypeptidaso r u r Trypsin rr r a u u r u u rr u r r r r r
r
alailiala
r r r
alailiala
ilim alailila
Carboxypeptidase
ilim a ilima a
l ii ® l l a r r
lialariliala lip.a§e is the principal alailiala enzyme forilialthe
ilim a
aililadigestion iliml ilila
a a
ilim m m mm m m m a m Panc-reatic i m m mm m m aa//ttam
m m a
aammtaam (Proenzyme)ttaa/mttaa t a
t a / t
/ aa
t //ttaa//tta of fat
aa mmtaamm ta
t a /
mttaa tta a / t
/ aa
t //t t
//ttee// t eem // ee / /
eem/ ee eemee t
//tee// t /
eem/ ee / /
eemee/ eemee
eem ps m m . m eem m m m .m
t ..m/m//tt..m
t Proteins / /
mm . m
tt. in Large///tpeptides
tt.:.////Try m m
t.:.:////tt. . m
: /
. .
//tt::////
/
t t .
/ t ..m/m//tt..m
t
mm
t-------
/ / t /
. m
..///tt. Bile
/ /
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
. .
: / //tt::////t.
/
. . t
/
/ /
ss::/ss::
/ /
ss:: ss:/ ss:: ss / sspss : / / Fat
/
sst:p:p/ss:: (triglyceride)
/ /
:: s :
ppststttpps
: ss:Emulsified
/
: ss : fat ss ss
ttpptttpp
:
t tttphpttttpp Proteins
t ttphpttttpp Cb:ymotrypsin
t tttphpttttppLarge peptides
t h h ttttphphttttp t ttp p t t t t t
t t ttttphpttttpp hhtt hht
hh h hh h ElaSfase hh h hht hh hh hh
Pancreatic
hh h
Elastin fll Large peptides Fatty acid + Diglyceride b
ew b eb b b b b b b b b b b b e e bb Emulsified fat bb lipase bbeebb bbeeb
i Large eewwb b e e b
peptides Carbo pepti.d
e e e e ases D ipep ti des ee + eP.min
e o acids e e w w e b b e e eew eew
w w w w w i w w iwi wvvii eiww Pancrealic iw i w w w i w i
vv i w
i w vv i i
u
i
vvruuvi w v i i
uu
i
vvruu i vv i
r ru u v vr uu
r Diglyceride vv i w
i w i
vv lipase uuFat i w v i
vvruutvy acid + Monoglyceride uu vvruu i
i i vv r ruuavvrr
u uarr u u r u r r r r a u u r uu r r r r r
ilimalarrilialIntestinal juice i(lim ariliala entericus)ilicontains
alsu.ccu.s alailiala enterokinmse ilimalailila alarrilialar
ilim Pancreatic alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilim ilimalailila
@
m mm m mm m m a m m aa m Mono m m glyceride m m m Fa t ty acid m +
m m
Glycerol a mm a a m
m
m /e/ttaa a
ttaea//tta amin.opeptidases a
/e/ttee//t t mttaa a//ttaa
alipase aa//tta a a
tte//t t
t//taea//ttaa (also called ee / ttaea�•activato1r
/ enzyme'),
ee e/ / e t a
t
// ee a / / /
ee ee
t
/ t /
ee ee
t
/ t e em/ / e
ee e an.d dipeptidases o Enterokinase m eem
t . mm/tt..mm
. / ./ .m/m//tt..mm
t t / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm converts trypsinogen
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m of HORMONAL
/ t . m
. m t .
t . m CONTROL / t t. mm/tt..mm Of DIGESTION
. / / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / // tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
/// /// t pancreatic / / juice into trypsin. // : / Actions ofsother s:: ss: enzymes ss::/®//s/s::/// t / /
:://ss::/ / / / :: s :
ss::/ss:: are
sst:p:p/ss:: as follows: ppsst:tp:pss: ttphpttttpp The rnle of sstgastrointestinal
pp sst:p:p/ss::
pphormones in digestion t ppststttpps is
ttttphpttttpp t tttphpgiven
thtt t ttthtt hh ht t t p
ttp t p
t p t t
t p
t p t t t t t
t t t t t hh ht t th
hh h hh hh h hhtt hht discussedhhinhhth.e given tablehh: h
h
b b ebb b ebb Table : Role bof ebbga.sltrn:intesti.nai ebw bhormones

ebb ilil. digestion
b ebb b ebb b b bwb ebb b eb
be e b e b w e e ebw e w e i e ebw ebw e wewe evew e weiw
wveiw v w
ii viw
w e i w e Hormone vi i
w w ev i i
w
uvaruruv Pyloric stomach
Source vi
uvarur
i
w w
uv vi wi Target
u v
r larur
vi i
w organ
uv vi w
v wi
iruv
w ev i wi e Action vi i
w w e
varuruv ruandvi i
w i
vru v i v i
w w
uvarur ruvruv
i uv i i i uv
u 1.aru rulvGastrin
a r r
u uv
l ar ur
i l i l ar r
uial Stomach ial ar u
lia Stimulates ar r
u uv
l ar u gastric gland to
l ar ur usecrete
ial a release i l ar r
u
the
ial gastric l a i l a i
a larurliala
i a mi mi l iamil il i a l amil mi mi l
il ia
milamil milamil milamil taem/t/atam juice.
mtilam
ialmiliIta also stimulatesmilgastric
amt/atam tamtamobility. m amm
ilam mtam
i
taem/t/atam /ta
tt/aaem/t/at2.am Enterogastrone tt aem/t/atam
/a tt aem/t/atam
/a t/a
e/meStomach t am / a /at /at /
t at
t e/(slows egastric ee/me e/ t a / t/a
etem /me =
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m .tm. / t
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t t
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t . :/ t : / t :/ t /: s /: / . / /
t . / t :/ t / t / / : / t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
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s: /:/pss:/ Peptide-GIP) s : /:pss:/ ps s : /pss:/
t p s s:tps: s: /:/ts:/: s: /:pss:/ s:/ s: p s s : /pss:/ s: s
p t p s p
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b b b b b b b e b b Stomach eb b ebb Decreases gastric b ebb secretion andebbmotility. ebb eb eb b ebb b eb
eb e e b eb e ebwe e e ebwe w evwiwe eb e w e e ebw e e
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wuvviw viuwviw
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w
r uv r uvv i
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u uv vi iwviwithe gall bladderviwito
w u v r uv r u v v i wrelease v i
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r uv vi r
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r Pancreozymin
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u rthe a larilial
lliaariulialar iilalm i
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a
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pancreatic
amil juice.
amm
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m mm
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tt aem/t/atam5. Duocrinine/t/ataem/t/at Duodenum t/ taem/t/atam
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. m/e.tm
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s:/t:/pss:/:
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ps ps tp t p s p s t p s ps
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hht hh hht hh hht hh h hht hh ht h hht hh h h
7. Vasoactive intestinal Small. intestine Small intestine Dilates peripheral blood vessels of gut. Inhibits
peptide b eb (VIP)
b b b b b and stomachebb ebb gastric acid secretion. b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
be b e b e b w e eb e ebweeb weviwiwe Accelerates ebmovements ebw e wewe evew bw e weiw
wveiw 8. Villikini.n
v w
ii viw
w e i w e
vi
uvaruruv
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w w e vi i
w Small intestine vi
uvaruru
i
w w
v vi wi Small intestine
u v
r larur
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w uv v wi
iruv
w e vi wi w e of villi.vi wi w e
uvaruruv ruvru
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w i v i v i
w w
uvarur ruvruv
i uv i i i uv
u 9. arular r u v r uv
Somatostatin
u l ar r
u i l Delta cells i l r
a r
u of
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lia gastro- Inhibits a r r
u uv
l ar the
u secretion of l ar r
u
glucagon
ial a by alpha-cells i l ar r
u ial andl a i l a ial arurlial
i a mil mi iamil il il a amil mi mi l
milamil
il ia milamil Langerhans milamiof l pancreas. intestinal
taem/t/atam tract tinsulin mtilam
ialmiliaby beta-cells. It also mtilam inhibits mtamabsorption amm
ilam ofnutrients mtam
i
taem/t/atam /t
tt/aaem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam
/a t/a am ta m / a a /at / at t a / t/a
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e/t the gastrointestinal
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t .
m m/e.tm . t .
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Argentaffin . cells ofgastric / .tm.m/t/e.tm. Gastrointestinal
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. Suppresses the trelease m. m/e.tm. of
m
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. m t .
m mfrom
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t /
tt m:/t/. / . / . t / t t m /. . t / . t t / / t :
s :
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t
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s: /
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t
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/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / /
s: :/ t :
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p s s:tps: s://s:/
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tpstpt Polypeptidetpt ht tpt Pancreatic Polhtyp p s t
tphteptidetp ps ptphst tpt release p p s
t tpt p tt fromp t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt 10. Pancreatic httphht ht h h Pancreastptphsttpt Inhibitshttthe ttphtt of pancreatic httphht htt juice h hht hhthe ht h
hht hh h
(PP) h cells
h h h t h pancreas. h h h h
be eb ebw e e ebw e w e i e eb ebw e e e e ebw e e
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
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i viw
w i v i i w
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iwviwi
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w v i i w
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r
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ilamamil ar lial l
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vv
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ii vvi i ww
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258 r
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l iil l a r
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ilim l ilila
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ilim m m m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
m
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eem e and the resteeis //tereleased to the body eem/ ee cells. Some glucose eemee is
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / /
eem e/ / / taa
e//
t / tt / / /t
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eemee
also stored ..m/m//tt.in
. the muscles//as tt.:.///glycogen. Some tt:glucose is
ABSORl'llOI\I eem e eem e
m m m . mm . . m m m m mm .m
//t::////t.
.
e :://sAbsorption
m m . . t m m . . t
is the sst:p:pprocess by which ss:: thess end products sstof
..m/m//tt..m m .
tt.:.////tt. tt.:.////tt . //tt:://// t mm m tt.. . .////tt. t
changed sst:p:p/ssfats
/ ::/ and is stored
ppststttpas
:: ss:such.
//tt //
/ / //// : ::// / t
/ t / / / //// : :://
/ ss: ss ss:: ss ss ss
tttphpttttppdigestion pass ttphpthrough the intestinal
ttphpttttpp mucosa into ttttphphthe
ss s:: thtt tttpp pp t t p ttphpttttpp ttttphpttttpp
blood or lymph.
t hhtt t
hh ht hh t t
t t tt t t t
hh hh t
hh ht hh h
hh h fats hh hh
e Practically all absorption takes placebbein • The absorbed bbeebb fats changebbinto bb characteristiceebfats beebbofhuman eebbeebb
eewwebthe small intestine.
b b
body by rearrangements of fatty acids. Some iiwvvi are stored vviw
fats
we b bbeebb
The presenceiw of villi on the inner surface of small intestine
bbeebb
eew eew eew w e ee
w w i e iwvviw iw
in uuavthe liver, muscles,
iwmesenteries, and vvadipose tissue. In
w i i v iw
ww i i i i w w
w iw i
enhancesrruthe
uvvrruuabsorptive capacityrruuaarruuof it.
i i
iwvviiw vviiwvvi uuavvrruuv
vrruuvv vviw vviw
iw uu u uu uuavvrru
mmtaammthe liver cells,mmthe alarrfats
iliala are convertedilim alaintoi amino acids iand
rr rr u u rruu r uu
rilala rr rr u rr rr
ilialailiala
a la ilialailil ililaiil ilialailila ilim lialailiala ilialailila
e// ee/ carbohydrates.
Absorption mm mmof carbohydrates mm mm mm mm a m m
m m m
m a m m aammtaamm
ttaea//ttaa ttaea//ttaa a
tt / t a //ttaa//tta tt / t
All ee carbohydrates are ee absorbed as monosaccharides in..mmt.e.mm
t//taea//ttaa // e ee e/ / ttaa//ttaa // ee //ttaa//tta ee ee e// ee/ ee ee em
e
mstomach
m//tt..mm andjejunum. ..m/m//tt..mGlucose and galactose
..m/m//tt..mm are absorbed
eem
..m/m//tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
@
m tt:////t EGESTIONtt..mm m
. . t t / t t / // (DEFl:CAllOIII)
t .
t . t t / t t / / /
ttttphpttttpp by active transport. tttphpttttpp Fructose and ttphpttttpmannose are absorbed
t / / / / / /
The sstelimination ofttfaeces sst:p:p/ss:: from alimentary ppststttpps canal is ttttphpttttpp
t / / : / / / :
/// //
ss::/ss::
/ /
ss::/ss::
/
ss::p/ss:: ss:: ss ®
ttphpttttpp ::///s/s::/// / / :://s:: ss:: ss
hh h through facilitated hh h diffusion.hh h called
hhtt hht egestion or defecation. The faeces hh hhis waste matter hh h
t tt t t t p
ttp p
t p p
t p t t t ttt t
hh h hht hh
discharged from the anus.
b eb Absorption of amino acids bbeebb e Peristalsis bbeebgradually pushes bbeebbthe indigestible bbeematerials
s ..Amino acids areeeabsorbed by active transport and some
e b b b b b bb eew b bb bbeebb
of uthe vrruusmall intestinevviiinto i the large intestine vv or colon. uvvuuvviw
wvi w b e e e e e e e e w eew eew eew
amino acidsuuvvare iiwvviabsorbed by facilitated transport. vvruuvv It
w i w w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w v v i i w i w i w
i w i i w i w
i w i
v w uuav
iThe
lil ii colon absorbslalamost rilala of the water. alailiEscherichia coli
vvruuvv u v v vv
occurs mainly alariliala in the duodenum alailialaand jejunum. ilialailila
u u r u u r r u
r u r rr a u u r u u rruu r ru u r r u r r rr
r r r r a a a l l a r r a l ilila
a a
(bacterium) lives in the
i colon which feeds on undigested
ilim ilim ala ilimalailila ilim
ilim m m m m mm m m i i m m m aa//ttam
m m
eemee matter. Thisee//bacterium., in turn, eem/ eeproduces vitamin eemeeB 12
mmtaam a a mmttaa aa mt aa
t t aa//tta
t a mmtaamm a a m mttaa a a mt aa
t tt a
Absorption //ttee// of fat
aa t tt
// ee / / /
eem/ ee
tt / / / / t aa
tee// t / tt / / //tt / / eemee//
All ..m/m//tt.these
.m nutrients///tt.are .////tt. absorbed via///tt.simple diffusion. (coba!amin), ..m/m//tt.vitamin IC, vitamin tt.:.////tBrt. (thiamine) and tt.:.///vitamin
eem eem m m . m m m m .m
@
m m . m mm
.////tt. . m . .
//tt:://// t t . m
.m mm . m m m tt. . //tt::////t.
. . t
B2 (riboflavin) sst:p:p/ss:: which are ppstabsorbed by the walls
ss::/Fatty ttphpttttpp of colon. hhttttphphttttp
/ ss::/ acids and glycerol ss:: ss: are insoluble
ttphpttttppin water, therefore,
/ t
/ t / : / : : : /
: / / t
/ t / /
/ / / /
/ / : / : /
: /
ss:: ss sspss / / st:tp:pss: ss:: ss sspss
tttphpttttppthey cannot reach hh h directly. They are • Ashhthe
ttphpttttppthe blood stream ttttphphttttp t hh pellets of faeces hh hhenter the rectum, hh hdistension of
t t t t t h h t ttp p t t t tttt t tt
first incorporated into small, spherical, water soluble
hh h
rectal waH induces the feeling of defecation due to a
hh h
droplets called bmicelles with theeehelp bbeebb of the bile salts "defecation
bbeebb reflex". This breflex initiates peristalsis in
be b bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
ew
and phospholipids iw in the intestinal vvriuiuwvvlumen. A micelle vvriuiuvisv an
bb e b
the vvlastuuvv part of the colon i(sigmoid colon) vvriuiand
wvvi the rectum, vvii vviw
i e e b e e ee w w w e
i w w e e b b e e e e eew
w i w w ww i i w i i i w i ww ww i i
iwvviw i iwvviw w
aggregaterof
alarilialamany molecules.
iw iw uuavvrr
alforcing
ailila the faecesaartowards anus. lalariliala
u v v
u rr u u r uu r r ruu r r ruua r r uu v v uu r u u r u r ruu r ruu r r
alariliala r rr alailila
From m the micelle, fatty acids, glycerides, sterols and fat
alailiala alailiala
e
ilim ilim
Asm the faeces reaches anus, involuntary relaxation of the
ilim ilim ilim
m mm iliml iliala iim ilim
m m m m
soluble t//taea//ttavitamins are absorbed
ttaea//ttaa into the intestinal ttaea//tta cells by ee//ttee//t
m m m m m aa m m m m m a a
m internal anal //sphincter and voluntary ee ee relaxation ofeexternal
@
ma m a a a t a mmttaa m t aa//ttaa ttaa//tta a / aa
tte//t
/ t
/ / / / tt a // / / t / / e
diffusion
mm/tt..mm where they ./ .m/m/are ..mresynthesized in
m//tt.the
.m endoplasmic
eem e eem e e ee e em
tt.:.m/m///tt..m anal sphincter m cause defecation.
ee e eem ee
..m mm/tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
ss::/ssreticulum and are ss:p:p/converted into very ss::/sssmall
/ ::/ fat molecules
. t tt t t / / . m m . . t . . t t / /
ttphpttttpp • Brown
. t . t t
sst:p:p/sscolour of faeces sst:p:p/ssis:: due to brown ppststttppspigments, ttttphpttttpp
t t / / / / / / / t t / t / / / / / / / / / :
/// ::/// / ss::/ ss:: ss: /// ::/// / / :://s:: ss:: ss
ttttphpttttpp (droplets) called t tttphptttchyiomicrnns.
t t tttphpttttpp hh h t t
stercobilinogen
t p
ttp t
andhhste:rcobilin,
t ttpp
t hh t t t
which hh hare
t ttt h derivatives hh h
hhtt hht
• The latter are released from the intestinal cells into the
hh h hh h
ofbilimbin.
hh h
b eb lymph present inebthe b ebblymphatic capillaries, b ebb the lacteals.ebb ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
Small quantities ii ofviwshort chain fatty acids are absorbed directly
e e e b w e w e w e i w e i e ebw e ebw e wewe w evew bw e weiw
w w e i w e i w i
w i i
w DISORDERS v w vi w Of l>!GESllVE w e i e SYSTEM i w i
w i i i
e _
w vi i i i w i
Digestive system is subjected to a number
uvaruruv of diseases
wvi w v w vi
into the blood by diffusion rather than into the lymph.
@
v w vi
uvaruruv i v
uvaruri uv u v
r larur u v v w
iruv vi w vi vrui v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
u r uv r
u u v ur r
u ar u r uv u ur u r
u arurliala
taem/t/atlike
miammi caries (tooth ialmildecay), mumps
am(viral
il ilmdisease Df
ar u la r l ar ial i l ar i
a l lial lia ar u l ar l ar ial a r l a i l ar ial l a i l a li
a l
milaof
ilmilia milamil
i
milamil mtilam
ia ilaim i amil
ilam i mi mi
e/me parotids), gingivitis (inflammation t ee/ ofe/gums), tonsilitis
Absorption tt/aaem/t/atam water t/atamt/atam tt aem/t/atam /a am t amm t mta t amm /at a mtam /ataem/t/atam /ta
o About
/ a a t
/me90% of all watermeabsorption occurs min small intestine /.tm
/ a t t / a /a t t /a
t e/ e e t / / t
e/me e
. (inflammation e/
of tonsils), glossitis (inflammation . e tof
e/mee/ etem /e t/aee/t e/m e/m
etem .m .m/t/e.tm etem/m m/e.tm m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
/:/pby
ts:/: osmosis from sthe /:pss:/lumen of the small /pss:/intestine through
. . m . m . m . m tm
tongue), :/ts:typhoid, cholera, /:pss:amoebic
.
/ :/ s: dysentery, /pss:/ worm
t .
m m . / t
. .
m /.tm / t
. m /
t . /t t .
m . / t
. m . m t . /.tm t . / t / /
t . : t /
/ . /t/ . / t :/ t : / t :/ /: /: / . /t/. / t :/ t / t / / : / t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: /
tptpsttpt epithelial cellshttand ptpst tpt into the bloodhttptcapillaries in the villi.
s:tps: s : :s s
infection, ht tphhtt appendicitis httphht(inflammation ht tof
pt ht tptvermiform
s: : ps s : t p s s: / / s : s p s s: s p t ps p
s
t tp
t tp ttp tps ptps tpstpt ttp ttp tp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh h ht h hht hh ht h
hht hh h hh h hh appendix), colitis (in.i4.ammation ofcolon), piles (excessive
h h h h h
ASSIMILAllOIII
dilationebbeof bbrectal veins), bjaundice, vomiting, b ebdiarrhoea,
Assimilation means eb the incorporation ebwe of the absorbed
b b b b b b ebb b eb
constipation evwiwe and indigestion.
be b b b b e b ebwe b e b ebb ebw ebw
® e e
food materials iwviinto i the tissue cells i viwas their integral wuvviand
ew eb e w e i w eb e e e e w e
e w e w i i e w e w i wuvviw viuwviw
i
•
i i
w w uvavriuw
Jaundice is a syndrome caused by excessive
i viw iwvi
presence
vi w w vi w vi w viruvi iwviwi
w vi w vi
homogeneous lliaariulialar components.ilialm
uv vi u v r uv r u v r uv r
u r
u uv
a r u uv vi uv r uv r
u uv v u r uv ur u r r
u r
u u
mamof m bilirubin in blood amil and its deposition mtilammi in mtaskin,
i m mucous
r u r arulialar l u
ar lialar i
a larilial r urialaru r l ar uialar ar ar l u
a larilial
ia i l l a ia l l i l ia
il mi i l
m i mil mi ilaim m mm
Ami1Jo t/adds
mi m
taem/t/atam taem/t/atam / taem/t/atam
a t/ataem/t/at membranes and amm sclera.
t As a result t amthe/a patient a has a yellow
/ t
a amm / tam /tam/tam
.me appearance. Presence of excess . of bilirubin .m/is .mcalied
/ a t /a / a t t t
Amino acids are not stored.me but are taken .m/t/e.up. by the cells in/.tm
a t t e/ /a
t ee/t t
e/mee/ e/ e / t e / e/
m/e.tm
e/me
.m etem/ e/me
.mt/e.tm m/e.tm
e/m
.m/t/e.tm etem/e e e
m/t.m .mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
hyperbiliIUbinaemia. The s:/t:/pssurine
t :/: ://of:/ the patient s:/t:pss:/: appears
® m tm
/:p/sts:connection withs:the /:/psts:/: synthesis of pproteins. s:/t:pss:/: Excess amino
tm. . / t
. m /. / t
. m tm t / t .
m . / t
. m . m t . / t
. m t/. t . t/ . : / t /
/. /:/t /t / t :/
s:/tpss:/ :
:/t/.s:/:/t t / / t /
:/ s: / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
:/
tpt t tpt acids can be converted into glucose tpt ttand p then to fat and httphhtare yellow.
s: ps t s t p s t p s: / p s ps s s ps p s p t p s tp p t p
ps t p ps
tpt t tpt
t p
ht tphhtt httphtt
p tpt ttp tt htt tp t t t
ht tphhtt hht hh ht h
hht hh thus stored. hDuring their conversion hht hh to glucose, thehamino e Vomitin.g hht hh is forciblehexpulsion ofthe contents hht hh ofh stomach
acids are deaminatedb (rem.oval of amino b ebb groups - NH2e).bb ebb through the b ebmouth.
The liver is chiefeesite b ebfor deamination.
b
• Diarrhoea is excessive frequency and liquidity eofwfaecal
b eb ebw b ebb b ebb b b bwb ebb b eb
b e b e e w e w e i e ebw ebw ewe evew e weiw
discharges. It is caused iruvby viral or bacterial uvaruruv ruinfection
wvie w w
ii viw i w e wi w e v i
w w i
w w vi i
w vi i
w vi w i w e i e i
w w ev i
w i i
w w i i i
v w vi
uvaruruv i v i
uvaruru v u v
r larur u v v w vi w vi i vru i v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
mof il mgastrointestinal ialmtract.
ilia Excessivemilaloss iamil ofil body il flum id
u Mo11osaccharides r u v r
u uv r
u r
u l r
a u r u v u r
u r
u l arurlial
Glucose,mifructose lialmilia and galactose also reach tthe liver by
ar u l a r l ar ial i l ar ial ia lia a r u l ar l ar ial a a i l ar ial l a i l a lia
ilaim amil i ilamil mi mi
taem/t/mayatam result in dehydration. To prevent amt/at mthis mtORS m or toral
amil ilam i
amm amm mtilam amt/atam tam/tam taem/t/atam /t
way eof t/aeehepatic portal vein. t ee/ Here, fructosee/and t e/ galactose ee/me
@
am t t
. rehydrationmsolution t/aee/t provided. ee/m
t m
a / at /at /
t a /a /
t a /
t a t am /a /at
t ee/ e/ e/ t a a /a
t e/ / t/a
e/me e
/t e/m e/m e
are converted into glucose.
/m m/e.tm m/e.tm .me .m/t/.tm etem/m m/e.tm . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
Constipation is infrequent irregular passage of dry
. m etm . tm. . t .
m / .tm . . t .
m m/.tm . . m . m t .
m / .tm t /
tt m:/t/. /. / . t / t t m / . t / . t / / t :
/:Excess
: s:tps: s://s:/
of glucose tpstis pt converted into glycogen in the liver
/. /t :/ t t : / : / @ /. /t/. /t :/ t / t / t : / / / / : /
hardened tps ptpsfaeces. Indigestion tpt t tpt is inability p to properly tpt t tpt httdigest
/ s:/ s : : s:/
/ s: :/
/pss:/ /
s:tpss: /:/ts:/: s: /:pss:/ s:/ s: / s: : /
/pss:/ s: s : / s
® s : ps p s t ps
tp ttp s: ps p s p t ps
tp ttp tp tt p
tpt t tpt
hht hh (glycogenesis)h and
httphht stored for supply hht hh at the time of need;
ps p tt
thehfood. ht tphhtt It may cause injury hht hh tohdigestive tract
hht hhand produce
tptpsttpt hht hh ttphtt h hht hh ht h
be b
wveiw e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw
w v
i i w i
wuvviw i
viw v
uvi w e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw iwviw
w v
i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a rulvarur
u
v
u
r
a u v
u
r larur lar
uv
urialarur
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a r
u
v
u
uvarur ru ru v
r
a u v
u
r larur ruar l r
a uriualvar
amil
ilam ar lial l
amil
ilam
ialm
a t m alm
m
a m
a t a m
a m m
a t / a
m
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am t
t/at /t/a
t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
w w
ii vvi i w w
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
u u
i i
vvruuvv i
r ru u v vrruu vv v v
ww
ii vvi i w
u v vi i
u
w
u vv i
u u vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
uruarru u r u r r r r a uu r uu r r u rr r r r
r
alaililaPhysiology ilialailiala
r alailila a ilima a
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala alailila a iliml ilila
a a
Human ilim m m m m m
ilim
m mm a m i m
ilim
m m m
ilim
m 259 aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa
..m/m/Indigestion is caused tt.:.////tt by intolerance tt:.////tt to an ingredient
/ a t t t / /
..m/m//tt..m several/complications. The//tcommon cause of constipation
/ / / / t a
//tee// t / t / / / / eemee
eem e eem e eem e m
eem e
m eem eem/ ee eemee m .m
sspss in bowel ss:://ss::/of food, defect
ppststttppins stomach (e.g., ss::hyperchlorohyd. trtphpia)
sstppsor
m . m
is reduced ss:: ss: roughage content ss:: ss of diet resulting
m m . m m m . . m . . tt . m m m . . m . mm . . m //t::////t.
t . . t
/ t
/ t // tt.:.////tt.
/ / / t.:.:////tt : :////tt:://// / t
/ t t
/ ..
t / // / / /
/ / : : /
: /
intestine (inadequate enzyme secretion), food poisoning�
:: s :
movement
ttphpttttpp after 2-3 days.
/ / s
ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp pp ttphpttttpp
ss
ttt
tttphpttttpp p t t t
ove:r eating and consumpti.cm of spicy food.
t t t t t h h t t t p t t
t t t t t t t h h h
we ee bbeebb eew bbeebb
w w eew
i w i w
i w
eew
i i w ee bbeebb
w eew w w w
eew
i w iw
i
iwvviw iw w
vvriuiuwvvi i w
vvriuiuvv i v iwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuiuvvi
uu vvriuw u r u u r r ru u r r ruuavvrruuv u u vv iw
u u r u u r r ru u r r ruuavvrru
alariliala alailila r alariliala alailila
alarrilialar
ilim ilim alailiala
ilim m m
ilim
m ilimalarrilialar ilim alailiala
ilim m m
ilim
m
m m m m m m m a m aa ta a m mttaa m mm m m m a m a a t aa
t//taea//ttaa
m
/ ttaea//ttaa
/ / ttaea//tta
/ /e/ttee//t t a
t a / //ttaa//ttaa //ttaa//tta / tte//t
/ e
ee e ee e ee e e m ee// ee / ee ee ee ee eem
t . mm/tt..mm
. / t t..m/m//tt..mm / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ /tt.:.m/m///tt..m t .
t mm/tt..mm
. / t t..m/m//tt..mm / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
/// /// t / / / / / ss:: ss : /// /// / / / :://s:: / :: s :
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ppststttpps
t t t t p
ttp t t t p
t p t t t t t
t t t t
t th
hh h hh h hhtt hht hht hh hh hh hh h
Salivary glands
hh h hh h
(1i,ecretebbsaliva bb with 6.7 pH)eebbeebb ee--bbee---l

b eb bbeebb bbeebb
- - bb Oran or bucc:aieebcavity beebb bbeebb
Ingestion
ii vvi occurs; food visvuutasted vv by the taste vvrbuds,
wveiw e e e eew eew
Parotid glands
e e e w w w i i w w
w w w w i w w vviw
lialarimoistened with mucus alailialaand saliva, masticated alailila to
w i w w i w
i w i i i i w i i i v v w i w w i w
i w i i i i w i
v v iiwvvi vvruuvv vvruuvv u u v vrruu ®
v v w u u uuav
Largest salivary gland. smallerparticles by
iligrinding teeth and swallowed.
uruarru u r u u r rru u r r r a u u r u u rru u r r r ruu r r r
r
alailila
r
l ii l l a r liala r ilim a iliml ilila
a a
Lie 011 the sides of the face.
mmtaammSaliva contains salivary amylase which
aa digests
ilim ilim i
m mttaa m mm m m m
aa//tta a m m mttaa m m mm m aa//ttam
m m a
starch into maltose.
®
a mmtaam t aa t a
t a / t aa
t / t
/ t a ta a t ta a / t t //t t
tt.:.///Sublingmal ghund.s
//ttee//a t // eet / / /
eem/ ee / eemee t a
//tee// t / t / / // / eemee
eem
®
eem m m . m eem
®
eem/ ee eemee
m m m .m
m m m m . m . . t . m m m m . //tt::////t.
. . t
ss:: ss: Lie underpfront
tthpttttpppart ofthetongue.
..m/m//tt..m m .
tt.
/ / tt.:.////tt . / //tt:://// t ..m/m//tt..m m .
tt.:.////tt. / tt.:.////tt . /
/ /t t / // / / / / : : : / /
/ / t
/ t / //
:: s : / / / / : : : /
/ /
ss::/ss:: ss:: ss sspss sst:p:p/ss:: ss:: ss ss ss
I Pharynx
ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp ppststttpps ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp
Subm.ax:illary glands
®
t tttphpttttpp t t tt h h t t p
t p t t t tttt tt h h t t h
Lie at anglesbbof
eewweebthe lowerjaw wweeiw
b eb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
Oesophagus
ew b bbeebb
Gastric iwglands
i e e bbeebb ®
w w
eew
i w e e bbeebb eew eew
w w i i i w i w w w i w i
i i vvriuiuvvi
alarrilialaOral
rr cavity leadslaathrough
l iliala pharynx into alaitube-like
vv iw iwvviw u vvriuiuwvvi uuvvriuiuvv r u u vvruuvv
r v v iwiwvviw iw
u vvriuiuwvvi u u r uuavvrr
oesophagus (food tube).
u ur u u r u r r r r r a u u uu r r u r r r r r
alailila
alarrilialar alariliala alailiala alailila
ilim liala ilim
Fun.die
ttaea//ttaa (oxy:ntic ghmd. ttae5a)//tta
ilim ilim ®
ilim
mttaae Food is pushed aa//ttaa through the //ttoesophag:1s by
ilim m mm m ilim iim m mm m
m mm m mm a a a m m m m m m a a a
involuntary
eemuscular movement ..m/m//tt.called
eemee perfafalsis. mm.emm
m a a t m a a t
./ .m/m//tt..mm Secrete HCl/(/tt.oxyntic .m/m///tt..mm or parietal cells),
m
t//taea//ttaa / / / /e/ttee//t t a a / t t aa//tta / tte//t
/
/ ee e e t
// ee // / ee e e
/:/ss::/ pepsinogen /(peptic or chiefcells). o No digestion occurs here.
ee e ee e m eem
t .
t mm/tt..mm
. / t t
®
/ /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ t .
t m
. m/ t .
t . m / t
/ t. mm/tt..m
./ /
m
/ t
/ t /
.m / ///tt.:.:////tt.
/:://s/s::/// : :: / : : : : s : / / / / / / : / / : : / : /
: / :: : : s
ss s sst:p:p/ss:: sstp:pss ppststttpps
Pyloric hh h
ss ss s
ss
ttttphpttttpp
ss
tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp t ttphpttttpp
t p p ttpp t t ttppststttpps t t
t t
Stomach
t t t hh h t tt t hht hht t tt hh h h
hhtt hht
Secrete mucin b
hh h hh h hh hh
The widest b ebb organ of the alimentary b ebb bcanal;

Cardiac glands e weweb acts basw
®
b ebb b ebb b ebb b eb
food reservoii-.
b b ebb b eb ebw
be e b e b ebw e e e ebw ebw evew e weiw
Secrete uvaruruvmucin and very uvarur little
w
s
e i 0
The
iruvgastric glands ofruvthe uvstomach vru secreteuruvgastric
w e
wveiw w
ii viw
w e i w e
vi wi w e vi i
w vi i
w w vi wi vi i
w uv vi w
wi w e v wi e
vi wi w e vi i
w i i vi i
w w i i
vriuv
pepsinogen.
u v i v uv
ialmiljuiceia which is thoroughly amil mixed il i with food.
v uv r larur v u v
u ur uv r
u u v ® r
u ar r
u l l ar u i r
u u v u u ar r
u r u ar l ar ur r u a larurliala
mtislam Mostly protein digestion mtamoccurs/atamm in stomach,
ar l a r l ar ial i l i
a lia l a ar l ar l ar ial a l a i l ia l a i l li
a
il ia milamil
i
milamil mi mi ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
milamil tt aem/t/atam Liver
mtam
t/aee/t carbohydrate tdigestion / egets / i.nhibited
. e due
t e/ toe highly
/ a t/ taem/t/atam
a am t amm / at a / at t a / t/ataem/t/atam /ta
It secretes
mbile which contains bile
. salts, bile pigments
/ a t /a t
acidic medium.
e/me / a t t / e/me e
etem /me etem/me
m/e.tm
e/me
.m/t/e.tm. etem/m m/e.tm
e/m ee/ em m/e.tm
e/m e
.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
(bilimbin /:pss:/ and bihverdin), /cholesterol and phospho
. m . t .
m . t .
m / .tm . m . t .
m . m . tm. . m t . m / .tm t /
tt m:/t/. / . /. / . t / t t m / . . t /. t t / / t :
t : / . t t / s:tps: s://s:/
lipids.
/ . ®
/ t : / : / t s:/ :/ /:
s:tps: s / :N / .
/ts:/: / t / t :/
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / / / : / t :
/pss:/ s: s/ / : / /: s /
s: /:/pss:/ s : s : ps p s s: / s : s
: p s
o Bile hht hhsalts and phosphoJipids hht hh help in the digestion hht hhoffats
ps p s t
tp ttp ps p s
tpt t tpt ttp tt p t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpt t tpt tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tp ttp
S:rnaU intestine
hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
in the small intestine by emulsification.
hht hh hht hh
Theeblargest, eb narrow, tubular b epartbb eofb the eb alimentary
b ebb
canal.
b ebb b eb
Pancreas
b b b b e b b b e b b eb b b ebw
eb e eb eb ebwe ebwe evwiwe ebw e e
It is divisible into three parts�duodenum
e w e i w ®
e e w e
e w e w i i e w e w i wuvviw viuwviw
i
r Pancreatic juice arulialcontains sodium ar liabicarbonate,
i i
viw iwviwi vi wi viw vi wuvviw w
viruvi iwviwi vi i viw iwvi
w w vi uvavriuw
urialar(proximal),jejunum
il mi (middle) i and ileum (distal).
vi w uv uv uv r uv u v i w uv uv v u v r r r
lliaariulialartrypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, amylase,
mtilammi DNAase, tamm/atamm
uv ur u v r ar r
u r
u ar r
u u
larilial ar uv r
u uv r r
u
uialar ar ar u u r
u u
ar lialar ila ila r u r u
larilial
0 Secretion from intestinal mtamglands/atamcalled asue.CMS
iilalm l l ia ®
l a r l ia
a I t/ataem/t/atam /tam
i a r i
tt aem/t/atam RNAase, lipase taem/t/atwhich helps in the taem/digestion of starch,
®
a i l l ia l l i l a i l
mami ilaim
amil mtilamm i mm mm
entericu.s eacts e/meeon / all/types offood.
mi m amm amm
proteins,.m nucleic.me acids and fats.
/ a /
t a /
t a e / t/ae/t at /at t/at t/atam t a / t /
t a / t / t e /
/a t /
t ee/t e /
m/e.tm
e/me
. etem/
.m/t/e.tm
e/me
. tm .mt/e.tm .me m/e.tm
e/m
. .m/t/.tm . .mte.me /.tm
e/me e e
.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m tm
. .mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
. t m t m / . . t m / t /
IntestinaB tpt http gfands
t m /. / . / . t / t m /. / t : /
t : s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
ht tphhtt httphtt Large
t
intestiirne
/ / t : / :/t/.s:/:/t t / / t / / : /
s:
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/
t
s:/t:/pss:/: s:/t:pss:/: p s s:/tpss:/ s: / s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/ s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s: p s p
hThey lie in the wall of hhtthe h small intestine and hht are oftwo
ps ps t t p p s ps ps p t t p p t
o hIt is divisible into 3 parts- caecum, colon and
ps
tpt t tpt
t p tphht ps
tpt t tpt
t p p tpt ttp tt tt tp t t t
ht tphhtt hht hh h h hht hh ht h
types: crypts ofLieberkuhnandBrunner's glands.
hht hh hht hh
rectum.
o Crypts bof bLieber.b..'Uilll secrete b enzymes and mucus b ax1d
®
Peristalsis b ebbpushes the indigestible b ebb bmaterials

e weweb iwe(o:r
Brunner's glands secrete an alkaline watery fluid, a little
b ebb
feces) of the small intestine into the large intestine
be b e b ebb ebw ebb ebw e ebw ebw b ebb b eb
enzyiue v and mucus. uruvaruruv
e b eb e e ®
ebw e weiw
or
icolon.
w e e w i
wveiw w e i w e i w e i
w i
w w v wi vi i
w vi w w e i e i w e i
w i w v i
w i
Intestinal juice contains aminopeptidases, dipeptidases,
ii viw vi w vi vi i uv i w vi w v i i v
uvarur ruvruv
i i
l iAs lia feces enter themirectum,
v
liamil idistension ofilaitmiinduces
v w uvaruru v u v
r larur v w i uvaruruv ruvru v uv uv
u u v r u r u uv r u v r r arurlial
milamiamylase, maltase, mildextrinase, sucrase, tt aem/t/atalactase, lipase, /atamt/atam AtUlS
r u u l ar r u u u l
mdefecation refl/ateam x/ata which
m amtinitiates peristalsis and
a r u l a r l ar ial i l r
a ial ia lia a r u l ar l ar ial a a i l a r ial l a i l a lia
il lia iamil
milm amil mil mi ®ia l il l i mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atam nucleotidases,e/t/nucleosidases.
®
mtilam
t/aee/t forces the feces t etowards
e/ e/ anus.
ataem/t/ata
m /a t e / t am a a m
/at amm /
t at am tam
/ t am t/ataem/t/atam /t
e/me e/me / e/m t t e/ e/mt e/ / e e/me e
. m etem.
/me
t .
m m/e.tm . me t .
m m/e.tm . / t
. .m/t/e.tm
m .
. m etem/m
. t .
m m/e.tm . . m . m t
. .
m m/e.tm . e t.mte.m / t
. m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
t /
tt m:/t/. / . / . t / t t m / . t / t / / t :
s :
/.
/:/pss:/ s:
/t
/:pss:/ :/ t
s: :/
/pss:/t : /
p s
/:
s:tpss: /:
s: /
/.
:/ts:/: /t/.
s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / /
s: : / t
/pss:/ s: s:/ / / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s t ps p s p t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tpt t tpt hht hh
tp ttp tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tp ttp tpt t tpt ttp tt hht hh ht h
hht hh hht hh hht hh hht hh hht hh ht h hht hh h h
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
v i
w
i viw
w e i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv vi w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi
w e i
i viw iwviw
w v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v i
u u v
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
vi
uvaruruv a r r
u u v
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a / a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t
e/t/ae/t /t e/
/a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu v vrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u v v i
u
i
u
w
vv i
uu vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
260
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m mm a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
mm a
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5. Nemathelminthes milamil ilam
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called as sound box) is the cartilaginous structure . eat the
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puberty, therefore, it is called Adam's apple.
ht hht hh ht h
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6. Annelids Skin b (Cutaneous
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vi w u v uvv i u v uv i r r uv u uv uv vi r uv v uv r u u r r
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.(iv) King crab (Limulus) Book lungs It is lined with ciliated, pseudostratified columnar
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Trachea r larur divides_ -into iaruvright and left primary uvaruruv ruvbronchi.
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tenninal
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b ebb b ebb b ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b eb eb e ebw e w e ebw e i w e i e eb e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
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Diffusion of gases (02 an.d CO2) across alveolar
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Left primary
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we bbeebb eew bbeebb eew bbeeb b eewwee b bbeeof bb eew bbeebb eew bbeebb
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r ruuavvrruuv
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ilim alailiala
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ilim alailila
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m m m m m m m a m m a a m m m m mm m m m m a m m a a m
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t//taea//ttaa / / // e t a
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t . .mm/tt..mm / t t..m/m//tt..mm / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
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ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp t t and t pexpilratlon
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t t t t t p
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hh h hh h hh h hh h hht hhis defined as thehhprocess hh
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hh h
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r u u u u r r r
r r r r r r a a a l a
l a and membranous r uu r r u partitionilibetvveen rr r
alailiala abdomenilialand r r
aililath@rr2:z:.
a l ilila
a a
alailiala alailila iliml ii lialariliala ilim
mmtaam-'---- Lobularabronchiole
;;_;ilialailila ilim ilim m m m i m m m m m m
m m mttaa m a m m aa m t aa//tta a Inspiration mmtaamm happenswhen m mttheaa e:d:eirmtl illterrnstail
m a mm aa i mu:sdes //ttaa//tta a
//ttee// <,
a t a t t / t a a t t a t t
) f-- .:- · ,- Terminal mm/tt..mm bronchiole tt..mm//tt..mm
aa t t t / / / t / / / t aa t / tt / / // t / / e
eem ee// ee ee/ ee ee ee //tee// and pull the
cmrrtrract
eem ee/ ribcage
ee upwards eemeand e 'lYJJhvard§,meemme
..m/m//tt..mm mm/tt..mm column. Attt..mm ..msame time the ..mt..
\;,�':..,_ ///s/Respiratory bronchiole
. m
. m
/://s/tst::////t
t .. m t .
t ./// ///s/s::// / t
/
:://ss::
t / . m
.
tt:////tmaway
t . . m from the spinal
t .
t .
// ::/// ///s/s::// the
//t t ///s/tst::////t
Venulettttppttttpp capillaries
: : : : :: s s / /
/ / : : /
: / : : s s : :
:
ttppj�
sstpps ss :
ssp: ss dfaphragm ttpcontraclts sspps s and fimttens
ttphpttttpp pushing
ss down ttpptttppon
htt�Alveolar duct hhtt hht
ss ttpptttpp
ttpptttpp hhtt h� thtttphphttttp the abdominal tt hphttttorgans. hhtt hht the
t
hhtt hht '}f,� -�
0
�
hh hh
" h h h
volume @f the thoracic -cavity and therefore lower the
These hhttmovementsh incirease
ew b eb b bb b b b b b b b b e e bbpressu1re in the bbthonnx. As the pressure bbeebb falls below bbeethe bb

� uvviuiuvv
i e bbee b eewwee eewwe e w ee w w e e bbee eew eew
e w i w i i w w w i
·g,
iwvviw w i w i i i
vvruuvv atmosphere iwvviniw iwthe thorax, airvviuiw wisvviforced into thevviilw
i w i
vv1.gs to
i
v viw iw
u vvriuiuwvvi u r r ru u r vv iw
u u u u uu r uu r ruuavvrr
u ur u u r u
alariliala r r r r alailila a equalise u uthe
r u pressure. r
alariliala
r r r r r alailila
alarrilialar m • Expiiration alarrilialar
alailiala ilim alailiala ilim
Alveolus
ilim ilim ilim mm ilim is a process iliof exhalation or
ilim
pushing out of mm m
m m m m m m m
A ee ee
m
m m mm
aa//ttaa m
aa//tta a a a
tte//t t a a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa the lungs. It is//ttaaa/passive m a
tta a a
tte//t t a a
t//taea//ttaa /t
/ t /
ee ee
t
/ t e em/ / e CO t a
t
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ee ee
t
/ t
from eemee / process, e em/ / e
Fi.g.: A. ..mBranches oftrachea, ..m/m/bronchi
t/ t..mm and their branches.
ee e ecaused
em tt.:.m/m///tt..m
mm/tt..mm ./ .m/m m tt.:.m/m///tt..m by the relaxation mm/tt..mm of musdes ..m/m//tt.of .m diaphiraigm//and
ss::/ss:: B. Blood supply ss::in
//ss:relation to the alveoli
t . . / t t / t
/ t //t t / / /
/ / t . m
. m t .
t . m / t .
t . / / t
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/// /// t / / ss:: ss: t
/// /// / / / / / / / :: ss :
ss::/ss::
:
ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: exteirnai inforc,n,sfai sst:p:p/ss:: muscles.ppVvith sst:p:p/ss:: the rela.,"'>:ation ppstsof ttppfoe
ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp t t p p muscles of t p p t t t t t t t
t t t
hhtdiapti
t t t hh h t tt t t thh .ragm, the abdominal
t t t t t viscera compressed hh h h
hh h Respiratory hh h organs hh
h hhtt hht during inspiration, push the diaphragm u:rn-"V@Jr'd, making
hh hh
® The branchingllletwork b ebb ofbronchi,
b ebb bronchioles b eand bb alveoli weebiw b ebitb -convex. External b ebb intercosfai musdes b ebb bal§o irefax.ebThis b bb b b
be b
comprise e b the lungs. In man,
eb w e the respiratory· e ebw e
organs are a
e ebw ebw e weoriginal eb position evwiwee iweiwe
wveiw w
viwi viw
e i w e i w
viwvvi
e wi wi
vi viw v wi v i i
w vi w
uv ruv and the tlrio:radc
brings the ribs w
i viwe i and
e the sternU111 i w e
to
viwvvi vi v wi theiT i w wi w
vi vi v v
u pair
urulvaruruvof lungs. Theilarlungs uriualvaruru lie in the thoracic ar uriualvaruru cavity on the i l arurlialaru r
u uvavriuw
ruv cavity becomes ar uriualvaruru §mailer. r uaru Thelarcontraction uriualvaruru arularu i larurliala
uv
ar i l l a ar l l a l i l i la
il sides
milamil
ia of the heart.ilamil milamil mi mi of abdominal
mtilam
ialmilia muscles presse§ ilaim
amil the il i 21bdwminud. ilamamil visceni i mi mi
tt/a®aem/t/atamThe left hnng amm
tt has
/ a / atam"hv@ lobes� tt aem/t/atam by obhque e:fissure.
separated/ a t/ taem/t/atam
a against t am a the dfaph:ragm, /at amm / at bulging a mtam1t further /at amm /
t at
up,vard. t a mtam
/ 1'h1s t/ataem/t/atam /ta
e/mee/ t e/me / t/aee/t / e/m t
t ee/ e/ e/ t e/mt e/ e e / e/me e
m etem /me It has cardfa.
. . m/e.tm . c notd11.� a concavity m. m/e.tm . 1vhere the/t/.theart m.m/t/e.tm.mehes. m
/m
etem
shortens
. the th@wack . m/e.tm . cavitym . m vertically. t m. m/e.tm . e Contraction . m . m / -of
.tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. / t
. m / t
. t t .
m / t
. m . t / . t t / t / t : t /
s:
/
/:/pss:/
. The right s :
/ t :/ t
/:pss:/ lung is bigger s: : /
/pandt
s
:/
s:/ has three lobe§ ps
:
/ s /:
s:tps: separated s:/:/ts:/: internal intercostal / . /t/.
s :
/ t
/:pss:/ muscles
:/ t
: / t
/ s: moves / /
s
: : / t
/pss:the :/
/ sribs / / : /
: s dOYfilward ps s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s t stpt r-tepduces
tphThis s p s
tpt ht tpt ttcavity p t ttp httphtt p
tptpsttpt ptphst tpt
byhtthorizontal :fissurehttand pt ht tpt oblique fissure. tphttp tps ptps and in1.v@nd. t ht http thehht thoracic
p tt from tphfront.:
hht hh h h h h hht hMediastinum ht tphhtt to-back and h httpalso
h :fro=n side-to-side. h The h h decn:ai.se hht hin the
is the partition bet\veen the two lungs. h
Eachblung b b b b von-ume nf thoracic cav : H. - y raises the b pressure af 21ir
b ebbin b eb
ebb is enclosedweeby b ebt'No membranes,
b ®
ebw b theeb pleurae. weebiweeb the lungs. This b ebbpressure pushes b eb b b ebw
eb e The e eb w e
iwviwiouter membrane
bw e
i isviwcalled pariefal
i w e
wuvvpleuwa
i i e and the vi uvi i v w e e b w e w e ebw
i e out ethe e foul iai!r w e wfr
i e omweiw
viw v
i w uv uv v i w
r uv uv v i r
iw
r
u uv w
r
u the lungs vi iwviwi the air pressure
w
until
uv uv v i w
r
i viw iwvi
uvin the v lungs
u
w
falls uv v i w
to
r uv vithat
u vof i v
u r
u uvavriuwr
uvinnerr membrane is
r k.t
u 1. own as vi§ceral r
u u pieu:ir2. A very ar lial ar uv r r u
uialar ar ar u r
u u r r larilial
r aru
lliaariulialnarrm,v ll ariulialar
ia ll arilialar
ia i lialm i ilie atmosphere.
l a r urialaru ial a r l l i l ial ar lialar ila ila
il mi m m i lia
mi m space miexist m between the mi tiNO m pleura knoY-vn mamas ilaim
amil
amm
il mi mi m
amm a the t/ataem/t/atam /tam
mm
tt aem/t/atam plemral cavity.
/a t/ taem/t/atam
a t/ taem/t/atam
a e/ t/ataem/t/at /at amm
Jvfarnmals
/at have negative t/at t/atam pressure t a / t a t t
breathing,
/a e / /
t tam /tai.e.,
a / t e/
e/me e/me .me it. t ee/t e/mee/ e/ e e/me e e .me .mte.me
. m/e.tm
e/me
. ® The pleural t .m/t/e.tm
m . fluid secreted t m.m/t/e.tm . by pleura lubricates / tm
. .mt/e.tm . m/e.tm
e/m
. lungs draw air due t .m/t/e.tm
m .to reduction m . m in/.tpressure m.m/t/e.tm . t.m within
t .m them. / tm
. .mt/e.tm
t
/. tm t/. /t/ .
/:pss:/: as membranes : / t : /
s:/tpss:/rub against s:/:/t/.s:/:/t 'fhis allows sthem tm /.
/:/psts:/: tos:eat t . / t
//s:/and breathe /t
s:/t:pss:/: at sthe
/
:/ ssame / / : / t / ://st ://
: /
s: /:p/sts:/:/ Lubrication s:/t:/pss:/: reduces the s:friction p s : : time.
p s s:/tpss:rf s
tphst tpt
p each
ps
tpt httotherp during inspiration ps
tpt http t
and exp:ixation. h t
t
tphht t p tphst tpt
p p s air werehto ps
tpt hbet t t
p forced t t p ttpLnto the ht
p
h
s
tpt lungs,
t tp htitt hmight p tt p ca1TY h t
t
tphht foodt p t tphttp
t ht ht h t t h h h
hht h @
h h
The pleural cavity is air tight and pressure in }t Temains
h h hht h particleshinto h theh trachea and h block h it. Negative pressure
b 3 - 4 mm b ebbHg lower than ethat b ebbin the lungs. ebb ebb ebw b ebbbreathing gently binto
moves air v,rhlcb is bless likely to carryb
b the wind pipe.ebb eb b eb b eb b eb
be e b b w e e w e w e i e food particles e b eb w e wew evew bw e weiw
wveiw @ If the
v w
ii viw
w e i w e
chest wall is ever vi i
w w evi wipierced,
uv the pleural urcavity,
say by v i i
w w
va v
i wistalb wound,
uvaruru eliminatingarur larurPulm1111a1y rvolumes u v v i wi
u v vi w
v wi
iruv
w e vi wi w e
vi wi w
uvaruruv ruvru
e
vi wi i v i v i
w w
uvarur ruvruv
i u v i i i uv
u
a ratmospheric
ur u
l
va r r
u u v a:ir rushes
l ar r
u uvarurinto
i l i l r
a ial ial lia a r uu v
l ar u and
l
capadties
ar r
u ial a i l ar r
il ilia pressure difference i a ilamillung walls. This milammi ® The m almilia iamlungs a il receive, amil hold i l
i mi
milamthe milamil across m the ilaim
quantities of air the mtilam il ilmcan
amm
ilam mtamor /atamm tam t
tt/aaem/t/atamcauses the lungs tt aem/t/atamto collapse. t/The ataem/t/atamcondition is e/called t/ataem/t/at expel am t ta m / a a mta /at / at t a / t /
t a
e/me e e/me /a
etem/me m etm . me e/mt/aee/t under different
t / a
e e/mt econdit1ons
/a e/ e/ e/ are called
t t
eore/mt ee/ pulmnna.r
t eme ry.metem
/ /me e/
.
e /
m e pneu.moth.orax. . m . . m . tm. . m ( =
e lung) v@llilmes. Combinations
. m . m of n.vo . m tm. more m pulmonary
. tm /. m .m
: / t/.tm. /t/.tm
:
.
/: /t/.st:m/:/t/.
tm
/: / t/.st:m/:/t/. s: :/t/.s:/:/t
/
/
: / t/.tm . /t/.tm
:
/
.
volumes are caHed /: t/.tm //t.:m//t. capadtieso
/t/.st:m/:/pulmonary /: / t/.st:m/:/t/. ://tThe . //t
: different s: /:/t/.s:/:/t ://st.://t
/
s:/pss: MECHANISM pss: ps OF IU:Sl'IIIATION/BREATHING s
ps ps: tps ptps s:/pss: pss: ps pstps and : s:
pstptps tpsttp are discussed s tps ptps s p
h t tptphsttpt h t tpthht tpt h t tpthht tpt h ht tphhtt h t tptphsttpt types of pulmonary ht tpthht tpt httvolumes h t h t tpthhtcapacities h th h ht tphhtt httphtt
h h ® h
Respiration involveshthe following steps : h h under the foHowing h table. h
b eb b b eb b b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
be b e b b ebb ebw e ebw e w e ebweeb eb b ebb ebw e e e ebw e e
e i e
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w
i viwe i vi i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv v i w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w e i
i viw iwviw vi i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
vi
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u u
uvarur ru ruv v
ar u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/ a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t
e/t/ae/t /t e/
/a a e/t ee/ /tae
/ a t
v v
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
r u
r u vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u v v i
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
262
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m mm a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e / /
eem e/ taa
//tee// t / tt
eem/ ee
// /
eemee
t
/t //
eemee
eem e Table : Pulmonary m m
volumes . m and capacities eem m m m .m
/ t..m/m//tt..m
t / //
mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
/ /
/ /
mm .
tt.:.////tt . m
: /
:
. .
//tt::////
/
tt .
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ //
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
/ /
/
. mm
tt:.////tt
/
..
: /
: //t::////t.
/ t . . t
/ // /
:: s : .· ss:: ss : ss ss
ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp
Approx.
ttphpttttppof air ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttpp Type ofpulmonary t t q"antity t t h h t ttp p t t t Cliaracterlstie t t
t t t t hh tt h
hh h volume/capacity hh h hh h hht hh hh hh hh h
(ml) .
b b bbeebb of air inspired bbeebb bbeebor b in each eebbeebb
we 1. Tidal volumeeeb(TV) beebb 500 eew bbeebb
w It is theeevolume
w i w w i w
i w
eew
i i w and expired during ee bbeebb normal breathing eew w w iww iw
i
iwvviw
vvriuw iw
uu
w
vvriuiuwvvii respiratory
u u r
w i
vvriuiuvv cycle without rruuavvrruuany
vv effort. It is contributed
v v iw
u
iwvviw iw by alveolar uu
w
vvriuiuwvvivolume (350uuvvriruiuwvvi
i
rruuavvrru
uu u r
alariliala r r r lailila (150 ml).lalarrilialarr uu u r
alariliala r r r alailila
alarrilialar
ilim ilim lialailialaand dead spaceilim
iml)m m m
avolume
m iim ilim ilimalailiala
m m
ilim
m
m m m m m m ma m aa taa mm m mm m mma m aa t aa
2. Alveolar m
t//taea//ttaa volume ee//ttaeae//tta350
a //ttaea//ttaThe alveolar volume /e/ttee//t is the air that ttaa /reaches
taa
t the respiratory /t
/ aa//ttaa surfaces of/alveoli
t t
/ aa//tta
t / tte//t
/ e
ee e e // e / ee ee ee ee e em
. .
ee e
mm/tt..mm t..m/m//tt..mm
t t ..m/m//tt..mm and engages
t / / tt..mmgas exchange...mmtet.e.mme
tt.:.m/m///in t..m/m//tt..mm
t / t ..m/m//tt..mm
t / / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
tt // / / / / / : t t /
///s/s::///air which doesss:not //
:// ::/ /
:://s:: / / :
/
:///s/s::// Dead space volume / /
ss::/ss:: 150 ss:p:p/ss::
/ Dead space ss:: ss ss:: ss
ss:3.
ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp t ttphptttt t tttphpttttpp volume or air p p sisst:p:that
t p ttp p t t
ttppss reach the respiratory t t ppststttpps surface, ttttphpttttpp
t
it just hh fihlls the respiratory hhtt hhtpassage.
t
hh h hh h t t tt t
hht hh hh hht hh h
hh h
4. l n s p i ratory reserve 2500 -3000 It is an extra amount of air that can be inspired forcibly after a normal
b eb volume (IRV) bbebb b inspiration. bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
wveiw eebbeeb eewwe ww iw
ee w w i w w
eew
i i w eewbbeebb eew w w eew w
vvriuiu100 iw i w
i w i i i vv w w i w w i i i i w
vvruuvvii
5. E x p i r atory vvriuw ii
iwvvreserve 1000-1 uu
vv
uvvruextra
It is uan u rr
v vv u
w i
uu u
rr aarr
i
ii vvi after a normalvvexpiration.
vv amount ofuuairvrruuthat can be expelled uvv uu
v
rruluala
rru
volumeilal(ERV)u
a
ailil a r u
l aar
i il i
r
i l a
l a r
ilialailil
rr aar laailala rruu rrui il i arr aar alailiala ilimalailil ililailil a a
ilil ii
imm mm mm mmtaamm mmtaamm ilim m m m mmtaamm mmtaamm
m m a a a aa t a
t a / t mm m
aa the lungs even//tafter a a a a a t a
t a / t
6. Residual a
//ttaeae//tta volume (RV) //tteae//t1t 1 00-1200 ee//ttee/It/t is the volume of eem //airee/that always remain //ttaeae//ttin ta//tt forcible expiration. //ttee//t eem // ee/
eem eem m m It enables the m m . . m
lungs to continue eem exchange of gases
eemeeeven after maximum
eem
m m m . . m
..m/m//tt..m m m .
tt.:.////tt. m mm .
tt.:.////tt . . .
//tt:://// t t . mm/tt..m t m m
..///tt. . m m m
tt.:.////tt. . . .
//tt:://// t t
t t / / / / / exhalation : / / t t. / / / t / / / / : / /
/ /
ss::/ss::
/ / / /
sst:p:pss: :: s/ : ss orss on holding the
: /breath.
/ /
sst:p:p/ss::
// / /
:: s : : :: s/ : ss ss :
tttphp7.ttttpp Vital capacity t ttphp(VC)
thtt tt
t tppststttpps t ttphpttttpp
t t p p t t ttppststttpps ttttppststttpps t ttphpttttpp
t
t t 4000-4600 h h h h
Itisthe totalvolumeofairinspiredandexpired t t t t h hahmaximum level.hhItishthe sum total
hto t h h h h
hh h hh hh h hht hh
b oftidal volume, inspiratoryreserve volume and expiratory reserve volume. Thus
ew be bbeebb VC - TV bbe+ebbIRV + ERV eebbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
bbeebb bbeebb
- vThe
i ee eew w w eew w i w w i w
i w e e eew w w eew w i
w i w i i i iwvviw w i w
vvriuiuvvi i
vviwiwvviw
u
iw
uu vvriuiuwvvi uu vriruiuvvvital capacityrruisuvvhigher r uuvv in athletes,vvimountaineers
r
w
u
iw
u uvvriuiuwvvi
or mountain-dwellers
uu r r ruuavvrr
u ur u r r r r
alailialaand lower in non-athletes, a people living u u u r r r r
alarrilialar in plains;women, alariliala old individuals,
alariliala alailila r alailila
ilimalarrilialar ilim ilim m
ilim
m ilim ilim alailiala
ilim m
ilim
m
m cigarette smokers. m m m m m
ttaea//tt-a
m
m m mm m m m a aa t a a m mttaa m m m
aa//ttaa m
aa//tta a aa
tte//t t a a
t//taea//ttaa / ttaea//ttaa
/ / / Higher the
/e/ttee//t t a
t a / //t t / t
/t / / e
ee e ee e ee e e mvital capacity, higher eem // ee is the amounteeofeeair exchangedeein eeeach
/ e em
tt.:.m/m///tt..m
t t. mm/tt..mm
. / ./ .m/m//tt..mm
t t / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t breath. / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ t t. m
. m/ tt.. m / t
/ .
t mm/tt..mm
./ / / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / / // / :
/// /// // : /
st:tp:pss: :://s::/ sst:p:pss: ///s::/// / :/
sst:p:p/ss:after :://ss:: ss:: ss
sst:p:p/ss:: Inspiratoryttppstcapacity 3000-3500 ppststttpps It is the ttphpttotalt volume oftppair sst:p:p/sthat can be inhaled a normal ppstsexpiration. It ttttphpttttpp
ttttphp8. t t tt t ttpp t t t t t
t pp
t
t t t
hht hh t t t hh h tidal volumehhand t
ttthhttinspiratory reserve t t
hht hh volume (IC -hTV t t hh h
hh ht (IC) hh hh includes h hh+ IRV).
9. Functional residual b ebb 2 100-2300 b ebb It is the sum b ebtotal b o(residual evolume bw b ebb and the expiratory b ebb reserve volume b ebb(FRC b e=b b ebb b eb
e b eb e b e e e b w e w e ebw
i e i w e i e ebw e e ebw e wew w evewbw
i e weiw
wvi w capacity (FRC) w
ii viw e i w i
w w v i i
w RV + v ERV).
i
w vi w vi w vi w i w e i i
w w vi i
w i i v i
w i i
u r uv v w
r uv r
u
vi
uvaruruv r
u uvaruri uv
ar u u v
r larur uv
r uv v w
iruv
u
vi w
r
u
vi
uvaruruv ruvru v r
u uvarur ruvruv
i uv
arurliala
uv
10. Total ilung ar u l ar u capacity 5 1
l ar
00-5800
ial It i l a
isr ial
the total amount lial of lia air present in the
ar u l ar lungs and the l ar
respiratory
ial a l a passage i l ar i
a l l a i l a li
a l
milamil
l ia
milamil
i
mtilamamil mtiammi almilia
ilaim ilaim
amil il i mtilamamil
mtam
i mi mi
(TLC)
/ a / a a a maximum
tt aem/t/after t/ataem/inspiration.
t/ a It isamm
t the
/ t
a
sum total oftvital
/a amm /
t t
a capacity
t a mtam and/atamthe t/a / t a / t/ataem/t/atam /ta
e/me e/me residual volume. e/me t/aee/t e/mt ee/ e/ e/ e/mt e/ e e/me e
. m etem/me
. tm. m/e.tm. t .
m m/e.tm. / t
. m.m/t/e.tm.
. m etem
.
/m
tm. m/e.tm. m . m tm.m/e.tm . e t.mte.m / t
. m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
t /
tt m:/t/. /. / . t TLC - VC / +
t RV or TLC - TV t m + IRV + ERV + RV.
/. . t /. t / / t :
s:
/
:/ s:/
/
.
s :
/t
/:pss:/ :/ t
s: : / t
/pss:/ :/
p s
:
/
s:tps: s /:
s: /
/ .
:/ts:/: /t/.
s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / /
s: : / t :
/pss:/ s: s/ / / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
ps t p s p t p
tptp1st1tpt. Alveolar ventilation
ps 4200 tpt ht tpt It is the tprate ttp at which thetptfresh pstptps air reaches the pstpt tp and tpt ht tpt areas tphttp ttp tt
ps
tpt t tpt hht hhducts, alveolarhhtsacs tpthhtalveoli ttp adjoining
ht h It ishhtcalculated h ht h as: hht h h h
tp tlike t
hht hh hht hh hht h alveolar hht and respiratory hht bronchioles.
Alveolarbventilation per minute b ebb b ebb b eb
b eb e b b ebb ebw b ebb
e - Rate eof ebb
ebwerespiration x (TV w bw
evewi - eDead Space volume) eb b ebb ebw b ebb b b
e e e e ebw e e
ew e w e w e i i w i i e w e w e i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i
vi uv vi iwviwi
w u v r uv vi i viw
w
r uv - r12uvv i
ur
iw - 150) - 12
wxuvv(500
r
u uv ar
w
virxuvi350 - 4200 ml/minute
u uv vi iwviwi
w uv r uv vi w
r
u
i viw iwvi
uv v u
w
r uv vi r
u u r r
u uvavriuwr
r u r arulialar u u
ar lialar larilial urialaru r uialar ar ar u u
ar lialar ila ila r larilial
mil mial i li
a l a r ial a r l l i l ial
il mi i li
a
m i mamm ilaim
amil
amm
il mi i m
amm tam /tam/tam
m mm
EXCHANGE /a
mi m
tt aem/t/atam Of GASES /
t taem/t/atam
a /
t taem/t/atam
a e/ t/ataem/t/at (40 mm of/ataHg) mm /at as the alveolar
t/at t/atamair.tam The
/ t a percentage /
t t
a e / /
t a e/ t/ataem/t/ata /tam
e/me e/me .me saturationmeofblood t ee/t e/mee/ 75% / e/me toe e .me .mte.me
@
. Alveoli
m/e.tm
e/me are the primary
. tm.m/t/e.tm. sites of /.exchange tm.m/t/e.tm. of gases. / tm
. .mt/e.tm .
e/m
m. also rises
t m t
. . .mte.me(venous
.m/t/efrom
m t m.m/t/e.blood)
tm. t.mt.m /.tm.mt/e.tm t /
t m /. t / tm t /. / . / t : /
s :
/. /t
/:p/sts:/:Exchange ofgases t :/: occur between
s:/t:/pssalso
/ t :/:
s:/t:pssblood and tissues. ps
:
s:/t0 /
pss2:
:
/ 97% (arterial
s: /
/.
:/t/.s:/:/t blood). s:/:/psts:/: s://s:/ t / / t
s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s:
/ /
ps s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
: /
ps ps ps
t http by simple diffusion t
tp t t p tpstpt p s ps t
t ttp ttp ttp p
t ps p t t
tp t t p p t p
tpt t tpt and CO2 are tpt http
exchanged in these ht tphsites ht tphhtissues ht tphhtt htt ht hht hh ht h
t t
hht hh based mainly hht hon h hht hh Exchange
h httphht of gases hin h h h
pressure/concentration gradient ® In the tissues, exchange of gases occurs betw-een the blood
b
b eb alveolar surface b b b b and theebtissue b ebb cells throughb tissue b fluids th.atesurround b ebb b the b b ebb b eb
e b eb Exchange alm1g the e b e e b w e eb e ebweeb i w e i w e ebweeb the tissues has e bw e wpartial ewe evewbw e weiw
wvi w i w e i w e i
w w v i i
w v i
w w vi wi tissue vi w cells.
vi w Blood that reaches
i w e i i
w w v i more
i
w i i v i
w w i i i
u The blood that
@
uv v w v w
iruvreaches. the alveolus
i
r
vi
uvaruruv (venous blood) r
u
i
uvaruruhas v pressure
ar u u v uv
r larur ofO2 (pO, - uv v w v i w
iruv mm Hg), thanruthat
JOO u
vi
varuruv inruthe vrutissues uruv ur ruvruv
v i uv uv
arurlial
r
u ar u l r
a u l l r
a i l ial lia r
u ar u l ar l a l ar i l ar a l a ial
lower pOz a r a mm of Hg)miand
ilmi(li40l liamil higher pCO2m(il46
ia ia ilmm of
a mil(pO i
mm 2 - 40 mm m Hg). a r l
almiliaPartial pressure ilaim
amof ia
il COil2mis a il i
lamil mi m a l i mi mi l
mta more
milathe amm pC02 ilaim iin
Hg) than tt/aaem/t/atam alveolar air/at(p0 amt/atam 2 -100 mm of tHg /at amt/atand t/ataem/t/atatissues (- 46 mmt am t Hg) than in the /at mm
ablood
/ at (
a - 40 mm /at mm
aHg).
/
t at am ta ta
/ t/ataem/t/atam /t
/mt ee/ e/meinto e/ e/me t/aee/t / a e/m t
t ee/ e/ e/ t e/mt e/ e e / e/me e
-40 m .
/me of Hg). As a m
etemm . etem
result. oxygen diffuses . m/e.tm. the blood tm .m/t/e.tm. Due to these m
/differences
etem
. m in partial . m/e.tm . pressure
m m of/.tm . m/e.tm
gases� .e0 . m2 t.m / .tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
. m
tt m:/t/. carbon dioxide:/t/.out t m / . / t
. m t / /
t . tm. / t
. m . t . t t / / t : t /
s :
and
/.
/:/pss:/ s: /pss:/ :/ t of the blood s: into
:/ t
/pss:/ :/ the alveolus.
p s
/:
s:tpss: /:
from blood s: /
/. //
t .
:/ts:/: diffuses in thes:/:pstissues / t s: :/ t
/ :/ sand / t / /
: CO2s:from : / t :/
/pss:/ tissues s
/
:s / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
•tptpstpt By the time hblood tps pt p s
t pt (arterial blood) t
tp ttp tps ptps tpstpt ttpexchange s tp p s t tp tt
pt ht tpgases p t
tphttp ttp tt p
t ttphht t leaves the hhalveolus ttphht t hht hh diffuses
ht tphhtt into the blood. httphhtThis ht httof h ht hoccur hht h h h
hht hh it has almosth the same pO2 (95 mm of Hg) and pCO2 simultaneously.
h h h h
b b b b b b b e b b ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e be e b eb e ebwe e e ebwe w e i e eb e ebw e e e e ebw e e
wviw e
iwviwi w e w
i viw
w i i w
wuvviw i viw i vi w e
iwviwi w e w i
i viw iwviw
w i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
w v i v i uv w v i v i
r
u
vi
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
w w
ii vvi i w w
u
i
vvruuvvi w i i
u u
i
vvruuvvi i
r u
r u v vrruu v v v v
w w
ii vvi i w
u v v i
u
i
u
w vv i
uu vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
uruarru u r u r r r r a uu r u u r r u r r r r r
Human
r
r
ilimalailila a ilima a
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r
ilimalailiala ilim a
alailila 263 iliml ilila
a a
ilim m mm mm m mm a m i m m m m m aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / / a t t t / /
•
a t /
eem®e The venous
t
Vvhen the partial pressure
/
of oxygen is
/
25 mm Hg the
/
blood goes to the right side of the heart that
/
eem e eem e / eem e t
//tee// /
eem/ ee eemee/ eemee
m m . m eem m m m .m
m m m . . m m //t::////t.
.
sends sits::to ss:lungs via pulmonary ss:p:pss artery for reoxygenation.
m m . . t m m . . t
sst:p:p/ss::haemoglobinttppgets sst:p:pss:saturated to pabout ss:: ss 50 /o. The partial
..m/m//tt..m m .
tt.:.////tt. / tt.:.////tt . / //tt:://// t ..m/m//tt.. m m
tt.:.////tt . . / .
tt:.////tt ° . / t
/ // t
/ t / // / / / / : : :
ss pss / / // t
/ t / // / / / / : :
ss ss : /
Thettttpvenous pttttpp blood is t75 ttphpttt% t saturated athttt40 tphphttttpmm Hg of
ss::/ss::
pressure at which t the haemoglobin tthpttttppsaturation ishh50%1
tttphpttttpp p t ttphpttttppis
t
02 and contains 14.4 ml ofO,/100 ml of blood.
t t t p t t t t t t t t h
called P50• At 40 mm Hg of partial pressure of oxygen,
hh ht hh hh hh h h t
hht hh t hh hh hh h
bbeebbthe saturation bis beeb75 b °/4. It becomes bbe973/ ebb o when thewpartial
b b bbeebb bbeebb
we bbeebb Of GASESeebbeebb
vv CO2. Aboutuuvvrruuvv pressure of oxygen iw is 100 mm vvriuiuwHg.
TRANSPORT eew eew eew eew
Blood iwis the mediumvviof iwvvtransport forr0 v2vriuiand
ee w w w w w i w i w
i w i i w e e w i w w i w iw
i
iwvviw
vvriuw
i i i iwiw vviw vvi vvriuiuvvi uuavvrru
alarri97 lialarper cent of 0ilia2laiislialatransported byilim alaRBCsiliala i.iJ. the blood. Haemoglobin alarrilialar does nottake alariliup ala oxygen at low alaPo iliala2, but as
@
u u u r u u r ru u ru u r u r r a u u vvr u u r u u r r ru u r r r
r ilimalailila ilimalailila
111e remaining 3 per cent of 0 t2taeais//ttacarried in a dissolved
ilim
the mtoxygenation of pigment aa//ttaa occurs its /affinity aa//tta for more //tte//t
ilim m m m m m ilim ilim m m m m
m m m m m m a a a m mm m m m a aa
t//taea//ttaa state through ee plasma. Nearlyeemm 20-25 e per cent mofmCO2 is
m
m ttaea//ttaa a a
/e/ttee//t t m a a t
// e2e increases. In haemoglobin where
0 m//tt..mm4 sub units are
// // e t a
t a / / aa
t //tt t
/ t e e
e ee ee ee ee em
transported by
ee e m RBCs whereas ..m/m//tt..70 per cent of////it tt.:./m//is/tt..m carried mm/tt.present, acquisition of one molecule of oxygen increases
eem
mm/tt..mm ..m/m//tt..m t . m ..m/m//tt..m m t ..m / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
p cent of COttt2tppiststttppcarried in a tppsst:tp:pss: the affinity
.
as bicarbonate. Abouttpp7ssttp:per
t . . / t t / / t t . / t t / / t / / / /
of
sst:p:p/neighbouring haems
ppststttpps for oxygen. tThis ppststttppiss
/// /// t / / / ://ss:: / s:: ss : t
//// :/// /
/ ss::/ :://s:: / :: s :
ss::/ss:: sst:p:p/ss::
dissolved
hht hh state through hh hhplasma.
t
knovm. ashhco-operativity b�hhtween hh active sites.hh h
ttttphpttttpp t t p
t p t t t t t t t t h tt t t p
t
t hhp t t t t t
t t t th
hh h hh h hhtt hht
b eb TRANSPORT Of OXYGEI\Ib bb fad@rs bbeebb affedi"!l "l<J!l<m bbeebb disso<iafam bbeebbcurve
w Oxygen bbeisebbcarried by blood in two forms- i n solution
bbeebb bbeebb
w
wveiw
p0 : Decrease in partial pressure of 02 shifts the curve
e e bee e e eew eew eew
(plasma) iiwvvi and as oxyhaemoglobin by RBCs.
ee w w w w w i w w i w
w w i w i i i i i v v w w i w i vvruuvvi
i i
to tight.
v w i i
vvruuvv vvruuvv u u v vrruu 2 v w
ii vvi i v v i vv uuav
uruarruv u r u u r r ru u r rr a uu v uu r u u r u
r u r u
r u r r r
Asmmioxyhaemoglobi11
r r a a a l l a r r r r a l ilila
a a
alailiala alailila lialariliala alailiala alailila
Temperatu:re : At higher temperature haemoglobin gives
lialailila ilim ilim iliml ii
i ilim ilim ilim
m m m aa//ttam
m m
/®/ttee// RBCs contain // aeeprotein calledeeha.emoglobin which eemeehas
m m mm m a m m mm m a
upee/oxygen
/tee// more readily eem/ eeand the dissociation eemee curve shiftsmme.emmee
aa t a a mm
t a
ta /
mttaa t a
t a/ t
/ aa
t //t aa//tta
t @
a a mmtaamm ta
t a /
mttaa tta a / t
/ aa
t //t t
t / // ee t t / / //
four polypeptide chains and four haem group§ attached to
m//tt.the
.m right.
eem eem m m
::///2s/+s:).:/// It can
m m m m . m m . . m t . . m m .. t..m
mm .. t .
to it or 4
///s/tstatoms of iron in ///s/tsfeir:rous foirm (Fe
m . . t m m . ///s/tst::////t
..mmt..m ..///tt. t.:.:////tt tt / tt.:.m //tt.:.:////tt. ///s/tst::////t
s 2 or other ppacids
ttppttttpp40g. This ttp®pststtp:psspH : Increase tt ttttpp lm,vers thehhtpH tttphphttttof
/://s/tst::////t sin
sp CO
: : : / :: / / / // : / / : : : :
react ttttpwith
hhtt 4 molecules hhtt hof
ttppttttppoxygen to form hhtt hHb
: : ss s s : / : : s ss s s pp
ss pssttpp tht hht plasma andhshifts ttttphphttttpthe dissociation
ttpptttpp hhtt hhcurve to the right.
is called oxyhaemogfobil!R. This combination process is
hhtt hht h h h h h h
called oxygenation. bbeebpC0 b 2 : CO2 lowers the oxygen affinity of haemoglobin
even ifthe pHeeisw bbekept bb constant. The
b eb bbcurve
eebb shifts to theeeright
®
ew bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
In lungs
bb e bb e e e e eew eew
vvruuvv and releases iwmore
vviiw 02 with increase vvriuiuwvvi in pCO2 uuvvriruiuvvi
i e e w e
+ 02ruu:::;:;; vvriuiuw;;;::
vvi ::::::=�::=:::
e w w i w w w w i w
i w i w
i w i i w i w w w i w w i
vvriuiuvv Hb0
2
iwiwvviHb iw iw uuavvrr
alarriliHaemoglobin In tissuesilialailialaOxyhaemoglobin
vv u u vv
2, 3-diph@sphoglyceric acid alarili(2, ala 3 -DPG) is present alailiala in the
u uaarr uu r r ruu r r r a r u u r uu r u u r r r r r
alailila
alariliala
ilim ilimalailila ® alarrilialar ilim ilim ilim
redttaacells mttaa of adult blood. aa//tformed from 3-phosphog]yceric
ilim l m m mm m ilim m mm m
mm m mm a a m m m m m a a
t//taOxyge11-haemoglobi11 dissociation ee e rnrve (= m Oxygen
m m a aa t m m aa aa//tta a aa
tte//t t
a/m/ttaa ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta /e/ttee//t
acid.
// ee It competes eefor
mm/tt..mm oxygen binding ..m/m//tt..mm sites in /the
/ / / / e / / / t
/ t t / t
/t e / / e
ee ee eem e ee ee ee em
mm/tt..mmdissodatio11 ./ .m/m/c11rve)
m eem
tt.:./m///tt..m tt.:.m/m///tt..m
//// :://haemoglobin molecule.
t . . / t t t
/t..m //t ..m/m//tt..mm
t / / / t ..m m tt.. m / t t.. / / t
/ t // /
ss::/ss:: ® Thettppercentage of haemoglobin ppststttpps that is bound ttphpttttpp \Vith 02 is ttpps®tst:tp:pss The oxygen-haemoglobin
/// /// t / / :://s::/ /
ss:: ss: t / / / / / / :://s:: / ss:: ss :
sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss::
dissociation ppststttpps curve is shifted ttphpttttppto
calledhht hh percentage safu:rati@.iTI! of haemoglobin.
ttttphpttttpp p t t t t t t p p t t t t t
hhtt hht left in the hfoetal ht hh blood, because, foetal haemoglobin has
t t t t
hh hh t hh h t t t t hh hht t hh h
hh h
The reiationship behveen thebpartial pressureb ofb oxygen bmore b affinity for oxygen than the adult
(p02) and b ebpercentage saturation
b eb ofthe haemoglobin ebweeb with iweebiweeb b ebbhaemoglobin.
®
b ebb b eb
In the low temperature and high pH e the cunre shifts eto weiw
b b b ebb b eb bw
evew
ii viw(02) is graphically
be e b ebw
oxygen illustrated by a curve called
e b w e e ebw ew
wveiw w e i w e wi w ev i i
w v wi w vi i
w
r larur left.
vi®w vi w i w e wi e wi w e vi i
w i w i v i
w w
uvarur ruvruv i i i
oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve (also called
v w vi
uvaruruv uvaruri u v u v u v v w
iruv vi vi
uvaruruv ruvru v i uv uv
u r uv r
u uv ur ur l ar u r uv u r
u r
u larurliala
milaoxygen dissociation milamicurve).
a r u l ar l ar i
a l i l ar i
a l lia lia ar u l ar l ar i
a l a l a i l ar i
a l l a i l a li
a
taem/t/atam Bohr's effect
ilmilia i l
milamil mi mi mtilam
ialmilia ilaim
amil il i ilamamil i mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atam % tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam / a amm t mtam t amm t a mtam /ataem/t/atam /ta
® Shifting
a m t / a
t/aee/t ofthe oxygen-haemoglobin diss0ciation curve to
/ a e/me/ a t
e/me t / a /a /
t
t ee/ e/ e/a t a e/m /a
t e/ t / t e / t
e/me e
e/me e/m
etem /me m/e.tm m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. /m
etem m/e.tm m/e.tm. e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
the right by increasing partial pressure of carbon dioxide
. m . 100 t .
m . t
. .
m . / .t m . m . t .
m . . m . m / t
. .
m / /
t .tm t /
tt m:/t/. / . / t / t t m / . t t / :
/ . / t :/ t t : / : /: / . /t/. /t : / t / t / t :/ / / / s:tps: s://s:/
: /
tptpsttpt is known ashtBohr's tpthht tpt hteffect
/:/pss:/ s : /:pss:/ s: : /
/pss:/ /
s:tps: s /:/ts:/: s: /:pss:/ s:/ s: / s: : /
/pss:/ s: s : / s
s: ps t ps s: ps p s p t p s p
tptpsttpt C ps
tpt t tpt tpt t tpt tp ttp ps tphttp tpt t tpt ttp tt tphhttp httphtt
h80ht hh hht hh hht hh hht h®h It is namedhafter the Danish physiologist hht hh h hChristian hht Bohr
hht hh
"
0
b ebb b ebb b eb(1855 b - 1911). b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb

The presence of carbon dioxide decreases
ethe affiiwneeity
wuvviw ofviuwviw
b b ebb ebw evewbw bw
eb e C e b e w e ebw
i e w e i e i w i e e b e eb w e ebw
i e e i e e
haemoglobin for
w
oxygen and increases release of oxygen
e w i e
viw iwviwi wi viw wuvviw w
viruvi iwviwi wi viw iwvi w uvavriuw
@
v60w vi vi uv v w vi vi
lliaa-�riulialar
0
0
uv i u v uv r u v r uv r
u r
u u uv i u v uv r u v v u r uv r
u u r r
u r
to theiltissues.
r u r r
arulialar u l u
ar lialar i larilial ar urialaru r a r r u
uialar ar ar u l u
ar lialar ila ila r i larilial
iilalm ia i l a l a r ial l l i l ia i l a
tt aem/t/atam'i" 40
m i mil mi mamm ia il il mi i il mi m mm
mi m taem/t/atam taem/t/atam /ataem/t/at amm amm amm tam tam/tam amm tam /tam/tam ataem/t/ata /tam
lll<lf!le� t ee/tdissodatiM ecurve e/mee/ efor
. .mt.me my@glollin
e/me @fe m�sde
/a /
t a t/ a e / t /at / t
a t/at t/a /
t t
a e / /
t a e/ t/
e/me e/me / e .me .mte.me
e/me
.m/t/e.tm .mt/e.tm .me e/m
.m/t/e.tm .mt/e.tm
"
.m/t/e.tm
The
:/t/.s:/:/tshape of oxygen s:/t:/pss:/:dissociation cUrve
s:/t:pss:/: fors:p/myoglobin s:/tpsiss:/ s://s:/
. m/e.tm . t m . t m . / tm
. . m/e.tm . tm.m/t/.tm t
. m . t.mt.m / tm
. t /
t
/. tm t/. /t/ . :/ t : / tm t/ . t / /t/ / / / : / t : /
s:/t:/pss:/: s:/t:pss:/: s:/tpss:/ ://s:/ s:
tpt t thyperbolic because tpt httpits curve tphttp is to the tpt htleft tp of tthe tt haemoglobin
s: /:p/sts:/:/ 20 ps p s t p s t p s: / p s p s s p s p t p s t p p t p
ps
tpt t tpt tpt ttp tpt ttp tp t ps pt httphht htt ht
hht hh hht hh hht hh hht hh curve. It clearly hht hshows ht that it has hht great h affinity ht h forhoxygen
0.
hht hh
andbbinding of oxygen to the single polypeptide chain is
non�cooperative. It takes
b ebb up O "I fromebthe haemoglobin bin
b60ebb 80 b ebb120 b b ebb b b b b b b
b ebb 20 ebweeb
be b 40 eb 100ebw evew weeb iweiwe
uv rthe uv blood and releases i viw it only'"'at vilow
ruv rpO
vi vi vvalues.uvvSince
e b w e e e w e i e b w e e e
wveiw w e i w e
viwi viw Partial pressure
i w e wi
viwvvi of oxygen (mm Hg) w i
vi uvi w v wi vi i
w vi w w e i w e
varuw
i w e wi w i w w i w
i vi v v i
arurlialarupO in the lung uvavriuw uv
capillary bed is uriua100 mm Hg, myoglobin
u rulvaruruv Fi:g.: Oxygen-haemoglobin
u l ar uriualvaruru l ar uriualvarurcurve ial r
u ruv l a r l uaru2 l ar urialaruru arularu ial arurlial
r 1 a r
taem/t/atam cm'i°ld effectively load oxygen in the mtalungs. However, mtthe
a iamil dissociation i
ilamil mil mi ialmilia l amil il il
ilaim a iamil l i mi mi l
lialmilia i
•e/t/ataem/mt/atiamUnder
ilam
normalt/ataem conditions, the tt oxygen tam haemoglobin
mtilam amm mtilam amm m amm am taem/t/atam /t
pO, ofeevenous t/aee/t blood is 40ee/mm me Hg.
t e/ e/ Since e/ myoglobin cannot
t t a
or G§ � shaped.
/ a / a /a a m t / a a t / a t /a
. The
/a t /a / t
e dissociation.mcurve is sigmoidtm shaped
/me/ t e/mee/ t e/me t / a /a t t e/mt e/ t / e e/me e
etem .m/t/e.tm /m . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm
deliver a large :fraction of its bound oxygen even at20 mm
etm m/e.tm . m/.tm m/e.tm . .mt.m
lower part /:pss:of / the curve indicates /pss:/ dissociation s:tof s: oxygen
. m . m t m /. . / . . / /
t t
. m m. m t .
m t
. .
m . . m t . m / t
. .
m / / /
t .tm t /
tt m:/t/. / . t t : t / . / t t t / s:tps: s://s:/ :
tpHg,
s tps it cannot serve tpstas pt anttpeffective vehicle for
p t delivery tp tof
/ . /t :/ : / t :/ /: / / .
:/ts:/: /t /t :/
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / / / : / t
/pss:/ s: s:/ / : / /: s /
fromhtthaemoglobin. Thehttptupper tpt part of the hcunre
ht hh indicates hht tphoxygen
s : /:/pss:/ s: p s s: t ps p s s: / s: p s s: p t p s p
ptphst tpt tp ttp t tpt tp tp tt
from lungs httphhtto peripheral tissues.
tptpsttpt tp httphht htt ht
http hht hh ht h
the acceptance of oxygen by haemoglobin.
hht hh h h h hht h h ht h
be eb ebw e e ebw e w e i e e b ebw e e e e ebw e e
wveiw e
iwviwi
w w e
v i w w e
i viw i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv vi w e
iwviwi
w w e
v i w w e i
i viw iwviw v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v i
u u v
a r u u v
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u u
uvarur ru ruv v
a r u u v
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a e/t/ae/t
t /a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
264
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / / a t tt //
•
a t /
It is quantitatively far more important in promoting carbon
/
eem e //
eem e eem e t
//tee// t /
eem/ ee / //
eemee eemee
eem e mm . m eem m mm .m
m m m . . m m //t::////t.
.
dioxide / transport than sis :: the
s : Bohr's effect ss::inss promoting ttppststtppss
..m/m//tt..m ;;. mm .
tt. saturated at 20///mm
tt.:./98%
/ m ..
tt.:.////ttHg . t
//tt:://// t ..m/m//tt.. m mm .
tt.:.////tt . . m .
tt:.////tt. t . t
//tt //
/ / / / / : ::// / t
/ t //// //// : :://
/ / ss:: ss: ss:: ss sspss :/
oxygen
ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:transport. pptstttpps ttphpttttpp
ttttphpttttpp tt
hh h t
hh ht hh t t
hht hh
p
t p tt t t t
t
hh hh
t t
hh ht hhtt hht
llaemoglol>in acts as a lmffer
hh h
Addition
b b bbeebb bbeebb of hydmgen bbeebbions would make bbeebbthe blood eebbeebb
we bb bbeebb e
uuavacidic� However, iwvmost
viiw of the rhydrogen
w ions areviw
e bb ee e
e ee e w w e eew
e ww w i w w i w
i w i i e w iww iwi
iwvviw
vvriuw iw w i
vvriuiuwvvi w
vvriuiuvv i vrruuvv iw w i
vvriuiuwvvi vrruiuwvvi uuavvrru
alaililaneutralized aby rr rco_mlJination iliwith
alariliala haemoglobin,
u u u r uu r rruu r rr uu vv u u u u r rruu rr
alarrilialar alariliala r alailila
m whkh is negatively lailiala charged forming acid haemoglobin
ilim alailiala
ilim ilim alailiala
ilim ilim
ilim m mm ilim m m m
m m
/e/ttee//t This reduces
ee// ee the acidity ee of ee the blood, eand e ee also
m
m m m
m m m
m a aa ta a m
mttaa m 1 mm
aa//ttaa m m
m a
aa//tta aa t
tte//taa
t//taea//ttaa /ttaea//ttaa
/ //ttaea//tta ttaa// / t
/t //tt e // e
releases mm/tt..madditional oxygen. ..m/m//tt..mmIf the blood /becomes ..m/m//tt..mm too
ee e eem e ee e e m em
mm/tt..mm 20tt..m
m/40..m 60 80 100 /tt..mm//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m m tt.:.m/m///tt..m
basic,
sst:p:p/ss::acid haemoglobin sst:p:p/ssdissociates, releasing
ppststttpps hydrogen ttttphpttttpp
t.
t . // / t
/t / // //// : t.
t. //tt t
/ t / //// :
/// /// / ::/ 2 in nun Hg s:://ss::
ss::/ssPo ss:: ss /// /// / ::/ :://s:: ss:: ss
ss::/ss::
hhttions.
thhtt HID, -> H hh+t hhHb. Thus, the hhhaemoglobin alsohh h
s ttphpttttpp
t t
hh h t t pp t + t ttpp tt t t t
t t
ac!s as a buffer, a substance that keeps the pH from
hh h hh h hh h hh
TRAI\ISl'OIU OF CARIIOI\I DIOXIDE fluctuating.
Carbon dioxideeebbineebgaseous formwdiffuses bee out of the cells
b eb b b b bb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
wveiw b b b ee eew bbeebb
REGULATION 01' RESl'IRATIOI\I
eeww e e eew eew
into the capillaries, iiwvvi where it is vtransported in three vvruways:
w w i w w i w
w i w w i i wvv i i i i vv i v vrruu v v w w
ii vvi i w v i i w vv i vvruuvvi
i i uuav
in dissolved alariliala state, in the iliform alailiala of bicarbonate alaililaand as ® ililHumans breatheilalabout ariliala 12 to 14 times alailiper ala minute. ilialailila
vv u u uu vr ru u r uu r u r ru u vv u u uu vr ru u r u u r rr
r u u r r rr r a a a iil a
l a r u u r r r r r a iliml ilila
a a
ca:rbaminohaemoglobin.
ilim ilim
aa//ttaIt is controlled by mmnervous system aa nervous regulation,
ilim mmttaa m m mm m m m a m m i m m m mm m m aa//ttam
m m a
mmtaam aa mm i.e. aa
Due //ttto
ee//high solubility,eeabout 7 per cent m carboneem/ ee dioxide gets mme.emmee mechanicalee/control
®
/tee// and chemical eem/ eeregulation. eemmee
a a t ta
t a / / / t a
t a / t
/ t //tt t aa t a
t a / ta
t a //t t //tta a / t
/ t //tt
// ee eemee
dissolved in the blood
tt.:.////tt. plasma and //is tt.:./carried in solution
@ eem m m .m
m m m . . m m //tt::////t.
.
sspss Nenro1.1sss::/regulation
..mm//tt..m mm . m//tt.. .
//tt::////t t m
..m/m//tt..m mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
tt.:.////tt. . . t
ss::/ss:to the lungs. ttppststtppss
/ /t t / / /// / / : / : /
: / / t
/ t / /// / /
/ / : : /
: /
/ :/ :: : ss:: ss / ::/ :: ss: sst:p:pss ss ss
ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp e The respiratory
ppss centre ppstsis ttpp composed ofttttppseveral widely
ttphpttttpp
hh h The dissolved hh carbon dioxide inhhthehblood reacts with water
tttp@hpttttpp t t p p t t tt t t t t t t
dispersed groups of neurons located in the medulla
t tt t h h t tt t t tt h h h h
hh hht hh hh hh hh h
to form carbonic acid (B 2 C0 3 ). This reaction occurs very oblongata bbeebb and pons varolii.
rapidly insideeebRBCs beebb because a zinc bbeebcontaining enzyme,
be b bbeebb bbeebb
The
bbeebb
respiratory centre can be divided into dorsal respiratory
ew b eew eew bbeebb eew
the carbonic iwvvanhydrase present vvriuiuwvvin i RBCs accelerates vvriuiuvv its
i eew w w i w @ i w
i w i i w e e eew w w i w i
group, ventral respiratory group, apneustic
iw iwiw w i w i vvruuvv iwiwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi centre and
w i w
vvriuiuvvi uuavvrr
rate about alarriliala5000
u rr times. aarlala
v v u u u uu r ru u r v v u u u uu r r
mpneumota:x:icmcentre. alarrilialarThese centres are alariveryliala sensitive to Pco
u u r r r r r a u u r r r r r
2
alailiala ilimalailila u r alailiala ilimalailila
ilim ilim
About mttaa70% of CO2� received aa//ttaa by blood//tfrom aa//tta the tissues, //tte//t in the arteries
ilim ilim
l ii ilim ilim
andaa to the pH level aaof ttaablood.
m m m m mm m a m m a a m m m m m m m a m m a a m
m a a t a a t
enters
ee// ee the RBCs where ee iteereacts with water ee to ee form carbonic emm
@
aa t t t aa mtt t t // / ttaa//tta / tte//t
/
tt / / / / e e tt
// ee // / / ee ee / e em e
..m/m//tt.. Dorsal respiratory m group (lnspiratory centre)
ee ee
mm/:;i.tt.c.mmid. Almost as rapidly
./ .m/m//tt..mm as formed,//tt..m all
m//tt..mmcarbonic acid tof
eem
t m m . ..mm/tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
ss:: ss: • It issspresent
/ . t /
::///s/s::/// in the dorsal sst:p:part
p of the medulla ppststttppolJiongata. It tttppststttpps
. . t t / / . . t t t t /
ss::/ss:: RBCs dissociates ss:p:/ss::into hydrogen
ttphpttt(ff')
ss:p:p/ss:: and bicarbonate
t
/// /// t /
/ / / / / / / : t t / t / /
//ss::/ / / / /
:://ss:: / /
:: s/ :
ttphpttttpp
hcontrols
htt hh the contraction hht hhofexternal in.tercostal hh hh muscles andhh h
ttttphpttttpp ions (HCOhhttttph).phttttp
3
t t t t t t p p
t tt t p
t p t ttpp t t t t ttt t h
hh h
muscles that fl a tten the diaphragm to cause inspiration.
hh h
In addition to reacting with. water,b carbon dioxide
hh h
also reacts directly with amine
bradicals (NH ) of 1/e.,tral w respiratory group ebw(Expiratory centre)
b
@
b b b b ebb eb b ebb b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb

b e b e b e eb
2e iwe e e b ebw evewbw e weiw
haemoglobinviw itoviwform an unstable compound carbami.no
e e ebwe w e weviwiw e wewe
It r is urpresent in the ventral iruv part of the medulla uvaruruv oblongata.
e
Ituruvarur
we i i w e i i w w i w e i e i w i i w i
wvi w vi w v i w vi w vi vi u v wi v w vi w vi w i i vi w i vriuv
haemoglobin.
uvaruruv uvarur uv @ u v v i vru v uv uv
issues signals forliaboth l ia inspiration (toiliadiaphragm il ilmi & external
u
ar r
u uv
l ar r
u uv
l ar ur
i l i l ar r
uial ial ar u
lial ar
ar r
u u
l
var u l ar r
u ial r u a i l ar i
a l l a r
i
u
l a i
a larurliala
ialmilia iamil a amil l i a l amil mi mi l
taem/t/atamintercostal muscles) mtiammil and expiration (to
amminternal mta intercostal
ilam mi m ilam i
mtilam mtilam
HHbNH2 + CO2 e/t e/ HbNHCOOH t ee/ + H
am t amm t + /a amm t t amm t a mtam /ataem/t/atam /ta
muscles and t/aemuscles of abdominal wall).
t am /a /at /
t a / a /
t a t
e/me t m
a /a /at t/
t ee/ e/ e/a t a /a
t e/ t/a / t / t
e/me e
Reduced haemoglobin
t/aee/t
Carbamino . haemoglobin
e/m e/t e/m e/m e
m etem/m
. m/e.tm . me . m/e.tm t .m/t/e.tm
m . m etem/m
. m/e.tm. m . m/e.tm. e t.mte.m t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
s:tps: Pneumotaxi< :/ts:/: centre
.
tt m:/t/. . /.t m / t
. m t / /
t . t .
m . /.t m . m t . /.tm t / / /
t . : t /
/ . /t
/:pss:/ :/ t : / t
/pss:/ : / :
/ s :
/ / . / /
t . /t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / / : / t :
/pss:/ s: s/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
tptChloride shifthttpt ht tpt
/:/pss:/ s : s: / s : s:
Itht tis ptphsttpresent in the hdorsal ttphht t hpart
tps pt ttp ttpof the pons
hht hh varolii
tpt t tpt ttphtt and httphhttp httphtt
s: ps ps t p
tp ttps s: p s p t p s p
pstpt tpt t tpt hht hh ptps
hht h@h During transport hht hh
of CO2 exit of bicarbonate ions
@
regulates the time of inspiration.

t h h h h h h h h
considerably changes b ebb ionic balanceebbetween b ebb the plasma band ebb Apneustic ecentre
b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
the erythrocytes. iwviwi To restore theviionic i viw balance, the chloride
b eb ebw evewbw b ebb ebw e ebw e e
e
b
e e e w e b e
It lies in the lower iwpart of pons varnlii and works
e
in
ew e w w e i i e w e
e w e w i i i w e w e w
i viw iwvii w wuvviw viuwviw
i i
uvavriuw
ions diffuse from the plasma into the erythrocytes. This
vi vi w w v i wuvviw uv viruvi vi w v i i
w vi w uv vi r
laricollaboration with urialpneumotaxic centre to control the depth
uv uv r uv r uv r uv ur r
u ar u u v uv r u v r v u r uv r
u u r r
u
movement milamil of chloridetaions il miis kno"Wll as chloride mil mi shift or tamm/atammof inspiration.milaim
ar lialar i
a ial a r r
u ar u
uialar ar ar u l u
a larilial
i l ar ial l ia i l l l r
a i
a l l l i l ia
il mi i
m mm l
amil il mi i
Hamburger's pb.enomenon.
tt aem/t/atam / a mm / tam
a /ataem/t/atam t/ae/t t am t / t
a amm /atam tam/tam / t
a amm /
t tam /tam/tam
.meMecila11kaimee.control (l-ierri11g-Bre1.1er . .mt.m reflex)
/ a t
e/mee/ t t e/ /a
t ee/t /a t
e/mee/ e/ et t e / e/
e/me e/me
.mt/e.tm /m e/me e e
REI.EASE Of GASES
m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. .m/t/e.tm. tm .m/t/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m tm
s:/tpss:/ @ Stretch :/t/.s:/:/treceptors (slow s:/t:/pssadapting
t :/: :// :/ pulmonary s:/t:pss:/: receptors)
t .
m . /.tm / t
. m /
t . / t .
m tm /.tm / t
. m / t/. : / t /
/ t : / : / . t / / t / / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
: /
e
/. t t s:/t:pss:/: :/ s:
s:/t:/pss:/:
At the tissue level, tpt http oxygen is released ht tphtt from oxyhaemoglobin
/:p/sts:/:/
hare
ttphhtlocated in the walls tpt ttof p bronchi tp ttp andhbronchioles. tpt http tt htt Thesehttphht htt ht
s: ps ps t p s t p s : / ps ps s s ps p s p t p s t p p t p
tpt t tpt and carbonhhtdioxide
t p tpht
is pickedhuphby plasma and red hht hblood
ps tpstpt
hht hh h hare stimulated by overstretching hht hh ht h of the ht lungs. h hTuey sendh
cells. impulsesb ethrough vagus nerve fibres to expiratory
the lung level, bcarbon b dioxide is ereleased b ebb from its three b ebb centre
which in
ebwetum sends to inspiratory b ebb centre for inhibition b eand
b At
b ebb bb b bw b ebb b eb
b b ebw e b evew
states so as toviw expel
i viw it out ofthe blood to alveoli and oxygen
e b e e weiw
causes expiration.
e e @
w e e b w e i w e i w e i w e wi e wi w v
i wi w e e b w e i w e i w e wew i w i
wvi w i w v i w v w vi vi i i w v i w i i v w i i
v i u v w vi uvarur ruvruv
i
is pickedilaup uialarby haemoglobin.
i
uvaruruv uvaruru v u v
r larur v w
iruv v i uvaruruv ruvru v uv uv
mil As mi the thoracic cavity ialmilia becomes smaller amilduring ilmiexpiration,
u
r r uv r
u uv
l ar r
u i l i l r
a r
u ial 0 ial a r u
lia a r r
u uv
l ar u l a r r
u ial a i l ar r
taem/t/atamstretch receptors are not stimulated and mso inhibition is /tam
ilaim
amil a ilamamil ilaim a l ilamamil i mi mi l
llaldane/atam effect
mtilam amil mtilam
amm amm amm amm am taem/t/atam /t
e/me released automatically and new tinspiration / e/ begins.
/at / t
a /at /
t at t/a t am /at / at a t a /at /
t at / t t/a
Binding of oxygentm with haemoglobin mtends .me to displace/.tm
/ a t ee/ t /t e/ t/aee/t / a t t t e/ e/me e
@ etem/mt ee/t
m etem/m etem .m/t/e.tm. etem/m e/m
m/e.tm ee/ em e/m
m/e.tm. e t.mte.m
e
.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
s:tpss: Chemicals:/:/reg11iation
. .
/:/pss:carbon dioxide s:from /:pss:/ the blood.pssThis /pss:/ effect is called
. m
tt m:/t/. . / . . /. / t
. .
m t/. / t t .
m m . / t
. .
m . m t . / t
. m. t / / /
t .tm : t /
/. /t :/ t :/ t :/ :
/ /: /.
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t tttphpttttpp e The hh t t thtt hh ht
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we ® Theybbget
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the hung size increases.
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DISORDERS alailila O F ilimalailiala
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ew b eb bbeebb bbeeb b b b b b im'iamrnation. bbeebb bbeebb
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b ebb
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It is withdrawing in arr and releasing CO rich
b ebb b ebb
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air into
uvaruruvatmosphere. uruvarur
wveiw w e w e i w w i i w e w e i w i
A pair of lungs which comprise of bronchi,
w
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v u v ?
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ialmilia bronchiolesmiand liamilalveoli.
u r u v r
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u l a l
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tt aem/t/ataexpiration {exhalation)
ar l a r l i l l i
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A
. lveoli areamt/attheam primary mtam sites /for excha. 11
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il ia a i l i ®
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ilamamil i i mi mi l
milamil amm mtilam amm mtam
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taem/t/atam /ta
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ofgases.
tt/aaem/t/atam / a tt aem/t/atam
/ a t/ a e/ t t am /at a at /
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tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpt t tpt tps ptps p
Alveoli arethe primary sires for exchange ofgases.
hht hh hht hh hht hh Exchange
ht tphhtt of gases httphht httphtt hht hh h h hht hh ht h
hht hh
m At alveolar b ebsurface, the blood has b ebblower pO2 andhigher b ebpCO b 2 than the alveolar
b ebb air. This resultsebin b ediffusion
bb eb ebof eebw
h h
?iout of the blood into the

CO ealveolus.
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b b b ebb b eb
At tissue wsurface, blood has wuvmoreviw pO than thatuvvin iruvthe i tissues.As a result iwviwi02 from blood diffuses i viwin the wvtissues
b eb b bw
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2
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e w i i e w i wuvviw viuwviw
i
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rulialarCO2 from tissueslialadiffuses r lialar into the blood.
e w i e w i
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u v ®
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r u r u u larilial urialaru r uialar ar ar u u
ar lialar ila ila r larilial
lliaariulialar iilalm i lia l a r ial a r l l i l ia
il mi
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m i mi mi mamm ilaim
amil
amm
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amm tam /tam/tam
m mm
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tt aem/t/atam taem/t/atam taem/t/atam /ataem/t/at Transport of gases amm tam tam/tam t / ataem/t/ata /tam
Blood is the medium.me oftra,1sportforO .meand CO . Aboutme97 percent ofO2 is transported . .mtby mRBCs /in .m/the .mblood.
/ a t t t /a / a / a t
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The remaining s:/t:pss:/: 3 per cent oft0ps2s:tp/tispssca.. :/ -rried in a dissolved :/t/.s:state
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t m / . / . t t / tm / . . t t : /
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s: ps p s s: / p s ps ps p t p s t p p t p
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hht hh hht hh @ hht hh h h
Respiration is controlled by nervous regulation, mechanical e regulation andebchemical regulation.iweew

b ebb b ebb b ebb Regulation ofebrespiration b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
Nervm.1s uvaruruv iregulatkm involves uvaruru respiratory centre r larur located in the rmedulla iruv oblongata and uvaruruvPons vvarnlli.
be b e b e b w e e ebw e w e i w bw e wewe evew bw e weiw
wveiw e w e w e i i w i i
w v w e w e i i w i
Respiratory centre is very sensitive to pCO in the arteries and to the pH level ofblood.
w i ®
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miMechanical control miinvolves stretch receptors mtilammi located in themwalls almilia of bronchi andmbronchioles
amt/atam tamtamwhich/ataget
u r
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tt aem/t/atstimulated by overstocking
tt aem/t/atam ofthe lungse/and /ataem/t/inhibit inspiratory centre.
milamil
il ia liamil lamil ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
am mm mtam taem/t/atam /t
e/meo Chemical regulation is performed .m/t/eby .mechemosensitivemearea near respiratory m/e.tcentre and chemoreceptors
@
tt/aaem/t/atam /a /a t a t am / at /at t e/ /
t at / t a / t/a
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present in the carotid and aortic bodies. They get stimulated by rise in pCO or H+ concentration ofblood.
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wveiw w e
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266
r
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ilim a
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hh • h Body fluids,hfound h h within animals, hh h
include blood, lymph, hht hh are elastichhvessels
Arteries
hh
that transport blood away
hh h
b b tissue fluid, urine,bbbile, sweat andbbsynovial fluids. Body from ethe bbeebheart.
b
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fluids are generally ee w w w i w of Veins i w
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w the heart. In w w i w iw
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or lubrication.
i
vvriuiuwvvi Body fluids uallow vvriuiuvv the i v
uuavvrruuvveins the tunica v v iwiwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi u vvriuiuvvi uuavvrru
u uu r r u r some
rr u u u interna layer also uu contains
r valves. r u r rr
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distribution alarrilialarof oxygen and
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m mCapillaries are lialariliala
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m m m m m m ma m a a taa mmttaa m m mm m mma m aa t aa
organs t//taea//ttaaand the transport
m
/ttaeaof
/ /e/ttawaste
a products//tfrom taeae//tta the tissues, ee//ttee//t tissues of the ttabody
a / that transport /t
/ t //ttaa from the arteries
aablood //taa//tta to
t / tte//t
/ e
ee ee // ee / ee ee ee ee e em
enabling
eem e their elimination
..m/m//tt..mm from the /body.
m eem
t. mm
. ./ .m
t t / tt t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m the veins.
/ t .
t mm/tOxygen,
. .
t. m carbon dioxide,
/ t ..m/m//tt..mm nutrients and
t / t
/ t tt..mm are
..m/m/wastes
/ / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
t /
/// // VASCULAR / // / / ss:: ss : /// /// /
:// ::/ :://s:: / :: s :
ss::/ss::
BLOOD ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: exchanged
sst:p:p/ss:: through thin sst:walls
ppss of the capillaries. ppststttpps ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp It is a circulatory t tttphpttttpp SYSTEM ttttphphttttpp t tttphpttttpp
hh hfluid t p p t
t tt gest artery hht hh t ttpp ttt t t
t t hh originates hh h t ttt h
hh h hh h system containing hh a special body e The hhtt hhlar- ofthe body is aorta,hh\Vhich
(or blood) and a pumping organ (or heart) for moving it. from the herut .and branches out into smaller arteries.
b eb
wveiw • Blood vascular system
bbeebb is of t\vo typeseewbbeeb:bopen circulatoryeewbbeebb ® The only eewbbeebb
vein th.at does not eebb valves is vena
bbhave eew eebb
bbcava. eew bbeebb
eew w w w w i w ivi vviw
ww i eew w i w w w i w
system and closed
w i
iiwv i w circulatory system.
i i
vv vvw i i vv vvi
i i v
rruuarruu : Differences
Table
ww i
ii vvi w i i w i
vrruuvv veins
arteriesruuvand vvruuvvi
i i uuav
r
vvu
uruarru v rruu rruu rruu
a rruu aa l l a r rr uuvvbehveen
uu r rruu
a r rr
l ilila
aa
Open drc11iatory alailila system ilialailiala
ilim
alailila
ilim ilim
l ii
Arteries i lialariliala alailiala
ilim Veins
alailila
ilim ilim
® Openttacirculatorymmtaam system
m
occurs
taa
m
m
mttaa in arthropodstaand
t am
/
mtt
m
aamolluscs. //ttaa//tta mma m
aammtaamm taammttaa m
ttaam
/
mttaa m
//ttaa//ttam
m
m a
a t t
// ee// / /
eem/ eevessels. ee t t
//tee/away / t / / / / / eemee
Theeem
/ ee// is not completely
/blood eem enclosed within mm
eIemArteries
. m carry blood eem / from Veins eem/ eebring blood from eemeethe
m mm .m
tt.:.m/m///tt..m
® :///Respiratory /
mm
tt.:./if
/
.. m
/: /ttpresent, /
mm .
tt.:.////tt
/
. m
//
.. tt .
t..m/m//tt..m
//tt:://// ; the heart for//distribution
t to the ///tbody mm . m
..///tt. back to the heart.
t //
mm .
tt.:.////tt . ////tt::////t.
.. t
/ pigment, // / is dissolved
// : in the plasma, :: ::// ::/ /
:: s :: / //
ss:: ss : ::
ss: ss: ss::pss present. ppsst:tp:pss sspss sspss
ttttphpttttppno red corpuscles tttphpttttpare
t ttthtt
t hhttttphphttttp body. ttttppststttppss tttppststttpps
t tttphpttttpp
t hh ttttphphttttp
hh h hh h hh h They hhcontain hh oxygenated hh hh They contain h
hh deoxygenated
Closed circulatory system
ew b eb
bbeebbsystem was discovered bbeebb eew bbeebb blood, except eew bbeebbthe pulmonary bbeebbveins.
blood, except the pulmonary
bbeebb eew bbeebb
i @ Closed circulatory ee w eew w by VViniam
w w i w arteries. i w
i w i i w ee w eew
i w w w i w i
Harvey (1628). vv iwvviw
iw iwHe is regardedvvias iwvvi
u
i
the father of vvriuiuvv
modern
i
u uvvruuvv
r v viwiwvviw iw vriruiuwvvblood
vthe i vvriuiuvvi uuavvrr
u ur u u r uu r r u r u
r u r The r rflow
a of the blood uu
rr rr u u i s The flow of
r uu i s slow r u
r u r r r
physiology. alarrilialarIt occurs in annelids
ilim alariliala (earthworms),
ilim alailiala some
ilim alailila
ilim
intermittent and fast.ilialailiala and steady.
alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilim alailila
ilim
m m m m mm m a mm aa m m mm m m m mm m a mm aa m
molluscs mm ttaea//ttaa a
ttaea//ttacirculatory ee//tteTheir a t
//t mttaa aa//ttaa a
aa//tta a
tte//t t
t//taea//ttaa and an vertebrates. // In closed // e blood has ttaa
considerable
/ / T h //tt
e i r b l o o d /t
/
h aees eel o w t e / / e
ee e ee e ee e m e// ee ee ee em
tt.system,
.mm/tt..mm materials /move ./ .m/m//tt..mmbei:\veen the/blood
t t t
/ ..m/m//tt..mmand interstitial
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..mpressure. tt..mm/tt.e.mm
/ //tt.. /
m//tt..mm
mpressure.
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / / ///tt.:.m/m///tt..m
:
/// through thin
/// fluid / s::/ of capillaries. / / ss:: ss: They have ///s::/// / / :://s:: ss:: ss
ss::/ss:: ss::/swalls ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/sthick, elastic walls sst:p:p/ss::They have thinner, ppststttpps scarcely ttttphpttttpp
ttttphpttttpp The closedhhtcirculatory tttphpttttpp t ttphpttttpp
t tt t pp
tt t t ttpp tt t t t
t t
hh h h system hh has h a double advantage hh h and narrow hhtt hht lumen. hht hh elastic walls hh hh and wide hh h
over the open circulatory system. The closed circulatory b b ebb lumen.
b b
b sufficient b ebb b eb ebw evalves in them.ebbeebThey b b ebb b b bwb ebb b eb
be system generates e b e b bloodweepressure bw e to maintain e ebw e They have w e no i have valves ebw eto prevent ewe evew e weiw
wveiw fa, more rapid v wi wev i
w w e
iruv flow of blood rthan
i vi i
w vi i
w
uvaruruv the open circulatory v i
uvarur
i
w w
uv vi i
w u v v
r larur
i i
wu v vi w
v wi wevi i
w w
iruv back flow rof v i i
w w
uvarurublood
e vi i
w i w i
v uvruand to uruv ur ruvruv
v v i i
wu
w
v i i i uv
u r
u v
uar u ar u l l r
a r
ui l ial r
a u ia r
u v
u ar u ar u l r a l r
a i la r a l a i
a larurliala
system.lia·lSecondly, a r l arte1ialiliamusculature
l i
a andilacapillary
i a l
miammi l r
a l
ialmilia counteract amilgravity.
l
ilaim ia a l i
amil a l i mi mil
mi mil
ia
mm mil mtammil taem/t/attunica mtilam amm
il i
mtam elastic amm
ilam mtam
i
taem/t/atam /ta
sphincterstt/aaem/t/atam in the closed / a t/atam
tt acirculatory system tt aem
/ a regulate
/
t a the t/
e/mea
In interna, t am /a elastic In /at
tunica /
t t
a
t ee/ e/ e/ interna,
t a /t
a t
t e/ e e/at / t a / /
t a
e/me e
flmoeew /meof blood. e/mee/
m/e.tm.
e/me/
m/e.tm. .m/t/e.tm. memb rane m le
e/t/athick
S.me
e/t
and tmembrane
e/m
m/e.tm. l S thin m/e.tm
e/m
. eand m m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. tm. /.tm. / t
. .
m t / /
t t
. m t .
m tm / . .
m . m t . m /.tm. t t . / t . / /
t t
. m : t /
/
® s:/:/ Blood
.
s: / vascularpssystem s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ consists of s: :/ t :/
/pss:/ vessels, blood
bfood ps
/: s /:
s:tps: endothelial s : /
/.
:/ts:cells
/: /t/. are mores:/: sendothelial /t
s : :/ t
/ :/ s: / t // cells s :
t
/pss:are
:/ :/
/ sless /
:s / : /
ps s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s t
tp ttp p
tpstpt ttp ttp s ps
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt
ps t tpt
httpht tpt t tpt hht hh
elongated. tps ptps
ht tphhtt httphht elongated. hht hh ht h
hht hh and heart. h h hht hh h h h h hht hh h h
Tunica media is thick, having Tunica media is thin, having
b b
b eb:fibres b b b eb
b BLOOD VESSELSebb ebb b b b b e b more muscle
evewbw and elastic b ebbfewer muscleebbfibres ebb eb and eb iweebiweeb weiw
•
eb e e ebwe e e ebwe w i e eb e w e
e w i i e
wiwvwi elastic fibres.
e w w i
viwi viw of hollow tubes viw viwthat i fibres. vi uvi
i w e w w
viwi viw iw ii w viw viw vi v viw
viw Blood vessels wiwvare
uvvi uvi
wi intricate nei:\vork
ruv uruv uruvarur uvvi uvi v uv ruv uruv uruvarur
ur ur arulialarentire ruv ruv
u body. laruilar ar r arulialaru lariular ruv ruv arulialar ilarila u ru ar lial
transportlarblood
ii amilialar throughout ialthe lialmilial arurlialaru ialm ialm
• l i l m i i liamila
BLOOD
m i lial i i lialm i i i l i mm mtilam i
Blood m vessels ( except am m
capiHades)a m are made m
a m aup
m of three t m
a at a m m i m am m a m m m a mm t a m a t m
a /a m
/
t
a m
t e/t/a
a t am
e/
t
/ae/t/
t t
a e/
t
/ae/t
t /at
e / / a t/
teee/ Blo0d is a mobile /
t
a m t am
t e/t/a connectivee/t/tissue
a t / t
a
ae/t composed / a
t e/t a
eof
/
t /a
/ae/flt uid, / e/
t t a t e / t ee/ e/tae
/ a t
layers:
e/ e e m /
e e e e m
.metm .me m.me
.m/t/e.t(ti.mica /.tm.m/t/e.tm.m .m m
t/.st:m/:/t/.t
. plasma tand .mt/e.tm
e
.mformed elements. .m/t/e.tm.me .mte.m /.tm.m/t/e.tm.m t.mt.m .m m .
t/.st:m/:/t/.t ://t.:m//t.
m
//: t/.st:m/:/t/. Tunica externa :/ /.tm
t :
/ adventitia) : /t :
/ : It is composed s :
/ / //
t . m: / :/ /.tm
t /: / / t / / : /t /: : / / : / /
s :
/ /
s: s:/pss: s:/tpsscollagen
: ps: ps ® The volume s:/:pss:/ ofblood intpsan s:/ sadult
s: s:person s: oftps70 s:/tpskgs: weight stps is ptps:tptps pstps
t tphst tptps
p
of connective
h t tptphsttpt tissue as well h t tptphsttas
p and elastic
h t tpthht tpt about t tphst tpt5.5
p lltres. It is aht phttptp ttalkaline
tslightly p ttp flhut tid tp httphpH
phthaving t 7.4. htt hht htt ht
hht h fibres hwhich h allow the arteries h h and veins to stretch h and h ht h h h h h h h h
prevent overexpansion due to the pressure. pH of blood in arteries is more than that in veins.
b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b eb Tunica media eb b ebb: It is composed
e e b b of
w e ebb smooth muscle e ebw e Plasma we ebw
i e ebw b ebb
e ebw e wewe evewbw e weiw
w w e i w e i w i
w i w wi v i i
w vi w we i e i w wi i i w i i
wvi and elastic ii viwfibres. This layer
w vi w viis thicker in arteries
v i w v
i Plasma u v uv
r larur is slightlyruvalkaline
i
w v
i w non-living vi w vi i v v w i
uvarur ruvruv
i uv
u r u vv r
u uv r
u uvaruruv r
u uvaruru v @
r
a u viruv
u r
u uvaruruvinterce1lular
u vru r
u
v
u
arurlial
than lin uialveins.
a r ar l l r
a i l ial ia u ar a r l r a l ar i l a l a ial
r
a
iamil
mtilam
l
ilaim
amil ia i
amil
ilam a misubstance
l mi l which constitutes
mtilam
a r
ialmilia l about 60ilia%ilpartilofithel
amm
ia a l blood. i
milamil ai m
a l i l
mi mi
Tunica
m
a
tt/an
.interna (funica
/at amm / t
a intima) : It istacomposed
/a mm /
t t
a of /
t taem/t/atItamis a pale yellow
a t am / a but transparent/atand amm /
t t
a clear a mtaflm uid. /atamt/atam /tam / t /
t taem/t/atam /t
a
/a t t e/ e/me t/aeeof t ee/ e/ e/ t t e/ e e e/me e
etem/maee/telastic membrane e/m
m/e.tm.
t elining
e/ and smooth
m/e.tm . eendothelium /.tm
e/m
.m/t/e.t®m
. It is composed /m
etem
/t water and mineral e/m
m/e.tm. salts. Buffer . m/e.tm
e/m
. ofe the m m t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
. m
tt m:/t/. . which is covered /.tm. by elastic tissues. /.t.
m t / t tm. m . / t
. .
m .m t .m / t
. m t t . / t . / /
t . : t /
: / . t s:tps: s://s:/
•
/ . /t :/ t :/ t
/pss:/ :/ / :
s:tpss: / blood is sodium
/.
:/ts:/: /t bicarbonate. /t :/ Nutrients
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / / include :/ t :
/pss:/ s: s/glucose, / / : / / : s /
s: /:/pThere
s: / s
: /:pss:/ s: s
p s: / s
: s: ps p
are three pttypes pstpt of blood vessels
tpt t tpt : arteries, veins tpand
p s t fattytpacids, ps p t
tpsttpt phospholipids, tpt t tptcholesterol,tp ttp fats, t aminotpt ttpacids,
s ttp ps ps tt tp ttp tp tt
tptpsttpt htt ht hht hh httphhitnly albumin, hht hh ht h
hht hh capillaries. h h hht hh hht hh
nucleosides, etc. Plasma hht hh proteins ht h are hma: h h
be b
wveiw e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw
w v
i i w i
wuvviw i
viw v
uvi w e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw iwviw
w v
i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a rulvarur
u
v
u
r
a u v
u
r larur lar
uv
urialarur
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a r
u
v
u
uvarur ru ru v
r
a u v
u
r larur ruar l r
a uriualvar
amil
ilam ar lial l
amil
ilam
ialm
a t m alm
m
a m
a t a m
a m m
a t / a
m
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am t
t/at /t/a
t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruuv v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
r
r a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
Human ilim m mm m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m 267
aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / / / /
eem e / taa
//tee// t / tt
eem/ ee
/ / /t
/t //
eemee
..m/m//tt..m globulin,////tt.:irnmunoglobulin, tt.prothrombin and ///fibrinogen.
eem e eem e eem e mm . m eem eemee mm .m
mm . m m m . .m .. t t . mm . m mm .. m //t::////t.
.. t
Excretory sst:p:pss:substances inclu.de ss:p:pss ammonia, urea, sspssuric acid.
t .////tt. // .////tt /tt:://// t ..m/m//tt.. m / tt.:.////tt . // .
tt:.////tt // t
// t // :: :: / / t // / // : ::
/ /
ss::/ss:: ::// ::/ :: s : ss:: ss sspss
tttphpttttpp Other t ttphptsubsta..
t t TJ.ces presentttttphpttttare anticoagufant, ttttphphttttpho:rmon.esj ttttppststttppss t t ppststttpps
t tttphpttttpp
t ttttphphttttp
vitamins and el!lleymes.
t t
hh h hh h hh t
hh hh hh h hh
hh h hh hh
b b b bb bb bb bbeebb bbeebb
we Formedeebelements beebb eewbbee eeww bee bb
e wee
wvveiw e bbeebb Nucleus
eew eew
® uFormed
iw e iw
vvruuvv elementsrruor vvrblood
v corpusclesuuvare vrruu of three types:rruu rruu
w i w w w i i i i w i w Side view w w vviw
i i
i w
i w i w
i w i
u
i
u
w
v i i i vv vv il- Erythrocyte iwvviw
vvriuw iw vvriuiuwL-Agranulocytes
Lymphocyte vvi u vvriuiu�
Monocyte
uuavvrru
ilialaierythrocytes ,, leucocytes
alailiala and thrombocytes.
u r rr a u u r uu r rr u r rr
--'"·;-·· ·.··
u ilialailila u alariliala Cytoplasm ilialailiala alailila
rrlalar
i ilim ilialailiala mm mm alarrilialar
ilim ilim m m
m
ilim
m
m m m
m m
m m m mm m a aa taa m
mttaa m m
m
aa//ttaa m m
m a
aa//tta m aa t
tte//taa
/e/ttaa
t//taeaErythrocytes /ttaea//ttaa
/ //ttaea//tta e /e/ttee//t ttaa// /t
/t //tt e // e
mm/tt..mm • Erythrocytes
ee// ee ee ee em
..m/m//tt..mmor re<! blood ..m/m/corpuscles (RBCs) tt.:.m/m///tt..are the
ee ee e ee e mm ee ee
tt..mm mm/tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
most ssabundant cells inppthe
sst:p:p/shum.an body. Thettphpttttptotal
ss::pss number ss::///s/s::///
t.
t . //tt //tt / / //// : t.
t. /
/ //tt //tt / //// :
/// /// :://ss::/ / s::
sst:p:p/ss:: :://s:: :: s
ss::/ss:: ppststttpps ppststttpps
of
hhtRBCs
hh per microlitre hh hh of blood is termed hh h as the totalhhttthhtt
p pp p pp tt
ttttphpttttpp t tt p tttt tt
tt tt t tt t p
p tt p t
hht hh
tt tt t t t
t t t
hh h t h
count ofRBCs.
hh h hh hh Platelets
b eb A n abnormal bbeebb rise in RBCeebcount beebb is called polycythemia. bbeebb

Decrease in the number ofRBCs is caUed erythrrocytopenia
bbeebb Fig.: Human blood corpuscles bbeebb bbeebb
® Leucocytes are colourless and are of tvvo main vvruuvvi :
types
wveiw ee e e w w w
eew
i w eew bbeebb eew eew
which
iiwvvcausesw
oxygen shortage
w w i w
i w
in the blood vvruuvand
i w w v tissues. ruuvrruu
i i w i i i w w i i w i w w i w
agra.nufocytes and gra.nulocytes.
w i i w i i
vvruuvv i v v v w w
ii vvi i w vv i i vv i uuav
vv u vv u u u
•
u u r u u rr
alThe
aililashape ofRBCsilim alvary
ailiala in different classes of vertebrates ili.m
uruarru u r u r rr r a uu r u u rr u r r r r r
r a l ilila
In aigir a llm.
lialarifliocytes granules
iliare n.ot found in the cytoplasm.
r alaililaa a a
l ii l l r r alailiala alailila a ilima a
�
ilim ilim ala ilim
mmtaaRed m blood corpuscles mttaa of all adult mammals are enucleated
i
mm m aa//ttam
m m
It /is/tee/of
eem / two types, eemlymphocytes an.d
eemeemon@cytes.mme.emmee
m m mm m a ® m m m mm m a
aa aa t aa
t t aa//tta
t mmtaamm a a mttaa a a t aa
t tt
(non- nucleated). They are mostly eem/ biconcave and circular,
//ttee//aa t t
// eet / / / tt // /
eemee / t aa t / tt
/ ee / / //tt / / //
Lymphocytes produce //tt.:.:////tt. antibodies::/to //tt.:.:/destroy
..m microbes.
eem eem ee m
..mmt..m however///in /tt.:.:///camel
/tt. and Llama ///s/tst::/RBCs are oval.ss:://s/s:://
m m m m . m . m
. m t . . m m . m m m .. t .
m . . t ///s/tst::////t
Monocytes are the largest of all types of
/://s/tst::////t
.. //tt
/ /tt // tt.:.mm//tt..m ///ttleu.cocyteso They :
•
/ / / / / / :
The tRBCs tttphphtttt impart redhhcolour ttttphphttttp to the blood. hhtt Red
ttphpttttpp colour is ttppststtp:pssare motile and
: : : : / / : / : : s
ttttphphphagocytic in. nature. ttttphphttttpThey engulf bacteria
: sspps s ssp : sstpps s ssp s s s
ss ttpptttpp
ttpptttpp ttt hhtt hht
due to the presence of haemoglobin. Matured ma..7TIIDalian and cellular debris.
hhtt hht h h h htht hht h h h h
RBCs do not have cell borganelles including mllcleus, bG-ranufocytes
bbeccmfain granules bbeein bb their cytoplasm.
b
mitochondria, ribosomes, eewweecentrioles and eeendoplasmic
eweb b b b b b @ b b b bbeebb
vvriuiuvvis filled withrruuvvrruuvv Accordingvvto iwvvtheiriw staining property, vvriuiuwvvi the gra...rmlocytes vvriuiuvvi are
bbee b b b b ee e e w e e e bb eew eew
reticulum. iw Thus, almost vvriuiuwvvientire cytoplasm
i ee w i ww i w
i w i w
i w i i w ee w i w ww i w i
of three types,
iw
eosinophils, basophils and neutrophiis.
iwiwvviw iw uuavvrr
alarhaemoglobin.
u vv u u u u r r uu r u uu u u r r uu r r r
- m6'}�)
rilualarr r r a u r r
have bifobed
alariliala ilimalailiala ilimalailila
Eosinoph:ils
alarrilialar
fl
inucleus
lialailiala
and
ilim
t//taea//ttaa Haemoglobin ttaeais//ttaaa conjugate p:roteill ttaea//tta which is made /e/ttee//tup
ilim i ilim m m ilim ilim m m
coarse granules that
aa//ttaatake acidic stains. aa//tta They play //tte//t
m m mm m m m a m a a mt aa m m m m m m a m m aa mt a a
ee e of a protein eepart e called gfobineemand e a non prntein
.mmgroup
m / a a mttaa t t / tt
/ / t / /
m a role in the mmimmune system./tt.The mm/tt..mmcoarse granules
/ e t
// ee / / eemee / ee ee e em e
heme, hence
./ .m/m//tt..mmthe name haemoglobin. Heme tt.is
..m/m//tt..m .m/m///tt.an iron
eem ..m tt.:.m/m///tt..m
contain hydrolytic enzymesss:and ://s:: peroxidase pss:p:pss
. mm/tt..mm t t t / / . m m . . t .. tt . / /
(Fe++ tttphp)ttt-tppporph.yrin complex. ttphpttttpp A mammalian ttphpthaemoglobii 1. pss:p:p/ss::
t t . / t / // / / / : t t . / t t / / t / / / / / / / / / :
/// ///
ss::/ss::
/ /
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: sst:p:pss: /// /// / /
sst:p:p/ss::
BasophUs hht hh (0 1 '%) have - hh hhnucleus whichhhis hhthree
ppttttpps
molecule
hh h is a complex hh of h 4 heme molecJJhh.desh joined 'Withhhttthhtt
ttttphpttttpp t t t t t t t t p t t t ttpp t t t t t
t t ttttptttt
4 globin molecules. lobed and have less number of coarse granules.
hh h
b Their granulesbfake bask stainband
ebweeb release
® b b b heparin�
100 ml b of eb blood of a wenormal ebweeb man contains bweeb 15g of iwe iwe
b b b b b e b b ebb b eb
histamine and serofonin.
b eb b e b b eb bw
evew evew
haemoglobin and of normal woman an average of 13 g
e w e ebw e i i i w i w vi w w e ebw e i w e i ewe i w i e weiw
i i vriuv
Neutrophils (40 - 75%) uvarurustain equally weil
uvarur with
wvi w ii viw w vi w w i vi i w v i w i w i w i
of haemoglobin. Less amount of haemoglobin leads to
v w vi
uvaruruv vi
uvarur uv uv
r larur uv v w
iruv vi w vi v uvru v vi u v uv
u uv r uv r r
u ar u uv r r
u r u arurliala
both ialmibask
lia and addk iadyes.
mil mThey ilmi are quite amilarge
mtaand
r u u l r u u r l
milaanaemia.
a r u l ar l ar ial i l ar ial lia lia ar u l ar l ar ial a l a i l ar i
a l l a i l a li
a
ilmilia milam
iamil
milamil mi mi mtilam mtilam ilam l im mi mi
t/aeehave
/t many fobeee/_dm t eenucleus
/ e/ e/ and abundant t e/ egranules.
tt®/aaem/t/atamThe life of ane/RBC /tataem/t/at is about 120 days. taem/t/atam amm taem/t/atam /ta
e/me The worn out eRB
.me Cs
tt aem/t/atam
/ a t/a t am / a /at am /
t a t a t a /at t/ t
a / t a / t/a
Neutrophils are phagocytk in .nature . e t.and mare the/.tm
/ e/me e
are destroyed
min the spleen and . liver. Their pigment is
e/m e
etem/me m/e.tm . e . m/e.tm t m.m/t/e.tm etem/m m/.tm . m . m/e.tm m . .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
:/ts:/: most n.u:merou:s /:pss:/ of / all : leucocytes.
m . . t m / . m . . m . tm t
degraded /:psto / yellowish pigment /pss:/ billnnbin which s:tpiss:excreted
.
tt m:/t/. /.t m / . t / t tm. /.t m . t /. t / / t : t /
/
/:/pss:/
.
s
/t s : : / t
s: : / t : / :
/ s /: /. /t/.
s
/t : / t
: / t / /
s : : / t :
/pss:/ s: s / / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
in bile.
s: : p s t p s s: / : s s p s p t p s p
tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tpt t tpt tp ttp tptphsttpt
ps tpstpt tp ttp tpt t tpt ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh hht hh httphht htplatelets) hht hh h h hht hh ht h
hht hh hht hh hht hihn,mb@cytes h{blood h
® Concave surface ofmammalian b ebThere are about 2l50,000 platelets inb a cubic rnilHmeter
b ebb RBCs helpsebinb increasing of blood. Increase b ebband decrease inebbthe eb number b eb of platelets
the surface
b ebb area. b @
b b ebb b eb
b b eb eb ebw e ebw
viruvi is kn.own vas iwvithrombocytosisi i and w thrombocy" twop- viwenfaviwviw
e e b e e w e w e i e b e e e e e
® The
ew w e w
adult haemoglobin molecule is made of 2 alpha
e w e w e i i w i i v w e w e w i i w i
vi iwviwi v i viw
w v i wuvviw w wi v w v i i wvi w vi uvavriuw
respectively.
vi w i u v uv r uv i w i u v v uv uv u r r
lliaariulichams with !41 amino acids each and
r lialar 2 bet• chains
u v r u v r uv ur r
u ur u a r u u v r uv r uv ur u u r
u r
u r u r u
r laru ar uialar a larilial r laru
u ar uialar ar ar ar lialar ila ila larilial
mamm ®
l i l i
When an injury is caused, tam tthe
il mi miblood platelets tam /tarelease
i l i
a la l a r i l l i a la
tt aem/t/atam with 146 amino taem/t/ataacids
milmmi each.
a a l mil mi i amila
ilaim i a l l i il mi m m i
m mm
mi m taem/t/atam /ataem/t/at amm amm m amm ataem/t/ata /tam
certaint ee/t chemicals which e/mee/ are / caHed t.½ee/mplatelet
. e t.mte.m factors
a t t a /
e/me ® People living
t / a
e/mein hills have more
. RBCs.
/a /
t a t/a e/ t / t
a /at /
t a t/a a / t /
t a e / t / e/ t
e/me .me m(e.g.,
e .me .mte.me
thmm-bopfastin). The platelet .m/t/efactors help in the
. m/e.tm . tm.m/t/e.tm . t .m/t/e.tm
m / tm
. .mt/e.tm . etem
.
/m
tm.m/t/e.tm . .m em
.
e
t m tm
. /.tm.mt/e.tm t /
:/t/.s:/:/tclotting of blood.
t m /. / . t / t m /. t / . / t : /
s:
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/ le�rncytes
t
s:/t:/pss:/:
/ t
s:/t:pss:/: p s
:/
s:/tpss:/ :
s: /
/. t
s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/
t / / t
s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s:
/ /
:/
ps t p s t p
® The
ps t p ps ps t p p
hht hnumber of leucocytes hht hh or white bnood hht hhcells (VlBCs)hhttphhtBLOOD
ps tpt http tpt ttp tp t tpstpt tpt ttp tp ttp tpt ttp tt tt p tp t t t t
tpt t tpt hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
hht hh
per microlitre of blood is called the tofal lleucocyte @ \Vb.en
COAGULATION
cmmi (TLC). b ebb This varies from b ebb5,000 to rn,ooo bper ebb cubic b ebb an injury isbcaused b to a bloodevessel, b ebb bleeding starts
,vhich is stopped by a process called bfood b ebclottingeebw or
ebw b ebb b eb
millimetre of blood in humans.
b e b e b e b e ebw e w e i e e b e b b e e e weiw
r larur Mood coaguiati:i: iruv m..
ew w e i w e i w e i
w w i
w w ev i
w vi i
w vi w w e i w e i w e i
w w w i w i
w w v i
w i
i i
® Rise
wvi ii viw w v i w v
in 'WBC cm.mt is termed leucocytosis. Abnormal
v w vi
uvaruruv i v i
uvaruru v u v uv v w vi w vi
uvaruruv ruvru i i v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
arurlial
mil mi ® At the site
u v
ialmioflia an iJ.1Jury, themblood iliamil platelets il il ctisintegrate amil and
u r uv r
u r
u r
u r
a u r uv u r
u r
u
milincrease of'ili/BCs is inmalignanci.esamm like leukemia (blood
ar u la r l ar ial i l r
a ial ial lia ar u l ar l ar ial a a i l ar ial l a i l a lial
ialmilia ilaim
amil ilamamil ilam i mi mi
release
mtialam p.hospholipid, th.rombopfasti.n. Injured tissues
t_ "'Vi
amm taem/t/atam amm mtam taem/t/atam /t
ee//BC count is.m called /t e/ leukopNll.fa.o mee./me
tt/aaem/t/atacancer).
m
Fall in
t / at t / at / a am tamt/atam tamtam t / at t a /a
also release thromboplasti.. D...m .m
/a t /a t t t
t/aee/t / a /a
t ee/ e/ e/ /a
t e/ t / / t
e/me e
®
etem e/m e
They can change their shape like .meAmoeba and /.are . /t/.tmthus,
e/m e/m
etem/me m/e.tm . /m
etem m/e.tm . . m/e.tm . e t.mte.m tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
s:tpss:them to ® s:/:/tsIn : response to rupture /:pss:/ ofsthe / s:vessel or /pdamage
s:/ s: to the blood,
. m . t .
m t m /. tm . m . t .
m t m / . t /
capablepss:of /:pss:/amoeboid moveme.nt. s:/tpss:/ This enables
tt m:/t/. / . / . t / t t m / . t / . t / / t :
/
/:/pss:/
. / t : / t :/ t :/ /: /: / . / /
t . /t :/ t / t / / : / t : / / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
This ht tpt http an intricate cascade tpt t tpt oftpchemical treactions
pt ht tpt ttphoccurs. The
hht hhnet ht h
/ s
: : s: s
squeeze hht hh out of bloodhhtcapillaries into the hht htissues.
s : p s t ps
tphttp ps tps : ps p s s p t ps
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpthht tp ttp tt
h result is formation hht hh hoft ha complex hht hof activated substances
hht hh process is called dfapedesh. h h
be b
wveiw e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw
w v
i i w i
wuvviw i
viw v
uvi w e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw iwviw
w v
i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a rulvarur
u
v
u
r
a u v
u
r larur lar
uv
urialarur
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a r
u
v
u
uvarur ru ru v
r
a u v
u
r larur ruar l r
a uriualvar
amil
ilam ar lial l
amil
ilam
ialm
a t m alm
m
a m
a t a m
a m m
a t / a
m
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am t
t/at /t/a
t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
wvv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
268
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e/ /
eem e/ taa
//tee// t / tt
eem/ ee
/ / /t
/
eemee
t //
eemee
eem e prothrombin.mmactivator. mm . m eem m mm .m
/ tt
called
..m/m//tt..m //
.
tt.:.////tt.
/
m The
////
m
prothrombin
m .
tt.:.////tt .m activator
:://
.. t .
//tt:://// lllOOD GROUPS
t
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ //
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
//// . mm .
tt:.////tt.
::////t::////t.
t .. t
/
/ / /
sst:p:pss: ofproth.rombin :
ss:p:pss into tb.rombin. ss ss • Blood / ss::/human being isss:grouped /
:s: :
st:tp:pss - ABO ttppststttppss
ss::/ss::catalyzes conversion sst:p:p/of
tttphp•ttttpp The thrombin ppttttpps ppstgroups
ttphptttto ttphpttttpp into two
ttttphpacts
thtt as an enzyme tt t tt h tp
t p t t t t
t t tt
hh ht
t t hhtt hh
t
hh h hh hh h convert fi.brinogen hh t t
hht hhRh groups.
and hh hh h
- - - --
into librin fibres that enmesh platelets, blood cells, and
we plasma to form ee eebb clot.
bbthe eewbbeebb eew w w
eew
i i w eebbeebb eew eew iw
iwviw
iw iw Prothrnmbin w i
vviiwvvi
w ww i
vvii vvi
w
uKarl
i i vv
uavavrruu Landsteineruuvreported iwiwvviw iw ABO blood w i
vvriuiuwgroups
vvi w in humanvviui vviw ww i i
uuavvrru
uuvvruuv
rrlalar rruu rruu rruu rruu alailiala
rr
alaibeings
lil r rr
for firstlaartime.
vu u r uu
alariblood r rruu
alailiala
rr u rr
alailila
alaProthrombin
ilim ii ------&>
m
alailiala++
ilim ca
m m
m
ilim
m mm a
ilim
m l iliala A, B andmiliOm
iim m
liala groups were
m
m
ilim
m m
m
ilim
a m
m
m m m a a
ttaea//tta aa t
/e/ttee//t a discovered bym Landsteiner
mttaa m (I 900) m
aa//ttaa while AB blood group
a
aa//tta aa t
tte//t a
t//taea//ttaa activator ee//ttaeae//tta // e ttaa// /t
/t //tt e // e
ee e ee e m was found ee//outee by de Castello ee and ee Steini (1902). ee ee em
t.
t mm/tt..mm
.
/// ///
ss::/ss::
//t..m/m//tt..mm
t
ss::/ss:: Thrombin ppsst:tp:pss:
/ / //t
// :
..m/m//tt..mm
t / ///
ss:: ss
/ : • ABO t.
t.mm/tt..mm
///
///grouping is based:on
sst:p:p/ss::antigens on theRBCs
/
/ //t..m/m//tt..mm
t
sstp:p/ss::the presence por
//tt
:// ::
sst:absence
..m/m//tt..mm
/ oftwo
ppss The plasma ttttppststttpp
////
:: ss :
ttttphpttttpp ttttphpttttpp ttthtt
t ttttphpttttpp surface
t p
ttp t t ttpp ttt namely A t t
andB.
t t p tt t h
hh h hhtt hht hht hh hh h
I Fibriooge• j
hh h hh h hh h hh hh
i, Fibrinogen monomer contains tvvo natural antibodies.
b eb b
wveiw eew bbeebb eeww cabbeebb
++ b eebbeebABO blood groups
ebbeeb Table : Human bb bb and their compatihility
eiww bbeebb
w w w eewwee eeww eew bbeebb
w i i
v v
w i w
iiwvvi Fibrin fibresvvuuvv i w
i w i i
u
i w
i
vvruuvvw i
Blood r u u v i i
vrruu v v
Antigens ln v w w
ii vvi
Antibodies
v
i
Can v v
give
i w
i
u
w
u vv Can get uvvuuvviw
i i i w
i w i
r uuav
uruarru u r uu r r rr u r r a uu r u u rru u r r r r u r r r
r la
alailiactivated____.,, ilim
r
alailiala ilimalaililaa
group ilima a l l a
l ii red blood lalarilialain blood hlood r r
ilimalailiala to hlood ilimalailila a iliml ilila
a a
Thrombin ilim m m mm m m m a m i i m m mm m aa//ttam
m m a
fibrin-stabilising aammtaam factor ttaa/mttaa t a
t a / t
/ aa
t //ttaa//tta
corpuscles aa mmtaamm plasma ttaa/mttaa from tta a / t
/ aa
t //t t
//ttee// t // ee / /
eem/ ee eemee t
//tee// t /
eem/ ee / / / eemee
I I
eem eem m m . m eem eemee m m .m
m m . m m m .. m . . t t . m//tt..m m m . m m m . . m //tt::////t.
. . t
//tt..m/m//tt..m Cross-linked.
//
/ tt.:.////tt. fibrin fibres
/ / /
/ tt.:.////tt
/ : : /
: //tt:://// A
/ A //tt..m / b / ///tt.:.////tt. A, AB ////tt.:A, .////tt O
: : /
: /
:://ss::/ chart: Schemessfor :: ss: ss:: ss sspss / / :: s : ss:: ss ss ss
ssFlow ttphpttttpp conversion ofprothrombin ttphpttttpp to thrombin ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ttphpttttpp B, O ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttpp t t tt h h B t ttp B
p t t t a tttt B, AB tt hh tt h
hh ®h The l"ate-limiting hh h factor in causing hh h blood coagulation is hht hh hh hh hh h
be b the formation ofprothrombin activator, as the terminal AB AB bbeebb None AB All
ew bb rapidly to form bbeebbthe clot itself.eebbThe bb bb bbeebb bbeebb
0 uvvjuuNone All vviiwvvi 0
i steps normally ee bb occur
e e e e ee w e e w w e e bb e e e e eew
w w w w w i w w i i w i i w i ww w w i w i
iwvviw i
wvvi8 minutes. vvii vv i iwvbviw vvriuiuvvi
I
normal clotting iw iwtime is about 2vviuito i

vv a,
iw iw uuavvrr
u urvv u u r u u r r u r ruu r ruu r r ua r r u uvv uu r u u r ru u r ruu r r r
alarrilialar is a plasmailialprotein, ariliala alailiala
ili2-globulin, ilimalailila rrlalarr
alablood alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilican ilimalailila
® Prothrombin m
ilim
m m m m m an alpha mm m m a
@
m m a a mA person with m
ilim
m
ii group O m(universal
m m donor) m m a m m aa mmt a a m
m a a a a t
/e/ttee//t donate the//tblood aa/m/ttaa to all the blood ttaea//ttagroups
a a//tta
ttareceive tte//t
t//taea//ttaa a moleculareeweight
having //ttaeae//tta of 68,700.ee//ttaeae//tt e t /
eem e / but can /
ee ee / e em/ / e
eem e m eemee
*///tt..m m//tIt..mis present in//tnormal
t ..m/m//tt..mm plasma in//tt..m
t a/
m//tt..mm
cbncentration / /
of
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ blood tonly .
t m
. m t .
t . mfrom his/her own / t t.. / .m
mm/tt.group.
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / // tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
/ / / / ss:: ss: e A person /// /// / / / / / :://ss:: / s:: ss :
ss::/ss::
// ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: with blood tgroup sst:p:p/ss::AB (universal ppststtrecepient)
pp can ttttpptstttpp
ttttphpttttpp about 1 5 mg/ell. tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp t t p p tpp t t tt t
hh h • It is an unstable
t t t hh h t t tt t t t
hht hh any blood group, tt
hh hh but can donatehh h h
hh h hh h
protein that can split easily into smaller htt hh the blood from
hreceive
compounds, one b ebb which hasebbaebb blood eonly b ebbto his/her ownb blood b group. ebb ebb b eb b ebb b eb
b eb e b b ebbof which is thrombin, e b e w e w e bw
i e e b e b e wew evewbw e weiw
e w molecular weight w e i w e of 33,700. i w e i
w w i w e wi v i
w vi w w e i w e i w e i
w w i w i i
wvi ii viw
w vi w v i vi w vi Rh blood i uv grn11p wi v w vi w vi i i v w
uvarur ruvruv
i i
•
v uvaruruv uvarur uv u v
r larur viruv i uvaruruv ruvru v uv uv
u
• Prothrombin r
u uv ar r
u uv
ar ur l l ar r
ui l ial ar u i
Anothera antigen, ther
u uv ar u
Rb antigen (Rhesus ar ur l antigen) a ls also l ar r
u i l a l a i
a larurliala
il iaar l is formed by the
l
iamil ia liver. i
amil
ilam a mi mi l l ar
ialmilia l l
ilaim i
amil il ia a l i
amil
ilam a i l i mi mi l
milamil mtilam amm taem/t/atamobserved on tthe mtilam surface ofRBCs am mof majority mtam of humans. amm t mtam taem/t/atam /ta
e Vitamin tt/aaem/t/atamK is "requirede/t/by ataem/t/athe liver for normal / t
a /at
t ee/ formation ee/me
t t/a am / a
t/aee/t are called Rheepositive /at /
t t
a
t ee/ e/ e/ t a /at
/t e/ e e t/a / t a / t/a
e/me e
m etem
of
/me
prothrombin as . m etm
well . meas for formation .
e/m
m/e.tm. Of a few other t m.m/t/.tm . Such individuals m etem/m
. m/.tm
/m
. m (Rh+ve) .mandetem
.methose m . m t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. . /.tm / . / t
. m t / /
t . tm. . /.t m . m t . /.tm /
t . t . / t / /
t . : t /
s:
/.
/:/pss:/ clotting factors s :
/t :/ t
/:(fibrinogen).
s: / s: : / t
/pss:/ :/
p s
:
/
s:tps: s /: in whom s: /
/. / /
t .
:/ts:/:this antigen is absent s :
/t :
/:pss:/ are / t
: / t
/called
s
/ /
: .R)ls:negative : / t :/
/pss:/ s: (Rh / /
s : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s ps t ps s p s p t p
tptpsttpt tpstpt
httphht ofpolymerisation, tpt t tpt hht hh
tp ttp veht). tptphstRh-ve
tpt
ps person if exposed
tpt t tpt tptottpRh+veht blood, tpt t tpt will ttp tt form hhttphhttp httphtt
hht hh In the earlyhstages @ hht hh the fibrin monomer h h hht hh ht h h hh h h
specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
be b
molecules are held together byb weak
hydrogen bonding, e b b b
eb and the newly ebwforming
e e b b non-covalent
fibres are ebnotb
e eb b
• A special w bw
evewi
b ebb
e case of Rh incompatibility eb b ebb (mismatching)
ebw b ebb b bhas ebb ebb eb eb
i viwe iwveiw
e e
ew
vi vi iwviwi
w e w e
v i w w
uv
e
i viw i v i i w e
wuvviw i w
been
uv wi
viruvi observed between vi w e w e
iwviwi the Rh-ve blood vi w w
u v
e i
of v a pregnant vi wiuwveviwiw viuwviw uvavriuwr
cross-linl<ed uv r u v with one another; r uv ur therefore, the r
u resultant
uv ur r
u ar u uv r uv r uv r
u u u r
u uv ur r u r r
u
l ar urialaru i l ar uialar ial ar lialar li
a larimother
lial with Rh+vel a r urialaru blood of theialarfoetus. uialar ar ar
Rh
l antigens ial ar lialar ila ila li
a larilial
clot is iamweakil and can bembroken il mi apart Virithmease.
a l il mi i
mamm liamil il mi mi m l l i il mi i
m mm
milam atam
taem/process taem/t/atam /ataem/t/at of the foetus am mtido
am not get exposed t amm tamtotathe a Rh-ve t mm
abloods
/ tam /tam/tam
a /ataem/t/ata /tam
e eBut //tataem/t/atin few minutes, t/a t/ strengthens t/a
e/me the fibrin me.me e/ t /at
t ee/t /a t/a
/ e/ / t/a / t /
t a e / t e/ t
me
m/e.treticulum.,
.
/
etem
.me
.m/t/involves .m/t/e.tm. called fibrin tm. t/.tm of the mother e/m
m/e.tm. in the firsttm .m etem
.me .mte.meas the
pregnancy etem
.m/two
/
.me blood . m/t.m
e e
tm.mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
tm. m ,:vhich /.tm . a substance / t
. m /
t . / tm. /. / . / t
. m t/. t t/. : / t /
s:
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/ stabilising factor
t
s:/t:/pss:/: present in nonnal
/t
s:/t:pss:/: plasma globulins. p s
: /
s:/tpss:/ :
are swe11 : /:/t/.s:/:/t separated bys:the
/ t
/:/psts:/: placenta. t /
://s:/ However,
/ t
s:/t:pss:/: s:during
/
/ s: /
:/
ps ps t t p p s ps t s ps p
tpt tp tt htt ofhttphht htt ht p t tp p t p
ps
tpt t tpt
t p
ht tphhtt tpt ttp httphht tps pt
ttphht tdelivery of thehht first
the tpt http child, tp tp
h ht ht therehhtishhta possibility
hht hh ® 'Thrombinh activates the fibrin-stabilising hht hh factor.h hhexposure h h
of the maternal blood to small amounts of
@ Then this activated b ebb substance operates b ebb as an enzyme b ebb the Rh+ve ebw b ebb blood from the b ebb foetus. In such b ecases,b b the b b b eb
e b eb
to cause covalent e e b w e bonds bernreen w e eb
morei w e and more of i w e ebw
the i e i
w w ev i
w e
e ebw e w e ebw
i eb wew eb iweebiweeb weiw
w w i i w w mother vi i w i i w i w i
rulvaruruv starts preparing
wi i viw wuvvi w
viruvi v i viwantibodies against uvvi Rh vriuantigen w v
uvavriuruvi ruvruv
uv fibrin monomer r uv viwr
u uv molecules, as r
u uvavriwell
r
u as multiple r
u uvacross
r u a r u r uv viwr
u uv r
u uvavriuw
r r u
v r
u
uv
arurlial
a r u l a r l ar ial i l r
a ial ial
in lia her blood. In a r u
case l ar of subsequent l ar ialpregnancies, a a the i l ar ial l a i l a lial
linkages mtilam
ialmibetween
lia adjacent ilaim
amilfibrin fibres thus ilamamiladding mil mi almilia
ilaim mtilam
iamil il il
m leaktamm ilamamil i mi mi
t am a /at amm / at /at amm /
t at t/ataem/t/atamRh antibodies t a mmfrom
/ at the mother /atam(Rh-ve)
/
t a a mtacan /a into
/
t at t a mtam
/ t/ataem/t/atam /t
strength /
t/aee/t to the :fibrinemeshwork. e/m t ee/ t e/m t e/ e/me t/aethe
e/t foetus (Rh+ve) e/mt ee/ e/ e/ t e/mt ee/ e e / e/me e
. m etem.
/m
t .
m m/.tm . t .
m m/e.tm .e / .tm.m/t/e.tm. the bloodmeof
.
e/m
m. t .
m m/e.tm . and m . mdestroy .the
t m m/e.tm . foetal . m t . m / .tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
t /
• /:/t/.tThe m:/t/. pale yellow :fl/t/u. /:id / . t / t t m t / . . t / . t t / / t :
s : s: / s: /pss: / t formed after/:/blood
s: p
t
s
:/
s:/ coagulation p s
/:
s:tisp s s: /: RBCs./:/tsThis
s:
/ .
: / /t/.
: could be fatal s :
/t
/:pss:to : / t
/ the : / t
/ sfoetus
: / / ors:/could
: /
ps
t : /
s:/ scause /
:s / : /
ps s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
pslacks p s t
p ttp tpstpt tp tthe s p s t ttp tt p t
tp ttp tp tt p
ps
tptpsttpt called serum.httptIt
t
t tp aH fibrinogen tpt t tptand most ofthe hht hh
tother severe tps ptps
ht tphhtt anaemia andjaundice httphht htto tp
h baby. tpt Thist tp condition hht hh ht h
hht hh clotting factors. h hh hht hh h h hht hh h h
is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
e be eb eb e ebwe e e ebwe w e i e eb e ebw e e e e ebw e e
wviw e
iwviwi w e w
i viw
w i i w
wuvviw i viw i vi w e
iwviwi w e w i
i viw iwviw
w i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
w v i v i uv w vi v i
r
u
vi
u uv
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
ialm
t /a
e/t/aee/t
am t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
w w
ii vvi i w w
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
r ru u v vrruu v v v v
ww
ii vvi i w
u v vi i
u
w
u vv i
uu vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
uruarru u r u r r r r a u u r uu r r u rr r r r
r
alailila ilim
r
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r
a a
ilim i 269
Human
mm m Physiology m
m
t/taea//ttaa
m mm
ttaea//ttaa
m mm
ttaea//tta a m mmtaamm a a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa m t aa//ttam
t
mm a
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e / eem e/ / t a a
//tee// t / t
eem/ ee
t // /
eemee
t
/ t /
eemee /
t ..m/m//tt..m H EART ////tt.:.////tt. m m . m
/
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
. . m
//
. .
//tt:://// tt .
t ..m/m//tt.. m /
m m
tt.:.////tt.. m
/ . m m
tt:.////tt
/
. . / //t::////t.
/ t . . t
Human ttphpttttpp heart, a mesodermally
ss:: ss derived organ,
ttttphphttttp is situated ttttppststttppss
/ / t / / : : : / / t / / / / / : : :
/ /
ss::/ss:: ss:: ss: sspss ::// ::/ :: s : ss:: ss sspss
ttphpttttpp ppststttpps ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp
inhhthe h thorax between hh hthe lungs with its apex resting onhh hh
t tttphpttttpp @
t t t t h h t
hh hh
t
t t hh ht t h h
hh h
b b the diaphragm. The heart measures 12 cm in length and
9 cm bbem
we e bbbreadth. eew bbeebb eew bbeebb eew bbeebb
w e bbeebb eew bbeebb eew bbeebb
ee w i e iw
vThe
vriruiuwvviwall of the heart vvriuiuwconsists oftlrree vvlayers: the external
w w w w i w i i w i w i w w w i w i
@
w iww vvi i ii vv
u u
i
uuavvrruuv
v
v viwiwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi vvriuiuvvi uuavvrru
alarrilialacovering layer, or alaepican-diu.m (serous alailiinelastic membrane),
uu r u u r r r uu r r r r u u r u u r u u r r ru u r r r
ilim ilim
rilala
i ilim ala ilimalailila
ilimalarrilialar alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilim ilimalailila
t//taea//ttaa the intermediate" ttaea//ttaa cardiac muscular ttaea//ttatissue or myocardium
m m m m m m m a m m a a m m m mm m m m m a m m aa m
m m a a
/e/ttee//t t mttaa aa//ttaa aa//tta a a
tte//t t
(cardiac ..m/m//tt.muscular tissue) eeand e the internal
tt.:.m/m///tt..layer
mm or
// / / e t ta a / / /t
/ t //tt e // e
ee e eem e ee// ee ee ee ee ee em
..m/m//tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
endocardium which is ss::in
//ss::contact with thess::blood.
t .
t mm/tt..mm
. / t
/ t .m / t
/ t / / /
/ / : t .
t.mm/tt..mm / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / t
/ t / /// / :
/// /// / /
ss::/ss:: ss //// ::/// / /
sst:p:p/ss:: :://s:: ss:: ss
Hearttttphpttttpp is enclosed tin ttphptatttppdouble fibro-serous ttphpttttpp sac calledttppstst:tp:pss
ss::/ss:: p p ppststttpps ttphpttttpp
ttttphpttttpp t t t t t t t t t t
pericardium which consists ofouter parietal pericardium
® t t hh h t
hht hh t t t hh h
hh h hh h hh h hhtt hht hh hh
and inner visceral pericard.hllm.
b eb bbeebb In between the bbetwo layers, a
pericardial bbeebb cavity is present fill e d with pericID"tlial ebb fluid. wweeiw
bbeebb beebb heart.
bhuman bbeebb
wveiw ee e e e e w Fig.:
eew bbeebInternal
b structure of eew eew
The
iiwvvmammalian. heartvvruuvv comprises uof vvruufour vv complete uuvrruu
w w w w w i w w i i i w i w w w i w
v v
w i w
i w i i w i i i i i v v v v v
w w
ii vvi i w v vi i
u
w
u vv i
u vvruuvvi
i i uuav
alaichambers- two iventricles and twoilim alauricles (atria). mmiim
uruarru u r u u r r r u r r r a uu r u u rru u r r r r u r r r
l ilila
@
r r a a a l l a
ll ii Heart beat r r a a a
lila lialailiala ailila lialariliala ilimalailiala ilim alailila ilim
The mmtrhythmic contraction mttaa (= systole)taaand aa relaxation //ttaa//tta
ilim
mmtaamThe myocardium is thin in auricles aa than the ventricles
m mttaa m m mm m a m i mm m m mm m m m a m
a t aa//tta
(= //tediastole) of cardiac mm/tt..mm muscles is known mm/tt..mm as heart beat.
aa t a
ta / t t a / t
/ t // t aa a a ta
t a / t / t
/ t
as ventricles mm/tt..mm need to pump mm/tt..mor m empty the /tblood ..m/m//tt..mm in.to
//ttee// t ee// ee / /
ee/ ee ee ee t t / / / / e
e// ee/ ee ee e
®
eem ee ee
eem ..m/m//tt..mm
::///s/s::///The heart of ass:healthy :///s/s::// person beats /// 72
vessels. // times per minute.
sst:p:p/ssThe
/// ::/// en.docardium sst:p:p/ssis
/// ::// thicker in atria sst:p:p/sthan
/ s:: in the
. m
.
tt / tm t .. m t .
t. t .
t . / / t / . m
.
tt / tm t . . m t .
t . / t .
t . / / / t
/ t /
::///s/s::/// sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss::
s s p p ventricles. p p t t p p t t t p
t p t t t s s p p The heart of p resting
p t p
t p human being t p p pumps
t about 5hh hh of
t litres
t p
t p t t t
hhtt hht blood per hminute.
p t t t t p
ttpttt t t tt t t t
ttpttt hhtt hht
tt hhtt hht hh hh htt hh hhtt hht
hhtt hht
• Auricle is divided by an interatrial or interau:ricufar
b eb septum. bbeebb On this septum, bbeaebdepression, called bbeebfossa b ovaifa ee•bbeebb The automatic bbeebrhythmicity of the bbeebbheart is its ability bbeebbto
contract spontaneously at a regular rate.
ew b
isiw iwpresent iw which isvvithe iwvviremnant of embryonic fo:ramenvvuuvv
i e eew eew w w w e b eew eew
e w w w w i w i i w i i e w i w w w i w i
vviw
i vvriuiuvv i iwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi 91 vvriuiuvvi
uovaie (through which alariliala both the auricles alailialacommunicate with alailila • The SA alarrilinodealarr acts as the "pacemaker
iw
ofthelalaheart because
u v v u u r uu r ru u r u
r u r r ru u
a r r u u vv u u r u u r r ruu r r ruuavvrr
r lialariliala alailila
each other).
alarrilialar
it is capable of initiating
ilim ilim ilim
m mm
ilim
m ilim iimpulses
m which then m can
iimiliala
stimulate mm
ilim
m
m m
e/the/ ee heart muscles to ee contract.
m m
t//taea//ttaa The :rightee/atrium ttaea//ttaa receives deoxygenated blood em from
m
m m mm m a aa t a a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa m
aa//tta a aa
tte//t t a a
/ //ttaea//tta e / /tte//t
e t a
t a // / t
/ t / t
/ t e / / e
eemee em
superior vena ..mm cava, inferior ..m/m/vena
t/ t..mm cava and coronary tt.:.m/m///tt..m sinus. •tt..mm/tt.e.m
e ee e ee
The
m impulse of/ttcontraction emitted by
ee e
mm/tt..mm ./ .m/m t . mm/tt..mm
. ..m/m tt..mthe si.noatrial node tt.:.m/m///tt..m
The sstleft
:://ss::/atrium receives
ppststttpps oxygenatedttttpblood pststttpp from two ppsst:tp:p/ss:: spreads asttpapststtwave
. . t t / t t t / / / t t // / /
pp of contraction ppststttppsover t.'le rightttttphand pststttpp left
t
/// /// t / / /
:://s::/ / /
:: ss: /// /// /
:://ss::/ / / / /
:://s:: / / /
:: ss :
ss::/ss::
lungs
hht hh through fourhhpulmonary veins. hh h atrial wall.
p pp
ttttphpttttpp t t t p t t t ttt t h t tt t
hht hh
t tttt hh h
hh hhtt hht hh hh
• Right andbleftventricles arebseparated by an iuterventricufa.r
hh h
septum. b ebLeft ventricle isebthicker ebb than theeright b ebb ventricle •ebbeebbThis wave ofcontraction next reaches b ebt.bh.e atiriio-ven.trkulin.r
!Ilode (AV node) which is stimulated e wtoew
be b ebw b ebb e b ben:Lit
eb ai.J. ii..w'11ee.pulse bwb ebb b eb
because ii viw it has to pushviwblood to aH the body parts at much
e b e e w e i w e b e weiw
of contraction iruv spreading toruvthe uv ventricular muscle
wveiw w e i w e i w e i w i w i
w i
w vi w w e i w e i w e i w i
w
v i w vi w vi vi u v wi v w vi w vi w i i vi w vi vriuv
greater pressure.
v w uvaruruv uvarur uv u v
r larur v i vru v u
uvarur rviav uv
arurliala
the afrfo-ventrkuiar bundle amil (Bundle ofilaHis) il and i tb.e miammi
u r u v r
u u v r
u ar r
u l ar u i r
u uv u u ar r
u r u ar r
u l u a l
ar u l a r l ar i l l ial ia l a ar l a r l ar i l a l ia l a l i
a
•mt/atilamamilA patch ofe/modifi
i i i
tt aem/t/atam ed heart muscle, tt aem/t/atamthe sinoatriaY taenode
i a l
i mi ilaim a a l l
il ia milamil milamil ialmilia il i
Purkinje fi b res.
mm atam mtilam amm mtam amm amm tamtam am
/ t t/atee/t/at e/ta
e/me/ (SA node)meis.mepresent in the mwall .me of right atrium .m/t/e.tclose
.m to
tt/aaem / a / a e/ t/ a / t at am / a /
t t
a t/ t
a t a / t/t
a /
t a / / e/
e / e t/
e/mee/ t e / e/ / e/ e / e
.me .mte.me /.tm .me t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm.m .mt.m
the point of entn ; of the vena cava.
tt m .m/t/e.tm . / tm
. . t/.tm / tm
. . t/e.tm / /.tm
t
m
t .m/t/e.tm
m . / tm
. .mt/e.tm .mt/e.tm / / /.tm
t : t /
/ . / t : / t :/ : /: / . / t : / / t / t :/ / / / s:tps: s://s:/
: /
• Another
: / / / : / : /
tpt ht tpt aggregate of tpmodified heart muscle tp ttptissue called tps tps
/:/pss:/: s : /:pss:/ s: /pss:/ s:tps: s /:/ts:/: s : /:pss:/ s:/ s: s: /pss:/ s: s s s
s: ps t ps s: ps p s p t p p
tptpsttpt
ps t ht tpt tpt t tpt tp ttp tpt t tpt ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh thehht hatrfo-venltric1.d.21r hht h(AV) node is present hht hh at the lowerhht tphhttp hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
rightbend of the interatria1 septum.
Superior vena __
b b b ebb cava iii'---JvJ'i b ebb b b Left pulmonary b b b eb
The atrium and the vent ricle of the same side are also
b b b e b b ebb
eb e
b eb e eb w e ebwe
i
e b
w e ebwe
i
e b
i w e
evwiwAscending amta eb
--;/--;t- w e w e ebw
i e e e veinsiweebiweeb weiw
separated
w
by a thick v fibrous tissue called
uvviw the ai.tirfo
e i e
viw iwviwi i viw w
uvavriuruvi iwviwi i viw iwvi w
uvviw ruvriuv uvavriuw
®
viw uv viw u uv viw
r r viw v uv viw uv v uv viwr r r
uv u v r r u u uv u r u r u u
lliaariulialaventrkuimr septum. Hmvever,mieach l mi of these septa mamare
r ru r r
arulialar u l u
ar lialar i larilial urialaru r a r r u
uialar ar ar u l u
r lialar atrium
aLeft a l a i larilial
ial ia i l a l a r i al l l i l ia
il mi m m i l i i l a
mtilammi m ilaim
amil il mi i mm
tt aem/t/atam provided with taem/t/an
a opening through taem/t/atwhich the tvilo chambers amm amm a /taoffES e/t/ataem/t/atam /tam
mi m am /ataem/t/at amm t t /atam tam/tam /at / tam.Bundle
a t
/ a / a t t / a t
of the same . side are connected.
/a t t e / /a
t ee/t /a t
e/mee/ e/ et t e/ /
m/e.tm
e/me e/me
.m/t/e.tm .m/t/e.tm
e/me
. tm .mt/e.tm .me m/e.tm
e/m
.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
e/me e e
.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m tm .mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
• Bkusp:i. s:/t:/pss:/:d vai.lve or mit:ral s:/t:pss:valve i.s present s:in
/pss:betvveen the s:/:/ts:/:/t
. . t m t m / . . . t m t m / .
t
/. tm
/:p/sts:/:/
t/. / /
t . /: :/ t :
/ / /.tm t/.
s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/
t / / /
t .
s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s: bundle
/ / / Left branch /pss:/ s://st ://
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s:ofHis
t : /of
left
ht tphhttatrium and left ht tpventricle. Tricuspid httphht valve (consist
s: ps p s t p s t t
p p s ps p
t ps p t p s
pht t ttp ttp
t p
ps
tpthht tpt
t p t http ptphst tpt tpt http ttp ttp t tphhtt htt htt t-·Lefi
t httventricle
of three flaps) is present between the right 2.rtirium and
t
h h h h h h t t h ht h h h h h h h h h
h h h
right ventricle. b ebb b ebb b ebb vena
hi_ferior
b ebb b b
Purlcinje fibresb
• Choirdae tendineae are the special fibrous cords

b b ebb ebw b ebb bwb eb b eb
be e b e b w e e ebw e w e i e e b e b w e e e evew e weiw
wveiw e w e i w i i w e w e i w i
attached to the fl a ps uvarurof uv biscuspid and uvartricuspid valves
w
ii viw e i w wi v i w v i
w vi w vi w vi i w e i w wi vi w i w i w v i
w i i
u v v w uv vi
r
i
ur uv u v
r larur
u uv
u v v w
iruv v i w vi
uvaruruv ruvru v r uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
arurlial
milamiand
il lia are joinedmilito amil the other ends ilamwith il the papillary
u r
u a r r
u ar r
u l l a r u i l i l ar ia r
u a r u ar r
u l l ar u i l a l a i l
a r l l ia i a mtilammi a l a r l Fig.: Conduction l ia
amil il il of a
heart a beat i a l i l a
ialmilia ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atam muscles . .Semilunair valves tt (pulmonary valve
taem/tand
tt aem/t/atam amm / atam /a /a am mtilam tamm / at a mtam t amm / at t a mtam /ataem/t/atam /t
/a /a t t Cardiac t/aee/t cyde
t /a /a t / t
aortic valve) are present where . artery leaves/.tm .the . heart.
e/mee/ e/me / a t
t ee/ e/ e/ t e/m t ee/ e e / e/me e
Each cycle is initiated by spontar:eou.s . generation m of/.an
e/me e/m
etem/me m/e.tm . m/e.tm m/e.tm etem/m m/e.tm. m/e.tm m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
The valves /:pss:/ of the heart /pmaintain unidirecticm.al fl.ow s:/:/ts:/: action potential
. m . tm. t m. /t ® . m . tm. . m . m t .
m t . t . tm t /
/:psin / the:/ sim.n§ node. /pss:/Thesaction : s potential
tt m:/t/. /. / . t / t tm /. t / . t / / t :
/.
/:/pss:/
/t :/ t :/ t s:/ :/ /:
s:tpss: /: /. /t/. /t :/ t / t : / / : / t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
ofhttblood ptphst tpt and prevent httphhits
t t tpt regurgitationht tin
h hh the oppositehht tphhttp travels from
s s: s: s ps s : s: s s: p s
httphhtherehttrapidly through
httphht hboti. h½. atria hand ht tphhttthen
: p s t
p ttp tpstpt p ttp s p s
t tpt ttp tt p t p ttp tt p
tptpsttpt tps tps
direction.
h h
hht hh h
b ebbthrough the AV bundle into the ventricles.
h h h h h
be b b ebb e b b ebb eb b ebb ebw e b b b ebw b ebb b b ebw b ebb b eb
eb w e e w e w e i e b e e e e e e e
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w e
i viw i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
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w e
iwviwi w e
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w v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
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r
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r
u
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ilamamil ar lial l
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a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
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/a /a
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/
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t/at /t/a t t / a
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e/t/ae/t /t e/
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vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
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uu
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w
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u
uruarru u r u u u r r
270
r rr r rr a aa l a
l a r uu r r rr r rr a l ilila
aa
alailila
ilim alailiala
ilim alailila
ilim ilim
l ii
i lialariliala alailiala
ilim alailila
ilim ilim
mm m m
m
t/taea//ttaa
m m
m
ttaea//ttaa
m m
m a
ttaea//tta
m mmtaamm aammttaa m m
m
aa//ttaa m ttaa//ttam
m
m a
t//taea//ttaa / // // taa t / tt / / /t
/t //
eemee
• //tBecause
eem e //tee// eem/ ee
..m/m//tt..m of this special tt.:.////tt. arrangement////tt.:of .////tt the conducting////tt::////
eem e eemee
5040 ml/tt.per mm/tt.. minute i.e., about tt.:.////tt5 litres per minute tt:.////tt which
eem e eem e mm . m eem m mm .m
mm . m mm .. m .. tt . m mm .. m . mm .. //t::////t.
t .. t
ss::/sssystem from atria sst:p:into
ss: ventricles, pthere sst:p:pssis a delay of more is equivalentsst:p:p/ss:: to the totalttppbody sst:p:pss: blood volume.
t //// : :: / ./ / //// //// : :://
/ ::/ ss ss / / ss:: ss ss ss
ttttphpttttppthan 0.1 second ttttphpduring
thttp the passage tttthpof
thttcardiac impulse hh tttfrom
tphphttttpp
t tp
t p tt t t t t tt tttphpttttpp
t hh ttttphpttttpp
h
atria into ventricles. This allows atria to contract ahead lllood pressure
hh h hh hh hht hh hh hh hh h
b b
of ventricularebcontractions,thereby bbeepumping the blood bbeebb e Bloodeebpbressure eebb is the pressure bbeebb against the bbwalls
eebb of the eew
blood vessels produced by the blood by contraction of the
we beebb bb bbeebb
into ventricles iwvvibefore the strong vvriuiuwvvventricular contraction
e eew eew w w i w
i w ee eew iw
left uuavvrrventricle. The blood pressure is high vvriuiuwin the mrte:ries,
w w ww i w i i w i w w w i w i
vvriuw
w
iw i i vvriuiuvv i uuvv iwiwvviw iw vvi vvriuiuvvi uuavvrru
begins. aarrlaar
u r v v u r
ilialagradually dropsilialain ii the arteriolesilim aland
ariliala capillaries, and
uu u r uu r r r u r r uu
rrlalarr uu r uu r r r u r r
alailila
alariliala alailiala ilila alailiala ilim
Thus,mm the atria act as primer pumps for the ventricles. The
l i il
ilim ilim ilim ilim
tte//t becomes very low
mttaa in the veins. The aa//ttaaverage blood pressure
mm m m
m m mmtaamm m mm m mm m mm aa m
ventricles
ee// ee provide m poweree ee for moving blood ee ee through themm.emm is expressed
aa m aa//ttaa aa//ttaa aa m m a aa//ttaa aa
tte//t t
mm/tt..mmas 120/80 mm/Hg.
eeBlood
m pressurettis ..m/m/measured
ttaa //tt / t
/ t //tt e // e ttaa // //tt / t
/ t e // e
ee// ee ee ee ee em
. body's
m
. m//tt..mm vascular system. t t../m//tt..mm t ..m/m//tt..mm
t / tt.:.////tt.
/ by sphygmomanometer . . /in the
t t / brachia! artery.
..m/m//tt..m tt..mm
/ / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
•
t t / / / / / / / : t t / / / / // :
ttttphpttttpp Immediately tttphafter
pststttpp ventricularttttpcontraction begins, ttphptttthe
/// // :://ss::/ :://ss:: ss:p:pss //s/s::/// sst:p:p/ss:: :://ss:: :: ss
ss::/ss:: pststttpp t When sst:p:p/the left ventricle p contracts pushing ppststhe
t pp blood irito ttttppststttpp
hh h ventricular pressure hh h rises abruptly, hh hh causing the AVhhvalves
t p t t t
thehhtt haorta, the pressurehhproduced is knownh as systolic blood
t t h @
t p p
t htt t t t t
t hh t t t t t t hh h h
h hh
to close. An additional 0.02 to 0.03 second is required for pressureb(120
e b eb
the ventricle to build up sufficient pressure
b bb to push the bbeebb and the
beebb ismm
heart resting
Hg). When the complete diastole occurs
the bbpressure within the bbeevessels
bb is bbeebb
bb b b b e e eebb
semilunar valves iiwvviopen against the vvruuvpressures
e
in the vvraorta called vrruuas diastollc blood ii vvpressu re (80 mm vHg).
wvi w eewwee eeiww e w e e w w i w w i w
i w eew eew w w eew w
w i i w
i w i i i w i i i v v w i w i w
i w i i i w
vvruuvvi
i i
vv v w i uuav
and pulmonary alariliala artery.
v v u v u u uu rru u vv u v v uu v uu r r
uu u u r u r r r r a uu r u u r r u rr r r r
r r r r
alailiala
ilim alailila
ilim a
Heart ilima a ii
l soundl l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim ilimalailila a iliml ilila
a a
During mventricular contraction, mttaa contractiontdoes aa occur in e//ttaa//tta
ilim i
Heart sounds may be heard by steth�scope. Phonocardio
mttaam m m a mm m m m a m mmtaamm m
mttaa m a mm aa m t aa//ttam
mm a
the eventricles, but there ismno emptying. m Thiseem/ eeis called the mme.emmee
aa ta
ta / t a / t
/ t a a ta
t a / t t a / t
/ t // t
gram is an instrument for amplifying and recording of
//ttee// eem // ee / / t
//tee// t /
eem/ ee / /
eemee/ eemee
eem
period
..m/m//tt..mofisometric///contraction, tension
tt.:.////tt is increasing::////tt::////
em m m m .m
//tt::////t.
- lubb isss::created
m . m m .
heart sounds. / / First heart :: sound
.
by
m m .
tt.:.////tt. m .. . tt ..m/m//tt..m mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
tt.:.////tt. . . t
t t / i.e., / / t t / / / / / /
tttphpttttppin the musclehhtbut ttphpttttpplittle or no shortening ttphpttttpp of the muscle
/
/ / / / / : / / / / s: / / : ::
ss:: ss: ss:: ss sspss ss ss
the closure
ss::/ss:: ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: of atr:io-ventricular ppststttpps valves atttttpthe pttttppbeginning ttttphphttttpp
ss
hh h fibers is occurring.
p t
of hventricular systole hand opening of semilunar valves.
t t t t hh t tt p t tt tt t h h h
h hh h ht hh h hh hh h
be b •
\Vhen the left ventricular pressurebbrises slightly above Second bbheaeebb rt sound -bbdup bb is created at bbetht bb end of ebbeebb
80 mm Hg, itwwpushes the semilunar eewwevalves open. Blood ventricular systole when the semilunar valve ecloses and iw
ew bbeebb ebb eew bbeebb eew e eew ew
i eew w w e e
the AV valves open.
w i i e iwvviw
begins to pour out of the ventricles, with about 70 per cent
ii vviiw w
iiwvvi i w w
ii vv i i w i i
vvruuvv w wvviw w w
iiwvvi i w i i
vv u v v u u u uv v u u r u u r vv i i i
u v v uu uu vvr uu r ruuavvrr
ofthe blood alarrilialemptying occurring
alarilialaduring the firstilithird ofthe
uuarr u u r u r r r r r r r a uu r u u r u r r r r r
ilim ilim alailiala alailila
ilim alarrilialar
ilim ilimalariliala alailiala
ilim alailila
ilim
period t//taea/of
mttaa ejection and the ttaearemaining 30 per//ttacent a//tta emptying //ttee//t
m mm m mm m m a mm aa m
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM m m m m m m m m a m m a a m
m a a t a a t
em® ECG is a graphic
/e/ttaa mttaa aa//ttaa aa//tta tte//t
// ee record ofthe electric
mm/tt..mm current produced
ee ee by
a t t t / /
during
mm/tt..mm the next two ./ .mthirds.
/ // ee ee e t t a / / / / t // e em e
ee e ee eem ee ee
the excitation /// /// ofthe cardiac // muscles. The instnnnent used
m//tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
ss::/ssAt •
/// ::/// the end of ssystole, // :// ventricular :://ssrelaxation begins
t . . / t t //t t / /
/ / t . m
. m t .
t . m / t .
t . / / t
/ t / ///
t ::/ ss:: ss: t / / / / :://s:: / :: s :
to record sst:p:p/ss::the changes isttppsan st:tp:pselect
s:: ss: s:: rocardiograph. ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp suddenly, allowing tttphpttttpp both the rightttttpand pststttppleft iniraventricular ttttphpttttpp p t ppststttpps
t ttt t
Ahhnormal electrocardiogram (ECG) is composed of a P
t t p
ttthhtt t t t t t t h
hh h hht hh hh h
pressures to decrease rapidly.
hh h hh h hh hh hh hh
wave, aebQRS b ebb wave (complex) b ebb and a T wave.ebbThe bb letters
@
•
The elevated pressures b ebb in the distended b elarge
bb arteries push b ebb b ebb b eb
are arbitrarily selected and do not stand for any eeparticular
b eb ebw b eb evewbw
blood back toward ii viw the ventriclesviwwhich snaps the aortic
e e b e w e e b w e w e i e i w e i
w w e ebw e w e w ew w i e weiw
e w i i i w vi e i i i
words. r larur The P wave is a
irusmall upward wave uvaruruvthatruindicates
wvi w w i vi w v w vi w vi i w i w vi w i w i v w i i
i uv w v uvarur ruvruv
i
and pulmonary valves closed.
v w uvaruruv uvarur uv u v v w vi i vru v uv uv
u u v r uv r r
u ar u uv v r r
u arurliala
mitheamm depolarisation ialmofilia tile •lria (atrial amicontraction).
aThe
r
u a r u r
a u l l r
a i l ial ia r
u ar u r
a u l a l ar i l a l a i
a l
•
r
a l l ia i a l r
a l l i
a a i a l i
For another tt/aaem/t/atam 0.03 to 0.06 tt asecond,tam the ventricular tt aem/t/atam muscle e/t/ataem/t/atQRS wave (complex)
iliamil l i ilaim l amil mi mi l
il ia
milamil milamil mtilam
l il i
mm
ilam mtam
i
begins after t eea/ fraection / e/ of second t e/ of e e
mm amm mtam t taem/t/atam /ta
continues /me to relax, even e/methough the ventricular e/me volume me.me
/a /
t a / a t am /a /at /
t t
a t a /t
a /
t a / t a / t/a
e/me e
e/ t/aee/t
. /t/.tm the P wave..meIttem begins as a small m/e.tdownward defl e ction . e(Q)
e/m e/m
etem m/e.tm /m m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm
does
tt m:/t/. not change, giving rise to the period of isovohimic
m . . m/e.tm. . . t m . . m. m m m. . m . m .tm . .mt.m
. tm t m / . t m . t t / t /
and continues :/ts:/: as large upright /:pss:/ (R) / sand : triangular /pss:/ wave,
/. / . t / t t m / . . t / . t t / / t :
/ .
/:/prefa.xation.
/t t t :/ : /: / . /. / t t t / t :/ / / s:tps: s://s:/
: /
Duringtpt t tpt this period, tpt htth-e
tpt intraventricular
/ s /:pss:/ :/ s: : /
/pss:/ /
s:tps: s /t s :/ : / / s : : / /
:s : / s
s: : p s / : s ps
ending tptpsttptas downward wave
hht hh (S)
tpt t tpt httphatttpits base.
hht hhIt represents
s
: p s t s: ps s ps p t p
s ps tp ttp ps tpt t tpt ttphtt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh pressures decrease hht hh rapidly back hht hto their low diastolic
tptpsttpt hht hh hht hh ht h
hht hh h
levels. ventricula b ebrb depolarisation (ventricular contraction). The
b b •
The AV valves open
b ebb
to begin a new eb cycle
b ebb
of ventricular
e b b ebb T wave ebw is
e a dome-shaped b which
b indicateseebw bventebb reicula b ebr eebw b ebb b eb
repofarizaticm. (ventricular iwviwi relaxation). viwiuvviw viwvi
ew e e b e w e w e w e i w e i eb e b e w e e
wuvviw viuwviw
pumping.
e
iwviwi w e w w
i viw i i
wuvviw i w
viruvi v w e w e w i w i i viw
vi vi w uv v
uv ri uv uv vi r uv
ur u vi w uv uv r u uv vi r u uruv ur
ruv ur
lariulialar ialmarurlialaru ialmarurlialaru i
ar ar
lialmilial l
uv r
arurlialaru R ialmarurlialaru lariular ialmarurlialaru ilarilar i
ar ar
lialmilial
Pulse li
a i l i i l i m lia i i l i i i l i m
i m ammam amm am am miamm ammam m m ammam mam am am m
e A pulse
ammam
t/atee/t/atis a series of waves e/ t/atee/t/at of dilation that e/ t/atepass
e
tam
/t/a along the ee/m t/atee/t/at /ataem/t/at
t e/ t/atee/t/at e/tae/ta e/ t/atee/t/at e/tae/t e/m t/atee/t/at e/tae
/
e e
//: t/.starteries,
.m caused by/.tm .pressure of blood pumped from the
/
e .m/t/e.tm .m m
.mt/e.tm m/e.tm .m .m/t/e.tm.m .m m
t/.st:m/:/t/.t
. .me
.mt/e.tm .m/t/e.tm.m .mt.m .m t.mt.m .
t/.st:m/:/t/.t ://t.:m//t.
m
s:/: s:/ p
/.tm /.tm /.tm
Q s:/pss:
m /t tm t / /
tphst tptpsheart throughht tcontractions ofthetleft ptphsttptpventricle. In humans
: / :/ t :
/ : /t /: s :
/ / /t/. :/ :/ t :
/ / / / / : / t /: : / : / s :
/ /
s: :/ s:/ ss: s:/ ss: ps: ps : s:T s:/pss: s s ps: ps s s
ptphsttptp tpthht tpt tptphsttpt tstpsttp tptphsttpt ttphttp tpthht tpt httphttp
hht h it can be felth easily h where arteries h h pass close to the h skin
t p h t h t t tphst tptps
p ht h t h ht
hht h Fig.: Diagrammathic representation h h h of a hstandard h ECG h
surface, e.g., at the wrist.
b eb • Tachycardia is the bterm b applied to aebrapid b ebb heart or pulse b ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b ebw DOUIILE CIRCULATION
e e ebw e wewe evewbw e weiw
rate (over 100/minute). ii viw Brn.dyca:rdia is the term indicating
eb e w ebw
® Double
e e i
r larur circulation isruvthe iruv passage of blood uvaruruvtwice vruin the uruv ur ruvruv
e
wvi w w e i w e i
w w ev i
w w i
w w vi wi vi i
w vi w i w e i e i
w w ev wi i i
w w i i i
v w vi i vi
uvaruru v u v uv v w vi w vi i i v v i uv uv
a slow heart or pulse rate (under 50/minute ).
uvaruruv arurlial
heart
il mi through separate ialmiliapathways for completing amil il one il cycle.
u r v
u r
u uv r
u a r r
u l ar u i u u r
u r u r
a la r a l
a r u l ar l a r ial i l ial i
a l a a r l ar l ar ial a a i l i
a l a i l lia
il ia i
milamil milamil ilaim amil
ilam i mi mi
milamil taem/tDouble circulation consists of pulmonary and
m systemic
m mtilam
tt/aaem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam /a / atam amm t m a t amm t a mtam /ataem/t/atam /t
Cardiac output am t / a a / a t
. circulation.mee./m
/ a / a t
e/me t
t/aee/t / a /a t
t ee/ e/ e/ t t / a
t e/ t / / t
e/me e
• The eamount ofblood pumped by heart per mminute .me is called /.tm
e/me etem / e/m e/m e
e/me m/e.tm . .m/t/e.tm m/e.tm . m/e.tm . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
s:tpss: • The flows:/:/of
. m . t m
ts:/:deoxygenated blood /:pss:/ from / sthe : rights:ventricle /pss:/ s: tos
. m . tm. t m / . . t.
m m . t m / . t /
/cardiac output or hea/:pss:rt/ output. Heart /pof s:/ a normal person
tt m:/t/. t m /. / . t / t t m t m /. . t / . t / / t :
/ .
:/ s:/ /t :/ t :/ t :/ / : /: / . //
t . /t :/ t / t / / :/ t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/ : s /
the lungs ht tphhtt and the returnhof httphoxygenated
tphst tpt ttp ttp bloodtfrpt hot tm pt thettlungs
s: s: ps s: : ps
tptpsttptbeats 72 timeshttper
h hh minute and hpumps httphht out about 70 hht ml
s: p s s t s p s p t
tp ttp tp tt p
ps ptpst tpt t tpt tphttp tps ptps p tt
hht hh ht h
to the left atrium is called the pulmonary circulation..
hht hh
h hht h h h
of blood per beat. Thus the cardiac output is 72 x 70 or
h h h
wviw e
iwviwi w e w
i viw
w i i w
wuvviw i viwi vi w e
iwviwi w e w i
i viw iwviw
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l a r ial ar lialar ila ila lialarilial
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e eew eew w e bArteries eew eew
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away from alartherilalarheart.
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� u u u r r vv u u u rr
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uu u r u r r r r ,----> uu u u r u r r r r
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t. mm/tt..mm
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transport blood throughout the body.
hh h hh hh
b eb bbeebb Capillaries
They are extremely small vessels that transport
bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
�-
wveiw
•
bbeebb e e e e eew w bbeebb eew eew
blood from the arteries to the veins. Respiratory
e e w w w w w i w w i w
i w i i eew w i w w w i w
w w i i w vvruuvvi
c____,
w i w i i i i i v v w i w i i i i i
iiwvvi vvruuvv vvruuvv v vrruu w
ii vvi vv uuav
alBlood
ailila is a mobile fluid alaconnective tissue. ilim gases, nutrients
v
lialariliala and wastes are alailialexchanged
v v u Blood u u uu r r ru u v v u u u u v
r u u uu r r r
r uruarru r r r 1
rr a a a l a
l a r uu r r rr r rr a l ilila
a a
throughaam the capillaries withinttathe mttatissues.
ilim iliala alailila iliml ii ilim a ilimalailila ilim
ilim m m mm m m m a m i m m mm m aa//ttam
m m a
mmtaam mttaa aa//tta mttaam m
eem/Plasma
a a aa t a a a t aa t t
1
aa t t ta / / / t t a/ t
/ t // t t / a / / /t
/ t / / t eemee//
eem //ttee// eem // ee ee eemee eem //tee// eem/ ee eemee
ss: • It is slightly ::alkaline, non-cellularssand ss pale yellow :://ss::/
m m . m m m m .m
m m m . . m m //tt::////t.
.
ppststttpps Agranulocytes
..m/m//tt..m mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
tt.:.////tt. . .
//tt:://// t t ..m/m//tt..m mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
tt.:.////tt. . . t
fluid that ttphconstitutes about 60% ttttpof
ptttthetpp blood.
/ / / /
..
/ /t t / /// / / / : : : / / t
/ t / //
:: s :/ / / / : : : /
/ /
ss::/ss:: ss::f------,, ss ss:: ss ss ss
• Granules hh hh are not found hh in h cytoplasm
tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp pststttpp p p sstpp tt ttphpttttpp t ttphpttttpp
t
and are of two types, lymphocytes and
t t t t t h h h h t t t tt t tt tt h h h
hh h hh h hht hh
..
hh h
bbeeErythrocytes monocytes.
They are motile and phagocytic in
b
•
be bbeebb bb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
•uuvvTheyii vv are most abundant vvruuvvcells
ew bbeebb eew bbeebb
nature
i ee eew eew w i w w i i w e e eew eew w i
alailialain the human body alailiwhichla are
w i w w w i i i iwvviw w i w w w
vvriuiuvvi i
v iwiwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi u u u v iw iw vvriuiuwvvi uuavvrr
filled with haemoglobin.
u ur v u u r uu r r r r r u r r a r u u vr uu r u u r r ru u r r r
ilim ilim ilim ilimalarrilialar alariliala
ilim alailiala
ilim ilimalailila
m m m m mm m
ee Formed elementseem �e
m
m m mm m mm a m aa t a a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa m m m
aa//tta a aa
tte//t t a a
ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta /e/ttee//t
t//taea//ttaa H / / / / e t
// eea
t a / / / t
/ t /
ee ee
t
/t e em/ / e
/ / Grant.tlocyte.ss:://ss::
ee e e m eem ee ee
. mm/tt..mm
. ./ .m/m//tt..mm
t t t ..m/m//tt..m
/ . m
. m t . . m t t..mm/tt..mm t ..m/m//tt..mm
/
Granules are present in their
pptstttppcytoplasm.
t / / / / / t t / / / / / /
ttphpttttpp Leucocytes ttppstst:tp:pss
/// /// t / / / / ss:: ss: t
//// ::/// / / / / ss:: ss :
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss::/ss::
• sst:p:p/ss::
• hThey ht hh are of three types hh hh eosinophils hh h
ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp pp ttphpttttpp
They are the colourless cells
t t t t t t tt t t t tttt t t
b ebb L; stain) bandb neutrophils (rakeb(take
(rake acidic stain), basophils
b basic
hh h hh h hh h hhtt hht
LI.
hh h
that show b ebbamoeboid movement.
'-
acidic
ebwstains). e weand
basic
b b b b ebb eb eb b eb bw b ebb b eb
e b
w e w e ebwe
i
e b
i w e e b
i
w w e i
w w eb
evwiwe vi i
w weviwiw e
w e i e e b
i w e e b
i
w w i w i
w w evew i e weiw
i
wvi v ii viw
w vi w v i vi uv i u v uv v wi
iruv vi w vi w vi i v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv i uv
uv uv uvaruruv r uvarur r larur
u uv uvaruruv ruvru r arurliala
1 Blood coagulation
u r
u ar r
u ar ur l l ar ui l i l ar ia r
u ar u ar ur l l ar ui l a l a i l
ar l l ia i a a l ar l l ia a a i a l i a
Platelets
i mi mi l ilaim l amil mi mi l
il ia milamil milamil ialmilia amil il i ilam i
1
milamil mtilam
• Ineresponse t/aee/t to rupture ofethe t evessel
e/ e/ore"d/ amageetoe/tthe
tt/aaem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam /ataem/t/atam amm t mtam t amm t a mtam /ataem/t/atam /ta
They release platelet . factors that help .m/t/e.tin
. the
/ a t am t / a a /a /a t / t
blood, a complex cascade of chemical reactions
/ a t /a t
•
e/me /a t t e/ / e/me e
1------l
e/me e/me e/m e
etem/me e/m .me t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm
I
clotting ofblood /pss:/ (orthromboplastin) s:tpson : injury.

m/e.tm m/e.tm . .mt.m
:/ts:occur which results /:psin / the :formation of /pthe s:/ blood
. m . t .
m . t .
m / t
. m m . m m. t .
m m/.tm . m . m tm.m/.tm / t
. m t /
tt m:/t/. /. / . t / t tm t /. . t /. t / / t :
: s:tps: s://s:/
tptpsttpt clot.
/ . /t :/ t : / t : / :
/ s / /. /t/. /t :/ t / t / / : / t :/ / / : / /: s /
s: /:/pss:/ s : /:pss:/ ps s: t p s s: / /: s : s : s
/ s:
p s s: s s :s
p t p s p
ps tp ttp ps tpt t tpt ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpt t tpt hht hh
ps
tpt t tpt tp ttp hht hh ht h
b ebb
iwviwiHeartbeat
b ebb b ebb b ebb bw b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
ew b eb e b e ebw e w e ebw e i w evewi e eb e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
e w i e w wuvviw viuwviw
i
larilial • The rhythmic uriacontraction and relaxation uialar ofarthearcardiacilar ialar la ila
e w i i e w i i
vi vi iwviwi
w v i i viw
w u v uvv i wuvviw uv w
viruvi v
i w vi i viw iwvi
w uv v
w
u v vi uvavriuwr
muscles m isiliknown
amil as heart beat.mil mi i m
uv r u v r uv r
u r
u ur r
u u u r
u ur r u r r
u
r u
lliaariulialar iilalm arulialar l ar lialar i
a ar u l a r i
a larilial
/ataem/t/at ___, • The heart undergoes automatic rhythmicity
mta initiated
ia i l l a r l ia l l i l a l i i l
mi m m i mil mi mamm mil mi m mamm
taem/t/atam /tam/ta /ataem/t/at /tam
from tSA ee/ node that spreads e/mas
. e .amwave
/ e of contraction
tt aem/t/atam taem/t/atamHeart : taem/t/atam amt/atam taem/t/atam
It is a mesodermally derived organ . that comprises /.tm
/ a / a t t / a a / a t
e/me • t e/ t / t e/
over the right an� left atrial
.m/t/e.twall.
/a t / a t
e/me e/me
.mt/e.tm .me e/m e/me e e
/:p/sts:/:/ 4 four complete
s:/t:/pss:/: chambers (two s:/t:pss:ventricles and twos:/pss:/
.m/t/e.tm em .m/t/e.tm
. m/e.tm . tm.m/t/e.tm. t m . m/e.tm. tm m . t m . t.mt.m /.tm t /
auricles).
t m /. / . t / t m /. t / . / t : /
/. t t / t /: : / :
:/t/.s:/:/t t
s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/
t / / t
s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s:
/ / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
: /
• Right hht hhauricle receives deoxygenated blood frohm the
s: ps p s t p s t pt s: / ps ps ps p t p s t p p t p
ps
tpt t tpt tpt ttp tpt ttp httphht tpstpt tpt ttp tp ttp tpt ttp tt tt tp t t t
hht hh ht h
body and left auricle receives_ oxygenated blood Cardiac cycle
hht hh hht hh httphht hht hh ht h hht hh h h
fromlungs. b
h
• iwIteewiwise the sequence ofebbevents
b
ebb that occurs win bthe
eeb heart
during one full heart beat.
b eb b b b b b b eb b b b b ebb b eb
b eb ebweeb evewbweeb ebw evewbw e weiw
r la•rur These events comprise iruv contraction and uvarurrelaxation
uv uvru of uruv ur ruvruv
ebw ewe
'-I
wview w
ii viwe i e wi w ev i
w i
w w i i vi w vi i w e i w e wi ev i
w w i i
w w i i i
i v w i i v
mil mi the chambers ofliathe heart, associated amwithil opening il il andmilam
v w vi
uvaruruv i
uvaruru v u v uv v w vi vi v i uv uv
u uv r uv r r
u ar u uv r arurlial
taem/t/atam closing ofheart ivalves.
a r ur l a r u l ar u ial i l r
a ial ial lia a r r
u l ar u l ar u ial a r a i l ar ial ar l a i l a ial
i ilaim amil mi mi l
milamil
il ia milamil milamil mtilam
ialm
amm mtam amt/at tam/tam
i
taem/t/atam /t
/a tt aem/t/atam
/a t
e/me/a t am / a /at /
t
t ee/ e/ e/at t a /at
t e/ / t/a
e/me e
e/me e/me t/aee/t e/m e/m e
. m etem
.
/me
t .
m m/e.tm. t .
m m/e.tm . / .tm.m/t/e.tm.
. m etem/m
. t .
m m/e.tm. . m . m t
. .
m m/e.tm . e t.mte.m / .tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
t /
tt m:/t/. / . / . t / t t m / . t / t / / t :
s :
/.
/:/pss:/ s:
/t
/:pss:/ :/ t
s: :/ t
/pss:/ :/
p s
:
/
s:tpss: /:
s :
/ .
:/ts:/:
/ / /
t .
s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / /
s: : / t
/pss:/ s: s:/ / / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
p s t ps p s p t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt
ps
tp ttp tptpsttpt
ps
b ebb b ebb b ebb ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b eb eb e ebw e w e ebw e i w e i e eb e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
wviw w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w
i viw i v i i
wuvviw i viw uv v
i w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w i
i i vi
r
u
v i
u u v
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
vi
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
w w
ii vvi i w w i i
vvruuvv w i i i i
vvruuvv i
u u v vrruu vv v v
ww
ii vvi i w v vi i
u
w vv i vvruuvvi
i i uuavv
alailila 273
uruarru u r u u r r ru u r r r a u u r uu r ruu rr u r ruu r r r
Human
r
r alailila
ilim a a
ilim a
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r
ilimalailiala ilim a iliml ilila
a a
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa eem e/ /
eem e / /
eem e / t a a
//tee// t / t
eem/ ee
t / / /
eemee
t
/ t /
eemee /
/ t ..m/m//tt..m
t / / /
m m .
tt.:.////tt. m
/ /
/ /
m m
tt.:.////tt . . m
: ://
. .
//tt:://// t t .
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ /
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
. . m
/ /
/
. mm
tt:.////tt
/
. .
: /
: //t::////t.
/ t . . t
/ / / ss:: ss: / ss:: ss : sspss / / /
• Excretory productshhareh produced during metabolismhh hh• Kidney ishhpaired, bean, shaped, hh h dark red in colour,
t tttphpttttpp hh h t t t t h h t tt p
t p t t t t t
t thh t t h h t t h
hh h
measuri. r ig 10 cm long x 5 cm broad bb x 4 cm thick and
b b of substances like carbohydrates, fats, amino bbeebb acids or eebbeebbweighing about bb 150 grams ineebbadult male and beebb _
babout
proteins
we b b bband nucleic acids. bbeebb b b e
uuavvrruuv 135 gmsuuvin iwvadult
viiw female. ruuvvriruiuvv
e e e e e e e w w e e e e e e
• rruuMetabolism
ew iw ew iw
of carbohydrates and fats produces CO
iwvviw iw iwvviw
vvriuw iw iwvii ww iw iw iwvviw
vvriuw iw i
vvriuwiwvviw i vvriuw iw uuavvrru
alailialaTheir excretionilialaisilila • Kidney alarriis lialasurrounded byilian alariliadipose tissue icapsule lialailiala which
v u
alailiand alar H20 whichilialaare i easy to remove.
u r u u
rilala r u r ru u r u r r
2 rru u r ru u r r r
alailila
ala ilim
keeps it in place and protects it from external shocks and
ilim
t//taea//ttaa effected through ttaea//ttaa lungs (expired ttaea//ttaair), ski" (sweat) /e/ttee//t or
ilim m mm m m m m m a mm ilim m m m m m m m m m a m
eeinjuries.
m m m m a a a t a m mttaa m m
aa//ttaa aa//tta a a a
tte//t t a
kidneysmm (urine).
/ / // e tta
// ee a / / //tt //tt e // e
ee e eemee eemee e
mm/tt.Ureten are palled ..m/m//tt.smooth mu.sded ..m/m//ttu.bes
..m (about 28//tt.cm
ee e ee e
tt.:.m/m///tt..m
m .m/m///tt..mm
Metabolism / / of proteins ss::/ss::and nucleicttppacids sst:p:pss produce ss::///s/s::/// long) openingss:p:/independently
mm/tt..mm ..///tt..mm ..m/m//tt..mm mm .m t
into
ppststttppthe
:://ss:: urinary bladder
ttphpttttppand
t .
t . / t
/ t / t
/ t / / /
/ / : t .
t . . / t
/ t / t
/ t / / / : :
/// /// / / ::/ ss:: ss
ss::/ss:: nitrogenous ss::/ss:: waste materials
ttphpttttpp such as ammonfa, thtt urea and ttppttttpp pss
tttphpttttpp can-yinghhurine t hh from the kidney.
p
uric
hh hacid.
ttttphpttttpp t tt hh t t h t t t p t t
t t t t
t t hh ht t
hhtt hh hh hh
U:rin.ary bladder is a chamber made of smooth muscles
hh h hh h
A mmonia is the basic nitrogenous catabolite of protein,
bbeeand bb consists of a body where urinebbcollects, and a funnel
®
formed bbby bb breakdown of bbamino

eebb acids. Removal bbeebb of the
b eb
- shaped extension
wveiw eew bbeebb of the bodyiw called
eewweebneck.
b bbeebb
amino iiwvvi group (NHz) v.i.s vknown as deamination and it uuvrruu
e e e e e e e e w w w i i w eew eew
Urethra. is 18-20 cm long in human
w i w w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i
vvruuvv w i i w v i i v v w w
ii vvi i w i w vv male and 4 cm
i i vvrulong
i w
i w vviw
i
in uuav
alaconverts the amino alaacid
iliala into a keto iacid. lialaililaIn vertebrates,
v v v u v v v v v u u
femaleiliand alarilialaopens by ureth:rai alailimi.fl
ala ee or urinary alaiaperture.
uu u u r uu r r u r ruu r r r a uu r u u r u
r u r r u r u
r u r r r
r r r r a a a l a r r a l ilila
a a
deaminaticm. takes place in the liver.
rilala ilim ilim
l ii l ilim ilim lila ilim
Muscular mmtaamm urethral sphincters keep the urethra closed
ilim i m m mm m m m m a m m m mm m aa//ttam
m m a
//tt•ee// Ammonia thus
mttaa aa//tta mttaa
// ee produced is ehighly / ee toxic and ecannot
mmtaam aa aa
except //tee// during the acteeof / eepassing urine out.
aa t t a
t a / / / t a
t a / t
/ t //t t t aa t / ta
t a // //tta a / t
/ t //t t
emmee eemee eemee
..m/m//tt..m be stored tt.:.//within the body. tt.:.///Ittt needs to be ///eliminated
eem emm
•
eem eem
Towards the centre tt.:.////ttof the irmer concavett.:.////tt surface of::/the
m m . m m m m .m
m m tt.. m m m . . . .
/tt:://// tt . ..m/m ..m mm . . m m m .. //tt::////t.
. . t
inunediately.
t / / / / / / t t t / / / /
sst:p:p/ss::kidney is a notch ppststttpps called hilusttttpor pststttphilu.m throughttttpwhich
/
/ / / t / / / / / : : : /
/ / / t / / / /
:: s : / / /
:: ss :
ss::/ss:: ss:: ss: ss:: ss sspss pststttpp
ss
ttttphphttttp
• Depending upon the hexcretory
ttphpttttpp
product, an.imals show the hht hh blood vessels, hh hhlymphatics vessels, hh hnerves and ureters enter
ttphpttttpp p
t tttphpttttpp hh h t t h ht t h h t ttp p t t t tttt h h h h h
following types of nitrogenous excretion or leave the kidney.
hh h
ew b eb
Ammonotelism
bbeebb : The bbeebprocessb of excreting bbeebb ammonia ®eebbeebbThe glandularbbpart bb of the kidneyeebsurrounds beebb a largeeecavity bbeebb
aquaticrruuvvrruuvv called ren.al isinus which extends vvriuiuwvvi from theuuvhilus vriruiuvvi and
eew
iisw ammonotelism. vvriuiuwvvi Many bony vvriuifishes,
i e e w eew w w w i w i w
i w i w
i w e e e e w w w w w i ww i
iw iwvviw i i iwiwvviw w i
vv uuavvrr
alarrilialar amphibiansilialaand
rilala aquatic insects alaiare liala arTuttonotelicilialin contains alarrilialathe
rr ren.al pelvis. alarilialThe a renal pelvis alailialisa funnel
u ur vv u u r u u r r ru u r u a u u vv uu r u u r r r r r
ailila alailila
shaped expansion of the upper end of u.:reter an.d fom1s
ilim
nature. Ammonia, as it is readily s�liluble, is generally
ilim i ilim mm mm ilim ilim ilim mm m
2-3 ou.tpockets called
aacalyces.
m m m mm m a m m m m m a
excreted ee eby diffusion across ee ebody surfacesmor through
m
m m m a aa t a mmttaa m m ttaa aa//tta a aa
tte//t t a
t//taea//ttaa / ttaea//ttaa
/ / ttaea//tta
/ e /e/ttee//t t a
t a // / t
/ t // / t
/ t e / / e
mm/tThere m are two distinct ..m/m//tt..mm zones in kidney-an ..m/m//tt..mm outer, darker,
// ee ee ee ee ee em
gill ./ .m/surfaces
m//tt..mm (in fish) /as ..m/m/ammonium ions. tKidneys do
ee e mm eem
tt.:.m/m///tt..m
mm/tt..mm t/ t..mm t.:.:/m///tt..
sst:p:p/ss:: reddish brown sst:p:p/irenal
/ ss::/ cortex ands:://san
sttpps: inner, lighter ppstsr-en,:ul
.
ssnot
:://ss::play a..o.JJ.y signifi
ttphptttctppant role in itshhremoval.
t .
t . / t t t
/ t / / /
/ / t .
t . t . / t
/ t / t
/ t / / // / :
/// /// / /
ss::/ss:: ss:p: ss /// /// : :: ss
ss::/ss::
medulla hwhich ht hh is made ofhh8-10 hh conical subdivisions
ttttphphttttp ttpp
hh hUreotelism h:h Excretion of urea is known ashhttthhtt
ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp t p p t ttpp t t t t ttpp t t t tt t t
called 1re:mll py:ramids. The lateral boundary of each renal
t t h t t t hh h h
ureotelism. Un-ea is less toxic and less soluble in
hh h
b ebpyramid is delineated b ebb by darker cmiical b ebb tissue b ebcallede:renal
water b ebb than a1nmonia. b ebbMammals, many b ebterrestrial b
column of Bertini. A portion of eeach e nephron is located
b ebw b ebb b eb
ii vamphibians and vimarine fishes mainly excrete urea
be b e b e b e e ebw e w e i e ebw bw ew ebw e weiw
in both the ircortex and medulla uvaruruvalthough vru the major uvarur part
wveiw w e i w e i w e i w i w wi i
w vi w w e i e i w e i i w i
w
v w vand are caHed urureotelic
i w w
uvaruruv animals. uruvarur
w v i vi w uv vi u v
r larur
vi uv v wi vi w vi w vi w i w v i v i w uv vi vriuv uv
of eachlial nephron is found iin liamithe l cortex.
u ur uv r
u u ar l l ar u i r
u uv u uv r
u r u ar r
u l r u a larurliala
milamil Uricotelism tt aem/t/atam: Excretion of tt aem/urica acid, is lmo\VTI. taem/t/atas
ar l a r l a r ial i l ia lia l a a r l ar l ar ial a l a i l ia l a i l li
a
il ia milamil
i
mtilam amil miammi mtiammil
ia il i ilamamil i mi mi
amm amm mtam taem/t/atam /ta
uricotelism. e/me Animals which e/me live in dry conditions
t am amtam t
tt/aaem/t/atam / a / a /
t t
e/me/ a t am
t/aee/t / a /at t/
t ee/ e/ e/ a t /at
t e/ /
t a / t a / t/a
e/me e
have mto/e.tm comieirve water m/ein . their bodies. /Therefore,
e/m e/m e
m etem /me
. . . t .
m tm .t m.m/t/e.tm. m etem/m
. . m/e.tm . m . m tm. m/e.tm . e t.mte.m / .tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
they /:pss:/synthesize crystals /pss:/ of uric acid from s:tps:ammonia. s:/:/ts:/:
.
tt m:/t/. / t
. m / . t . / t tm. / t
. m . t /. t / / t : t /
/ .
/:/pss:/ s :
/t : / t
s: : / t :/ /: s /: /. /t/.
s :
/ t :/ t
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / t / /
s: : / t :
/pss:/ s: s/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
hht hUric
tpt ht tpt acid crystals
hht are
tpthht tpt non-toxic andhhalmost t tphhtt insoluble ht tptphsttptps
s: ps t p s ps p s p t ps p
tptpsttpt
ps p
tpt t tpt tp ttp tpt t tpt ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
hht hh in water. Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects h h
excrete
b ebb nitrogenous bwastes
ebb as uric acid b ebin b the form ebb ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
iwviwiof pellet or pasteviwiu\¥1th w a minimumviloss wuvviw of water anduvviruvi
b ebw ebw
eb e e eb w e w e ebw
i e i w e i e i w evwiwe e eb w e w e ebw
i e e e i w e
wuvviw viuwviw
i e e
w iwviwi i viw iwvi w uvavriuw
r u are called uricotelic arulialar animals. lialarilialar
viw uv vi w
r u v r uv r
u v vi
r
u u v r
u r
u ar u uv v
i w
r uv r uv vi w
r
u uv u v u r
u uv v i
ur r u r r
u r
a larilial urialaru l a r uialar ar ar l ar lialar ila ila ialarilial
tt aem/t/Some
mtiamm animals perform taem/t/atam two modes taem/t/atof
miammexcretion. That
/ataem/t/at is
i l l a r ia l l i l ia
il mi i l
m i mamm ilaim
amil
amm
il mi i
amm tam /tam/tam
m mm
amm tam tam/tam ataem/t/ata /tam
e/me called dmd excretion. Earthwo'11ns e/meexcrete ammonia .mwhen
/a a t/a t/ a e/ t /at /at t/at t/a t/at e / /
t a e/ t/
e/me e t ee/t e/mee/ e/ e e/me e e .me .mte.me
.mt/e.tm .mt/e.tm
water is available wlrile
sufficient
.m/t/e.tthey excrete urea instead of
e/m
t .
m m/e.tm . /.tm.m/t/e.tm. / t
. m m.
t/ tm
. / t m. m/e.tm. /.t .m/t/e.tm
m . .mt.m / t
. m.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m
/ t/.tm : / t /
: s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
ammonia s:in/t:/pssdrier surroundings. s:/t:pssWhen lung fishes andXenopus
/ t : / :/t/.s:/:/t t t / / t / / :/
s:
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/
t :/:
p s :/: t p s s:/tpss:/ s: / s:/t:/pss:/: s://s:/ ps s:/t:pss:/: s:p/ s: t p s p
(African hht hhtoad) live ill water hht hh they are nonnally hht hhammonotelichhttphht tp
ps ps
tpt ttp tpt ttp tp t t p tps t p s ps
tpt ttp tp ttpL.S. ofhhuman tpt ttp tt htt p tp t tp p
t t t
tpt t tpt hht hh htFig.: ht hh kidney hht hh ht h
hht hh h
w The st"i'ucrural and functional unit of human kidney is
h
but they become ureoteHc when they lie immobile in moist
air or mudebbduring their metamorphosis. Crocodiles b en.ephron. Approximately one million b eb(b= 10blacs) nephrons
ebweeb spend bb b ebb b eb
b b b
are present in each kidney.
b b ebw b ebb e weweb iweew
most ofviw their time in water and are nonnaUy ammonotelic
be b e b e b w e eb e w e i e ebw ebw bw e weiw
wveiw e w e w e i i w i i w
r larur• It is of two
w v
itypes
e e w e i i
: (i) Cortical uvarurnepluon
uv uvru (abouturuv80-90%)
w i i w w vi i w i i w i v vriuv
but awhen rruulvaruruv kept out ofilwater uvaruruvthe excretionurof urea and uric
i viw vi w v i vi w v vi u v uv v wi vi w vi w vi i v v i w uv i uv
uvaruru u uv u v ur u arurlial
whichmiliare almilia superfi cial and amoriginate
il ilmil in cortex, amil having
u r
u ar r r
u r
u a r r
acid
milamincreases.
ar ial i l a r ial ial lia a r u l ar l a r ial a r a i l ar ial l a i l a lial
il ilia milamil milamil mil mi ilaim ilam i mi mi
relatively short loops of Henle m(deals with amm the contro1 of
tt aem/t/atam taem/t/atam amm mtam taem/t/atam /t
tt/aaem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam /a am a m t t a t / at a /a
blood
t/aee/tvolume), (il) Jmlamedullary nepl:nrm1.s
. e t.mte(l m0-20%)
/ a e/me/a t
e/me t / at /a /
t
t ee/ e/ e/ a t a t e/m /a
t e/ t / t e / t
e/me e
e/me e/m
etem /me
HUMAIII EXCRETORY m/e.tm SYSTEM m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. etem/m m/e.tm m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
are present at the junction between cortex and medulla
m . . . . . tm m . . . m m . . tm
/:/pss:/ ® Huma.n /:psexcretory system /pssor :/ ureotelic system s:tpss: consists
.
tt m:/t/. / t
. m / t
. m t / t/ . t .
m / t
. m . t . / t
. m t / / /
t . : t /
/. /t t t :/ : /: / . /. / t t t / t :/ / / s:tps: s://s:/
: /
tps tps and have long tpt loops
pstpt tof
t ht phttHenle (deals
tpt t tpt with tp increased tpwater
s s: :
/ / s: :/ / :/ts:/: /t s :/
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / / s: : /
/pss:/ s: s / : / s
of hpair
ht hh ed kidneys, paired hht hh ureters, urinary hht hhbladder and hht tphhttp retention, when
s : : p s t p s s: / : p s p t ps p
ps
tpt t tpt tpt t tpt tp ttp p tt ttp tp tt
hht hh water is in short hht hhsupply).
tptpsttpt ht h hht hh ht h
hht hh urethra.
be e b ebw e e ebw e w e i e eb ebw e e e e ebw e e
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w e
i viw i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv vi w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi
w e
i viw iwviw
w i v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
vi
u u v
a r u uv
r larur la r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
vi
uvaruruv a r r
u u
uvarur ru ruv v
a r u u v
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a m am t a am m am t / a
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t
e/t/ae/t /t e/
/a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
wvv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
274
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m m
m a m i m m mm m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / / a t tt //
• tt..mEach
/ a t t / / /
eem enephron is made up of Bowman's capsule with
/ / t / / eemee
through 3 layers, i.e., the endothelium of glomerular
eem e eem e eem e eem//tee// eem/ ee eemee
mm . m m mm .m
m m mm . m .. t . m m mm . //t::////t.
.. t
ss::/ss:gJomerulus andss:tubules formed ofss::proximal convoluted
m//tt..m m .
tt.:.////tt. tt.:.////tt . //tt:://// t m m . . . . t
blood sst:p:vessels, the epithelium·
ppststttpps ofBovVman's ppststtcapsule and a tppssttppss
// / //
/ / //// : ::// / t
/ ..m/m//tt..
t ////tt.:.////tt ////tt:.////tt
: :://
/ :/ : ss: sspss //ss::/ :: s : :: ss
tttphpttttpp tubule (PCT), ttphptttHenle's loop, distal
ttphpttttpp convolutedhhtubule
ss
ttttphphttttp basement p membrane tbetween these two tlayers.
tpp p p t t t tpp tt
hhtt hht
(DCT) and collecting tubule (CT) or duel.
t tt tt t tt tt t t tt h
hh h hht hh hh hh hh h
e The epithelial cells ofBowman's capsule called podocytes
hh h hh h
b b •The glomerulus is formed by the branches of afferent b arewwan-anged
bbeebb in an intricate bbeebb manner so aseebto beebleave some eew bbeebb
arteriole which interconnect to
we eeform tuft of capil1aries
b bee b b b b ee b b b
eewwe b e b eew b
minute
uuavvrruuv spaces called iwfiltration slits orvvislit iwvvipo.res.
ee w w w i i i w e e w w w w iw
capped by vvriBowman's capsule.
vvriuiuwvvGlomerular membrane
w i w i i i w i w
vvriuiuvvi i i
wiwvviw iw i vvriuiuvv v iw vviw iw uuavvrru
membrane ®mmaiimmBlood is filtered alarso rilalarfinely throughilithese alariliala membranes,ilithat
u u u r r vv u u u u u r r
consists alaof ii -capillary endothelium, basement
u u u u r u r r r r u u u u r u rr r r r alailila
rrlalar alariliala alailiala
ilim lalailila r alailiala ilim
a//tta has split //ttee//t almaSt all the constituents ofthetplasma aa//ttaa except the/proteins
ilim ilim ilim
t//taea/an
mttaa epithelium made ttaea//ttaaof podocytes//ttaewhich
i
and
m m m m m m m a a m m mm m m m m m m a mm aa m
m a a t mttaa aa//tta a a
tte//t t
pass ontoeethe mm lumen of thett.Bowman's capsule.mmTherefore,
t /
mm/pores
eem e thatrestrictpassage
..m/m//tt..mm of colloids.//tt.The .m/m///tt..mmefferent arteriole
/ / / e t a
t
// ee a / / / / t / t e / e
ee e ee e em ee ee ee ee em
it is considered as a process / / of ultra.filtration.
/// //from the glomerulus ss::/ss:: forms a finepcapillary sst:p:p/ss:: network taround
t . . ./ .m
t t / t t //// t . m
. m tt.. /
mm/tt..mm
. / / t
/ ..///tt..mm
t / /
/ /
t / / / / sst:p:pss : t
/// /// / / / :://ss:: / :: s :
ttttphpttttpp renal tubule, tttphpattttppminute vesselttttpof tthin network hthe tphphtruns e
sst:p:p/ss::
ss::/ss:: tt Glomerular sst:p:p/ss:: filtrationttpoccurs p because the ppstspressure
t pp
t of the t ppststttpps
t
hh h parellel to the hh Henle's loop forming hh hh a U-shaped vasa recta.
t t t p t t t t t
hblood
htt hh flowing in hthe ht hhglomerular capillaries is higher
t h t h t p
t tt t t t t t
hh hht t hh h h
PCT is continuous 'iVith Bowman's capsule and is lined by than thebb pressure of the filtrate in Bowman'sb capsul�.
highly cuboidaleebepithelial cells. The bbcells
eebb bear microviili Giomerular eewweeb filtration does bbeebbnot require theeebexpenditure
e b eb bbeebb b beeb bbeebb
beebb
on the free surlace iiwvvi (luminal side) vvruuand vv rest on a basement
w e e e e eew
of energy
vrruu by kidneyvvicells.
wvi w w w w w i w w i w
i w i i eew w i w w w w i w
w i w w i i w i i i i
vvruuvv i v v v w w
i vvi i w i i w i vvruuvvi
i i uuav
membrane
lialarilial(high absorptivelalafunction).
v u u vv vv
e mmiliThe
v u
l ii kidneys havelalbuilt- ariliala in mechanisms alaforilialathe regulationiliof
u u u u r uu r rruu r r r a uu r u u rruu r r u r u
r u r rr
r r r r a a a l a r r a l ilila
a a
• iimiliala alailila l alailila ilim
Loop of mmtaaHenle mm consists ofaaamttathin walled descending aa tubule //ttaa//ttaglomerularfilatration
a ilim ilim
mmtaamm rate. O_ne such mtefficient mechanism. aais
i m i i
m m mm m a m m m mm m m aa//ttam
m m a
that //tmakes
tee// a sharp hairpin // ee bend in the eupper / ee medulla ee ee
a t a a t t ta a aa
t tta a / t t //tt
carried out eby jux!a glomem!ar
eem/ eapparatus (JGA).
aa t t t / / / t / / t a
//tee// t / t / / /
eemee/ / eemee
.for
.m/m///tt..the
m cortical nephron, tt.:.////tt. -and deeper tt.:in
.////ttthe medulla for
eem eem emm m m . mm e e m m .m
m m m m . . . t . m m m m . m //tt::////t.
. . t
sspss @ JGA ssis:://ssa::/special sensitive :: s :region formed :: by s cellular ppssttppss
m . . //tt:://// t m
..m/m//tt..m m .
tt.:.////tt. tt.:.////tt .
ss::/sthe
/ s:: j uxtamedull.ary ss:: ss: nephrnn. Distal
ttphpttttpp convoluted htubule
/ /t t / // / / /
/ / : : /
: / / t
/ t / /// / /
/ / : : /
: /
ss:: ss
modifications in the distal
tttphpttttpp (DCT) commences ttphpttttpp as a short, highly ppststttpps convolutedttttubule ppststttpps
and the hhtt hht
hh h convoluted tubule in
t t tt ttttphphttttp ttp p t ttpp tttt t tt t
afferent arteriole at tile location of their contact.
t h t t h
the cortex ofjuxta medu.Hary region. Collecting tubule
hh h hh h hht hh hh hh hh h
ew b eb (CT) drains a number of ducts of b DCT b b in the cortex. b b It
b b ® A falleein bbeglomendar
ebb filtrationbbeebb rate (GFR) ecan bbeebactivate
b the eebbeebb
descends to the tip
iw ofmedulla to vvriuiform
wvvi the collecting vvriuiuducts
b b b
JG vvrcells
uuvv to release wen.in iwvviwhich
iw can stimulate vvriuiuwvvthe i glomerularvviw
i ee bbee eewwee eewwe e w i w w ee e
iwvviw w i w w i i i i w i w w i w w iwvviw iw i
of Bellinirruwhich empty viaaacalyces into renallapelvis.
iw vv iw uuavvrr
alablood
ilila flow and thereby alarrilialar the GFR back alarilito ala normal.
u v v u u r u u r u r ruu r r ruua r uu vv uu r u u r r ruu r ruu r r
r r r alailila
alailialar
The smooth muscle cells of both the afferent and efferent
l iliala
ilim iim lailiala ilim ilim ilimalailiala ilim
ilim mm m ilim m m m
arterioles t//taea//ttaa are swollenee//and ttaea//ttaacontain dark /granules. These
m m mm m mm a m aa t aa m m
mttaa real:isorption m m m m m a m aa t a a
m ttaea//tta //t
/e/ttSelective t111:i11lar a t aa//ttaa ttaa//tta / tte//t
/
tt.:.m/m///tt..mo As much
a t
eas
m99 per cent of the ..mmaterial in the ..m/m//ttfiltrate
..m is
/ ee t t / / / / / e
mcells
m//tt..mm are called /juxtoglomerular cells.
..m/m//tt..mm The granules
ee e e ee e e m // ee / eemee eemee e em
em tt.:.m/m///tt..m
./ .m/m//tt..mm mm
ss::/ss::are composed smainly
s:: ss: of inactivesst:renin. ://ss::/ Renin converts reabsorbed, sst:p:p/ss:: preventing sstthe
:://ss::loss / of water, :nutrients, and ppsst:p:pss
t .
t . t t / t
/ t / /
/ / t .
t m
. m/ t .
t . / t
/ t.. / / t
/ t / t
/ t / / // / :
/// // // : / ss:: ss: /// /// ://s::
ttttphpttttpp angiotensinogen tttphpttttpp(present in thettttphpblood) thttpp into an.gioten.sin. ions ttthhtfrom the body hht hh
ttphpttttpp pp pp ppststttpps tt t t
hh h The latter increases
t t t t p p t t tt tt t t ttt hhtt hht
blood pressure.
hh h t hh hh
Reabsorption occurs within three regions of the nephron
hh h hh h h
•
The epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubule that and in the collecting duct,ebbbut ebbmost of it takes bplace
eeb wewithin
@
b b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b b ebb b eb

come in contact Vvith the afferent and efferent arterioles evware
b b eb bw
eb evew
the proximal convoluted tubule.
e b e ebwe eb w e e b w e w i we i weviwiw e e w e ebw e w i e weiw
w e i i i w w e w i i w i
more denseuruthan varuruv the other tubular uvarurcells
uv and are collectively
wvi w ii viw i w v i w v w i vi i i w v i w i i v w i i
w vi i uv w v w vi uvarur ruvruv
i
®
u v i v uv
Depending upon the types of molecules being reabsorbed,
v uvarur uv r larur viruv uvaruruv ruvru uv
u r r
u u uv r r
u arurliala
called mthe almiliamacula densa. iaThe
mil cells of macula amil densa
ar l l a r u i l l ar ial ial ar lia ar r
u l ar u l ar u i l a l ar ial l a l a i
a l
movements into mtand out ofepithelial mticells
am aoccur mta by passive
a i
ilam mi mi l almilia liamil ilmia a l i
amil
ilam i i mi mi l
ilaim mtilam ilaim
mayt/afunction as chemo:receptors; feeding t e/ information ee/me
am amm t taem/t/atam m
a amm t mtam taem/t/atam /ta
transpowtmeor t/aeactive
e/t transport.ee/m
t am t /at / a /at /
t a t/a t am /at / a /at t/ a t a / t/a
to ethe juxtagfomerular cells. The juxtaglomerular cells
/ a t ee/ t / a t
t ee/ e/ e/ t t e/ / e/me e
e/mee/t m/e.tm
e/m e/m
m/e.tm.e .m/t/.tm. e/m m/e.tm
e/m
. e t.mte.m
e
.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
Water/:/and ts:/: urea, for example, /:pss:/ are / sreabsorbed /pssby :/ passive
. m/.tm .
/:/pssand / macula densa /:pss:together form sthe /pss:/juxtagllomerular
. m
tt m:/t/. t m. / t
. .
m / .tm. t / /
t .tm tm. tm. /.t .
m . m t . m /.tm. t / / /
t .tm : t /
/ . / t : / t : / t :/ /:
s:tps: s /: @ /. /t/. /t : / t / t / / : / t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
transport, tptphsttpt by which they httphht move
tpstpt ttp ttfrom regions
ht tphht hoftt hhigher
/ : :s
tptpsttpt apparatus orhttpcomplex.
s: : s: ps : t p s s: s: s : p s s : s p t ps p
tpst tpt tpt t tpt tp ttp ps p t tpt p tt tp ttp tp tt
concentration to regions of lower concentration (water
hht hh h hh hht hh hht hh h ht h h h h h hht hh ht h
fOIIMATION Of 1.11111\iE is reabsorbed b ebb by osmosisb and urea by simple b ebbdiffusion).
The formation of eb urine is the wresult ebwe of the fo11owing
b b b b ebb b eb
Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active
b b bw ebb b eb
ewbe b e b b
e e b e ebwe e b w evewi e eb e ebw e e e ebw e e
process: ruv uruv
e w e i i w i i e w e w i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i
w w uvavriuw
transport. The reabsorption of Na
i viw iwvi
occurs by both passive
@
iwviwi i viw
w wuvviw viruvi iwviwi w
vi vi w
r uv v i r uv r uvv i
ur r
u uvar u uv vi w uv +
r uv vi r uv v u r uv vi r
u u r r
u r
Glomerular filtration ori ultra filtration il of mi the blood ammtammand active transport.
uialar ar uialar u l u
ar lialar i
a larilial urialaru r a r u
uialar ar ar u l u
ar lialar ila ila r ialarilial
l a
iamil r ial l ia i l l a
iamil r ial l l i l i a
il mi i
m mm l
il m il mi i
tt aem/plasma by the glomeruli.
mtilam amm amm at®e/t/a mtilam amm amm tam /tam/tam ataem/t/ata /tam
.me Water ismereabsorbed in all parts / ee/ ofethe / e tubules e/meexcepte e
/a / t
a /
t tam
a t/ t
a /
t tam
a e / /
t t
a am /a t/at /
t tam tam/tam
a /
t t
a /
t a e/ t/
/a t e / / e /
Selective reabsorption by the .tubules (useful
e/me t e/mee/ e/me t ee/t .me .mte.me
the ascending limb ofloop of .mHenle. mAbout/.tm 70-80% . t.mof
m/e.tm . .m/t/e.tm. .m/t/e.tm tm .mt/e.tm e/m
. .m etem m .m/t/e.tm .m tm .mt/e.tm
t m / . . t / .
substances s:/t:such
/ts:/: as sugar, salts, s:/t:psswater are selectively
. t m . tm tm / . . t /
electrolytes :/t/.s:/:/t and waters:/:/pare reabsorbed s:in
/:pss:PCT. This
t m /. / . t / t m /. t / t : /
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/
/ t :/: :/
s:/tpss:/ :
/
/. / t
ts:/: :// :/ t / / t /: s:/ s: / / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
:/
reabsorbed hht hh from the glomerular hht hh filtrate to maintain
s: p s s: s p s
ishttpcalled obligatoryhht- water h h reabsorpt:ion,
s
hht hh i.e.,h ith occurs h h h h
ps p s ps t t p ps ps t s ps t p p t tp p t p
ps
tpt t tpt tpt ttp tpt ttp
hht hh
tp t tphst tpt tpt http ttp ttp tpt ttp tt tt httpht tt t
the constant internal environment).
hht hh h
irrespective of hydration state of body.
h h
Secretion by the b tubules ( the tubules
b ebb secrete certain b ebb • PCT also ebw ehelps to maintain
b ebb b ebbthe pH and ionic b ebbbalance b eb b ebb b eb
substances ii vilike
b
urea, uric acid, anions, etc., from the
b b e b evew bw
of the body fluids by selective secretion of
ebw
hydrogen
e e e b e eb w e e b w e w e i w e i w e i
w ebw e w e e wew w i e weiw
w w e i w i i
w i
w vi w vi w vi i w e i i v i
w i i
w i i
blood into
v the tubular lumen for excretion into the
wvi w vi w v i v i uv v w vi w i i v
uvarur ruvruv
i
ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the filtrate and by
v w uvaruruv uvaruru v u v
r larur v w
iruv i uvaruruv ruvru v uv uv
u r u v r
u u r
u r
a r
u l ar u i r uv u r
u ar r
u a l arurlial
uriue).
u a r ar l l i l ia a u ar l ar l a l i l a l ia
taem/t/ataabsorption ofHco- 3 from it. The tfiltrate in mtPCT m becomes
a r l l ia i a milmmi l a r l ia
amil il il a i a l i l
milamil
il ia i
milamil milamil mtilam
ialmilia ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
tt aem/t/atam tt aem/t/atam amm amm mtam taem/t/atam /t
e/me isotonic to blood t/aee/t plasma.
tt/aaem/t/atam /a /a /
t a t am / a /a /
t at t a a /at
t e/ /
t at / t a / t/a
e/me 11ltrafiltratio11 e/me e/mt ee/ e/ e/ e/m e e/me e
Glomernlar etem /me filtrationmeor . of blood /.tm .m/t/e.tm etem/m . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm
•
m/e.tm . m/e.tm m/e.tm . .mt.m
• Reabsorption in Henle's loop is minimum, however, this
. .
/:/psTI1e / first step inpurine /:pss:/ formation ispsthe /pssfiltration of blood,
. m
tt m:/t/. . / t
. .
m /.t m / t
. .
m t / t t .
m m . / t
. .
m . m t . m / t
. .
m t / / /
t .tm : t /
/ . /t :/ t : / t :/ /: /: / . //
t . /t : / t / t / / : / t :/ / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: /
plays tpsaptsignifi cant roletptin pstptmaintaining hightpt t tptosmolarity
:/ s:tpss: :/ts:/: /:pss:/ s:/ s: /pss:/ s: s s
tptpsttpt which is carried tpt tout
stpt by the glomerulus.
tpt t tpt The glomerular
s : s: s: s: t ps s: / s
: p s s: p t ps p
ht tphhtt
p ps
t httphttp ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh capillary blood hht hh pressure causes hht hhfiltration of hblood ofhhmeduUary
t tphhtt interstitial hht hh fluid. hht hh h h hht hh ht h
be b
wveiw e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw
w v
i i w i
wuvviw i
viw v
uvi w e
iwviwi
w we
v
i
we i
i viw iwviw
w v
i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a rulvarur
u
v
u
r
a u v
u
r larur lar
uv
urialarur
r
u
v
i
uvaruruv r
a r
u
v
u
uvarur ru ru v
r
a u v
u
r larur ruar l r
a uriualvar
amil
ilam ar lial l
amil
ilam
ialm
a t m alm
m
a m
a t a m
a m m
a t / a
m
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am t
t/at /t/a
t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i ww
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
Human r
r a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila 275
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m mm m
m m m
m a m i m m mm m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e/ /
eem e / taa
//tee// t / tt / /
eem/ eeAfter enteringeemm /t
/t ee //
eemee
eem e mm . m eem ® the proximal ormm .m
t..m/m//tt..m
t /
mm .
tt.:.////tt.
/
m
/ //
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
: //
.. t
//tt:://// t .
t ..m/m//tt..
t
m //
mm .. m
tt.:.////tt distal convoluted / // . mm .
tt:.////tt.
: ////t::////t.
t .. t
//
/ / //
ss:: ss:
/
ss:: ss : sspss: /
/ / / //
:: s : /
ss:: ss : tubules, sthese :
s ss
ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps chemicals ttphpttttppare mixed hwith ttphpttttppthe
ttttphpttttpp tt tt hh t tp
t p tt t t t
t t tt h tt h
hh h hh h hh h hht hh hh hh hh h glomerular filtrate and are
b b bbeebb bbeebb eliminated bbeebbfrom body with bbeebthe b
w w eew
i w i w
i w
eew
i i w ee bbeebb urine. w eew w w w
eew
i w iwi
w i w w i w
i w i i i i w i v v w i w w i i w i i i i i
u
i i w
vvruuvv i
r uu vvruuv
r
v
rruu vvruu
r
vv rr
vv
uuarruu u u vvi
u
i
u
wvv i
r uu vvruuv
r
v
rruu vvruu
r
v v rruuavvrru
u alariliala alailila r alariliala alailila
alarrilialar
ilim ilim alailiala
ilim mm
ilim
m alarrilialar
ilim
COUNTER-CURRENT
ilim MECHANISM
alailiala
ilim m
m
ilim
m
m m m
m m m
m a m aa ta a m
mttaa m ® m
m Flow- m of filtrate m
m a in m the l.imbs aa t aa
m
t//taea//ttaa /ttaea//ttaa
/ //ttaea//tta /e/ttee//t ttaa/ /t
/taa//ttaa //taa//tta
t //tte//t
e
ee e ee e ee e e m ee// ee / ee ee of Henle' s loop ee ee is in opposH-e e em
t. mm/tt..mm
. / t..m/m//tt..mm
t //t..m/m//tt..mm
t ////tt.:.m/m///tt..m t.
t.mm/tt..mm / t..m/m//tt..mm direction,//tand
t ..m/m//tt..m
t
m
thus forms counter ////tt.:.m/m///tt..m
t
/// /// /
/ / / / ss:: ss : /// /// / // :://ss:: / sst:p:pss :
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: current. ppststtThe
pp flow ofblood ppthrough
ttttphpttttpp ttttphpttttpp tttphpttttpp
t tt t p
p
tt t t ttpp t tt tttt t tttt h ttt
hh h Impermeable hh h to water hh h hh h hhtt hht hht hh the tvvo hh hhlimbs ofvasa recta hh his also
in a ccnm.te:r cur.rent patten1.
b eb bbeebb
wveiw e bbeebb e e bbeebb e e bbeebb H20
eew w eew bbeebb® The proximity eew bbeebb betweeneebbthe eebb
I-aarrCollecting
w e
i w w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w pNa +
i w
i w v v i i w i w Henle's i w
i w loopi i w and vasa recta,
i w
i w i w
i w as
iiwv i
uruavvrruuv r uuavvrruuv
v
rruuavvrruuv 0
v v
uuavrruu duct uu
w
vvriuiuvvi well ras
u u vvruuvv
the
r counter cunent r ruuavvrruin uvvthem r ruuav
r r l l a r r r l ilila
a a
ilimalailila H20 ilia lailila
m m m
ilimalailila
m --1,.-w
m m
ilim
l ii
m i lialariliala helps ilimalailiala
m in maintaining m
alailila
ilian
m m increased m m
ilim
m
m
mmtaaPermeable aa mmttaa a a mt aa
Urea
t ttaa//ttaK'
..I,.- a mmtaamm a a m mttaa a a m t aa the -inner //ttaa//tta
t a
a
//ttee//a t to water t t / / / t t / / // t aa t / tt osmolarity
/ / to,vards / t
/ t // e
eem ee// ee ee/ ee ee t->H ee co3
eem //tee// ee/ ee ee ee ee e
..m/m//tt..mm
..mm .. m t . mm/tt..mm
. t .
t mm/tt..mm NaCl
. / /t ..m/m//tt..mm Urea (bottom
t . m
. m t . . m tt..mm/tt..mmmedul1ary interstitium, t .
t mm/tt..mm
. /
i.e., from / /t t /
tt / t t t / /// // / / / tt:////t portion of
/// /// /// // / s::
s ::///s/s::/// Hypertonic /// //fluid
sst:p:p/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: p p sst:p:p/ss:: collecting
s s ::///s/stubules
: is permeable sst:p:p/ss:: 300 mOsmolL- sst:p:p/ss:: 1 in the cortex p p sst:p:p/sto
p s p p t p p t t tp p t t t t
t t t t t p
ttpttt p p t p p t about 1200 ttp p t mOsmolL
t -1 in the
t t
t t t t t
inner
ttpttt t tt of Henle htt hht
hhtt hhLoop hh hh to urea contributing high ttt tt hhtt hht hh hh
hhtt hht h hhtt hht ofmedulla). hh hh
osmolarity medulla. This gradient is mainly
Final urine
b eb bbeebb reabsc:rptioneeand bbeebb bbeebb caused bybbNaCI b and uirea.ebNaCl beebb
ew
i Fig.: Process e e bbeebb of uitrafiltration,eeselective
w w w w w i w w tubular secretioniw in
i w
eemammalian
i w
i w nephroneebbee
bb
is transported w eewweeb by the ascending w w eiww i
iwiwvviw iw vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuiuvv i vvruuvv iwiwvviw iw iwvvi
vvriof i ii vv i
u vv u u r uu r r ruu r r ru u
a r u uvv uu limb r u u ru u HenJ.e 5
s fo:op r ruu vvrwhich
ruu is r ruuavvrr
u rr alarilialof ailila r alariliala alailila
@ arr Descending
ilimlailiala limb ilim a loop of Henle alailialais permeableilialto
ilim m m mm ilimalarrilialar exchanged
ilim with theilialadescending
m
iliala
mm
ilim
m
m m water but is almost
mm m impermeable mm a m to electrolytes. aa This
t aa m m m m m m m a m aa t a a
m
t//taea//ttaa concentrates / ttaea//ttaa
/ / ttaea//tta
/ /e/ttee//t t a
t a /
mttaa
/ t
/ aa//tHmb
t aa of vasa/ttaJreda.
t / a//tta NaCl is //ttee//t
ee ethe filtrate as iteemmmoves e down. The e m:filtrate // ee / ee ee eemeeinterstitimn by e em
. .
ee e
mm/tt..mm become t t mm/tt..mm
./ .hypertonic to blood t ..m/m//tt.plasma.
t . / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ . m
. m t
eem
. . m t t..mm/tt..mm returned tott..mm/the t
/ t..m / tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/
t t /
/ // / / /
:://ss::/ / / t t / t / / / / the ascending / / / / / / :
/// /// ®
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: ss:: ss: :///s/s:://
/ / /
sst:p:p/ss:: :://ss:: ss::pss
ttttphpttttpp
Ascending
t tttphpttttpp limb ofloop + tttthtt
ppsstof tpp Henle+is impermeable t ttphpttttpp to water ttppstst:portion
t p
t p of vasa t ttpp
recta..
t t t Small amouJJts t t
t ppststttppof
t 11.u ea enter t ttphpttttpthin
the
t
hh h but
hh permeable
h to Khh, CC h and Na and partially hh h permeablehhtt hht hht hh hh hh hh h
segment of the ascending limb of Henle's loop which is
to urea. The filtrate becomes hypotonk to blood plasma. b ebb
b eb Therefore b ebbas the concentrated b ebbfiltrate pass upwa:rd, b ebb it gets transported ebw back to the b ebbinterstitum by the b ebco11ecting
b b b tubule. bwb ebb b eb
e w e eb
i w e i w e e b
i w e i w e ebw
i
w e i
w w
®v
e
i i
w e
This mechanism w e ebw
i e helps to maintain
i w e ebw
i e waew e
co:rncentraiti:om. i w evew i e weiw
wvi w dih:o:ted
v ii viw due to the passage
w vi
uvaruruvw v i w of electrolytes v
uvaruri to
w uv vithe medullary u v
r larur
vi u v v wi
irthe vi w vi w vi w
uvaruruv ruvru Presence i v i vi w u v
uvarurof such i vriuv uv
u
ar r
fl
u uv
u
l ar r
id.
u uv
l ar r
u i l i l ar r
u i
a l ial ar u
lia gradient
ar r
u in
uv
l ar u uv medulla:ry
l
i.nte.rstitium.
ar ur
ial a i l ar r
u ial l a r
i
u
l a i
a larurliala
i a mi mil liaman a l lamwater mi mi l
®mi m
lial In ilia distal con.voluted milamil milamil taem/t/atam
interstitial
mtilam
ialmiliagradient helpsmiin il easy il passage
i
amm
iof il mifrom
am taem/t/atam /ta
tt/aaem/t/atamof sodiu_m ions tt aem/t/atam tutntles1 there
/ a tt aem/t/ataism active reabsorption
/ a t/a
e/me of the t collecting
am / a tu.bule /a amt/atam taconcentrating
thereby
t
t ee/ e/ e/
mtam /t
a
t e/ e et/at amthetafi.ltrmte
/ / t t/a
e/me e
e/me from the filtrate e/me under the influence t/aee/t e/m e/m
m etem/me
. . m/e.tm . . m/e.tm. by cortex /of t m.m/t/e.tm. m
/m
etem
(urine).
. Human kidneys . m/e.tm. mcan m produce . m. e t.mnearly
m/e.turine . m fou:r t m.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
.
tt m:/t/. aMoste:rone /.tm (hormone secreted
/ t
. m t / t . adrenal tm. /.tm . t . /.tm t / t / t/ . : t /
s:
/ .
/:/pss:/ glands). s :
/t :
/:pss:Water
/ / t
is reabsorbed s: : / t :/
/pss:/ here underpsthe :
/ s /:
s:tps: influence s:/:/ts:/: times concentrated /. / /
t .
s :
/t
/:pss:/ than
:/ t
: / t / /
/ s: the initial s: : / t :/
/pssfiltrate
:/ s:pformed. / /
s : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /
ps ps t
tp ttp ps s ps
tpt t tpt ttp tt t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt tpthht tpt tpt t tpt hht hh by posteriorhht tphhtREGULATION
tpstptps tpthht tpt KIDNEY tp ttp hht hh ht h
hht hh
ofhhtantldiu:retic hormone hht hh (ADH) secreted hht OF ht h hht hh h h
fUI\ICTIOI\I
lobe of pituitary gland. This makes the filtrate i§otonk
b to blood b ebbplasma. b ebb b ebb ®
ebw b ebbOsmo:regulation b
is the regulation bof water a.nd soh.l!te
b fluids by the b eb b b b ebb b eb
ew b e e b e eb w e w e eb w e i w e i e contents of theeb e ebody
b e ebw kidneys.
e e eThis isiwbrought e ebw e weiw
e w e w i i i v w e w w i i
vi ®
u
In
v vi iwcollecting
w u v vi wi duct, vifurther
r uv w
r
i viw reabsorption
uv r uv vi wuvviof
r
u
w water takesuvvi uvi
r
u ar
w
r
u about by
uv v iwviwi
controlling
i w uv the amount
r uv vi w
r
u
i viwof water
u v v i
u
w
wvi withviwuthe
r uv r
u v viw help
u vriuv r
u uvavriuwr
r u
arulialar becomes more u larilial r uialar ar arand ofisodiumu u r larilial
lliaariuliaplace.
r laru Now the filtrate iilalm i l ar liconcentrated
l
a ar which li
a oftlle a r urialaru A.DH (nsopressin)
hormone i l a r l al ar lialar il(sail) a i l a li
a
i a
mtilammi plasma. Thetam i
mtamm l
iamil a
il mi i m l l i il mi m m i
m mm
mi m makes the filttrate amm tamhypertonic to taem blood
aeentire/a with mtilathe
m help of the/athormone amm tam tam/taaldosteircme amm tamand a proteinsa ataem/t/ata /tam
tt aem/t/atam duct is permeable
/a t/a /
t a
e/mee/ to water. eThus t/a / /
t a
e/me a considerable e/ t/
amount / t /at am /a
t ee/t and angiotensin. t
e/mee/ e/ et/a t/at e/ /
t a / t / t e/ t/
e/me
m/e.tm .m/tis/e.tm. reabsorbed in/.tm m/.tm
.the . collectiJJg duct tm.mundere.m
/.tm
e ere.nm
m/e.tm
/m
.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
e/me e e
.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m tm .mt/e.tm .me .mte.me
t .
m . of water /.tm t /
t . / t the t m. . /.tm / t
. m / t/ . : / t /
s:
/. t
/:p/sts:/:/ influ
t
:/t:/pss:/: of ADH. Sodium
sence
/ t /
s:/t:pss:/:is :reabsorbedtin p s
:/
s:/tthe
p
:
/
ss: collecting s:A11tidi1.1retic /:/t/.s:/:/t t
s:/t:/pss:/: s://s{Alli!)
hormo11e
t :/ / / t /: s:/ s:
:/t:pss:vasopressi11
sor
/ /
:/
ps ps t p p s ps ps p p t t p p t p
ps
tpt t tpt
t p
ht tphhttunder the i.nEluen.ce
duct tpt ttp tp t
hht hh The filtrate is
tpstpt
httphht ® Excessive
t tp ttof
ht tphhtloss p ttp tpt http the
h ht h body hactivates
t tt httphht htt ht
hht hh h hht hh of aldostenme. h h h h fluidhhtfrom
now called urine" Thus, urine is hypertonic to blood osmorecepton, which stimulate the hypothalamus to
plasma. b b b b b eweb
b b e b
release ADH bor bvasop:ressin form b ebb.nen.rohypophysis. b ebb b eb
b eb e b b eb e b e eb ebweeb w e i ebwewater eb reabsor_ption ebw efrom ew b eb evew bw eof weiw
e T111!11!arviwi seuetio11 w e i w e i w e i w i w e i
w i
w v i w ADH facilitates w e i i w e i latteK" pa i w :rts i
wvi w vi w vi w vi w vi
uvaruru w v vi u v
r larur
vi u v v wi
irtherebyvi w vi w vi
uvaruruvdiuresis.
w i w v i vi w u v i vriuv uv
u ® arTubular ruulvaruruv secretion i(laclearance rr ulvaruruv rate) refers
u l r
a r
u i lto the addition ofi l ar u ia
the tubule, r
u uv ar u u v preventing
ar r
u l r u vru An increase
l ar r
u i
uvarur rin
l a
u
l a ial arurlial
ia i a mtilammia l a r l l ia a a
ilmil osmorecepto:rs i a l i l
il ilia
milamselected materials mtilam amil
from the bloodamm ilamil ultrafiltrateam body :fluid
mtilam
ialmiliavolume switches ilaim
amiloff the mtilam amil i and mi mi
tt/aaem/t/atamthus increasing tt aem/t/its
/a a volume. It e/occurs tt e/tto
/a /atamthe t/at eand
/ t/ a suppressest am / a the ADH /atamm
:re]ease /
t at tto
a mtcomplete
a /at am
the
t e/ e et/ a feedback
/ t a mtam
/ t/a
e/me e
taem/t/atam /t
mainly by e/active t/aee/t /mt ee/ e/ e/ e/m
etem/me m!Ietem.
/me
. m/e.tm .meand PCT. /.tm .m/t/e.tm.me etem/m etem
mthe . m . m/e.tm . e and m . m tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
m . transport. . takes place in DCT
t m m .
Alcohol inhibits . releasem . of ADH
t m . t caffeine / .
/:/pss:/ • The chemicals
.
tt m:/t/. / t
. m / . / . t / t t .
m /.tm / . . t / . t t / / t : t /
t t : : / . t t / t / / s:tps: s://s:/
:
@
/. / t
/:pss:/ :/ s :/
/pby : /
s:/ tubular secretion / /
s:tpss: include / . / t
:/ts:/:interferes with ADH /t :/
/:pss:/ action : / /
/ s: and sodium s : / :/
/pss:/ reabsorption /
:s : / s /
s : s: removed p s : s t ps s: / ps s: s p s : s p t psthus,
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tpt t tpt
p
ht tphhtt are toxic at ht tptphsttptps both these hartifi tpt t tpt httphtdilute tp the tpt ht tpt httphtt hht hh ht h
hht hh
foreignhht hh bodies and -ions hht hhand moleculeshthat h h ht hh cially hht hurine.
elevated levels.
e be e b e ebw e w e ebw e i w e i e eb e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
wviw w e
iwviwi w e
v i w w
i viw i v i i
wuvviw i viw uv vi w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi w w i
i viw iwviw vi wuvviw viuwviw
i i vi
r
u
v i
u uv
a r u uv
r larur la r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/ t/ am
t/at /t/a t t / a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
vv
ww
ii vvi i w w
u
i i w
vvruuvv i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
rruu vvrruu v v vv
w w
ii vvi i w
u vvi
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
rruuavv
u
276 r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l iil l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m m
m a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
m
m a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa / e /
eem e/ /
eem e / taa
//tee// t / tt
eem/ ee
/ / /t
/
eemee
t //
eemee
• Under eem ethe deficiencymmeof emmADH, a disease called <liabetes mm . m
HAEMOl>IALYSISll>IALVSIS/ARTIFICIAL
eem KIDNEY m mm .m
/ t..m/m//tt..m
t // /
.
tt.:.////tt. ////
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
:://
.. t
//tt:://// t .
/ t ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ //
mm .
tt.:.////tt .m
//// . mm .
tt:.////tt.
::////t::////t.
t .. t
/ insipid
/ / us is caused :: ssin: which the output
/ ss:: ssof urine may reach
: sspss e Whenss::/the /
/ ::/ /
:: ss: ss:: ss : sspss
ss::/ss:: pststtplace
ttpin tpp ofnormal t1.2-1.8 ttphpttttpp litre/day. Frequent ttttphphttttp ppss kidneys are ppststtcompletely
tpp ttphpttttpp and do hhttttphphttttp
damaged
tttphpttttpp20-25 litre/day tt t h not tp
t p tttt t t
t t tt
t
hh h hh hh
urination and thirst are the symptoms of the disease.
hh h h hht function,
t hh t4e patient hh hh often receiveshh haemodialysis h
(treatment
b b bbeebb bbeebb with an artificial kidney). Haemodialysis is
beebb by use eebbeebb
we A11giote11si11-II eebbeebb ee bbeebb ee the w e
separation
e
i w w of certain eeb b e e bb
substances fromeebblood
iw
iwvviw
iwdecreases, thevcells w i w w
vriruiuwvviofthe juxtaglomeru.lar
w w
vvriuiuvv i w
i w i i wv i
iwvviw iw membrane. w i w
vvriuiuwvvThe
i w
pores inuuvvruiuvv
iww iw iw i
• As blood pressure
u u vvriuwu r u u rruu r of
r uuavvraruuvselectively permeable
r u u vviw
uu r uu r rr r rruuavvrru
apparatus ar
alarrilialrelease the enzyme alarilirenin
ala fil}d activate iliala renin
alathe ilila
alathe r rr alarilialato pass through, alailiala alailila
ilim
m membranemiallow lialariliala some substances ilim
angiotensin-aldosternne pathway (RAAS).
ilim ilim ilim mm ilim ilim m
m m
m m m
m m mm a m aa ta a
tte//t however, prevent m m
mttaa others. Thettaapatient m
m m is connected mm
aa//tta to
a m aa t aa
ttaa/
mttaa
/ /t
/ aa//ttaa
t //ttaa//tta
e // e ttaa// // //ttaa //tt e //tte//t
e
ee// ee converts angiotensin.ogen
Renin ee ee into ee
ee angiotensin I..m em ee// eeby a tube attached ee ee to an artery eoften e ee em
..m/m//tt..mm then converts tt:./m///tt..m the machine ..m/m//tt..mm the tt.:.m/m///tt..m
@
. .m//tt..mm
mAngiotensin converting t..m/m//tt..mm enzyme (ACE)
t / tt / // ..mm/tt..mm t..m/m//tt..mm
t / tt / //
tt
/// // //
// : / /
// : / /
ss:: ss : radial ::///s/sartery.
t t::/// Blood from / /the artery is spumped
// /
// : / into a /
:: s :
ss::/ss::angiotensin tItppsinto st:tp:pss: angiotensintppsn, st:tp:pssa: peptide hormone ttphpttttpp sstthat sst:p:p/ss:: st:tp:pss:
pdialyzer t ppststttpps
ttttphpttttpp that is the active t t t t t t tt t t tube t p
p
tt p
t p runs through t ttpthe
p tt t clialyser. The t t
t t p tt is filled t t th
hh h hht hh form. Angiotensin hh hh II has the following hh h hhtt hhtdialysis fluid which
with
hht hh contains thehsame h hh quantities ofhh h
effects:
b eb electrolytes bbeebband nutrients asbb normal plasma but contains no
Raises blood bbepressure directlyeeby bb
bbeeconstricting blood bbeebb bb tube (a tubeeebbounded beebb bbeebb
wveiw ee e bb e e w waste w w
eew
products.
i i w The cellophane ee e e by wweeiw
vessels (being
vv
w
iiwvvi i ww powerful w
vasoconstrictor).
i i
vvruuvvw i w
i w
u
i w
i
vvruuvvw i i w
thin r u u v i i v
vmembrane)
r u
r u v
is kept vv
w w i
iiinvvthe ww
i dialysis fluid.vvuThe i w
i w
u
i w
vv membrane uvvuuvviw
i w i i
r uuav
uu u u r uu r rr u r r a u u r u u r ruu r r rr u r r r
r r
I n c araerlaalas e s the synth
r
ilim
r
alailiealas i s and r eillialeaaililsae of a a a
lil ithe
iof l l a
i cellophaneilatube r r r
lailiala is impermeable alaito
ilim lialablood cells and ilimalailila a iliml ilila
a a
ilim
aldosterone.
l ii m m m m m m mm a m m i m m mm m aa//ttam
m m a
aa mmtaam ta
ta mttaa
/ ttaa / t
/ aa
t / t
/ aa//ttaproteins but permeable
t a a mmtaamm to urea, uric ta
t a /
mttaaacid, creatinine t a
t a /and
t
/ aa
t / t
/ t
tee// t
//tAldosterone causes eem // esodium
e / and water /
eem/ eereabsorption mme.emmee mineral ions. t
//tee// t / / ee
ediffuse / /
eemee/ eemee
eem eem So these wastes emm from the blood m to m m .m
/ t t..m/m//tt..mby the distal//part / /
m m . m
tt.:.////tt.of the tubules. / /
/ /
mm
tt.:.This
/
. . m
//tt also leads to
/ : /
:
. .
//tt::////
/
t t .
/ t ..m/m//tt..m
t / //
mm .
tt.:.////tt. / /
/ /
m m
tt.:.////tt..
::////tt::////t.
. . t
/ / / ss:p:pssblood : ss:p:pss GFR. : sspss the dialysis / / fluid across the
/ :: scellophane
/ : membrane. ss:: ss Thus : sspss
ss::/ss:: an increase ttphptttin pressure
ttphptttand ttttphphttttp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ttphpttttpp without hhttttphphttttp
t tttphpttttpp t t t t t t h h the tblood
t p
t p t t t is cleared of nitrogenous
t t
t t waste products
t t
hh h May stimulate hh h the posterior hh h pituitary to release
losing
hht hhplasma proteins. hh hh
Such a process of separating small
hh h
b eb ADH.
ew @ These changes eassist bbeebb in restoring extracellular eew bbeebb fluid volume eew bbeebb solutes eew eebb macromolecular
bbfrom bbeebb colloids with eew bbethe ebb help of weew bbeebb
i e w w ww i w i w
i w i i w ee w wvvi dialysis. vvii vviw
w w i i
iwiwvviw iw blood pressure. vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuiuvv i a selectively
vvruuvv permeable iwiwvviw iwmembrane isvviuicalled i
and in stabilizing
u vv u u u u r r u u r r u
r u r u vv u u u u r r u r u u r u
r u r uuavvrr
r
ur
alarrilialar peptideilial{Al\11')
r
ariliala r
alailiala
ilim ilim ailila the blood isaarreturned
alNow a u
rlalarr to the patient's alariliala body through
r r
alailiala
ilim ilimalailila
Atrial 11atri11retic ilim m m iliml iradial
i ilim m m
m m mm m m mm a m a a mt aa a vein usually m the
mttaa m vein. Haemodialysis
m m m saves mm aand m a a m t aa
e ANP
mttaa
t//taea/hormone produced / ttaea//tby
/ taa the atria of//theart, taeae//tta increases ee//ttee//t prolongs the//ttaalife / / t
/ aa//ttaa
t /ttaea//tta
/ /e/ttee//t
ee e / ee e ee m eemee of many / patients.
eemee ee e mm.mm
e
t .
t m
. m//tt..mm excretion
sodium
/ t t t/ t..mm decreases //blood
./ .m/mand
/ / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm pressure and
t / /
/ tt.:.m/m///tt..m
/ Bloo d t . m
.
cont
t m/ t .
t . m in Pump/tott..mm
ained / /
circu
/ t
/t..mlate / t
/ ..m/m//tt..mm
t / / ///tt.:.:////tt.
/:://s/s:blood
/:/ volume.ssANP : / / : :
: ss is released ssinto : : / : : /
ss the blood stream :: s s : / / /
::/ss:: tube / / / blood: / / : : /
through : /
: / : : : : s s
sspp cellophane s :pss yser ss ss ssp
t
ss
ttphpttttpp in response-tosrretching ttttphpttttpp of the
t t tttpp muscle cells
ttphptatrial h h ttttphphttttby t (tpnot
t p eable to ttttpptstttpdial
pststttpperm ,0t tttphpttttpp h h ttttphphttttp
t
hh h hh h hh h t
hh largehh m olecules) hh h h / h
Jh ) h
increased blood-volume. (? '}.___,
1
b
�j:;;_:;;;;:;;;:f1
wiiI' / \.
b b ebb b b ebb b b b ebb b eb
Ii 1r:- '
• ANP has the following b ebb physiological b ebeffects: bweeb b ebb
be b ebw ebw e evewbw e evew i ebw f . eeb 'we ewe evew bw e weiw
wveiw e e i w e i i w i i
w i we e i w i i w i
===
w i
ii viglomerular w w i v i i i w w i w i i
I / ,.��:;
Increases w w filtration
vi w vi rate by dilating
vi uv w vi w vi w vi i v
uvarur ruvruv
i
'J) i
Jn
v uvaruruv uvarur uv u v
r larur 1 ! viruv uvaruruv t ruvru v uv uv
uv arurliala
\\
u r
u uv r
u ur r
a r
u l l r
a u i '\� r
u uv u I 1/j r
u ar ur l a l
afferent ar l ar arterioles. l ar ial i l ia lia l a ar l ar l ar ial a l a i l ia l a i l li
a
l
iliamilia
i
milamil mtilam amil mi mi 1,, , - i.:ilia l ilia ;" 1 iliamil milmi amil
ilam i mi mi
ammtt am the collecting
tt/aInhibits tt aem/t/atam ducts fromt/ataem reabsorbing taem/t/atam i D1alys1s mtam flmd
m ;J,.'ll :( m
amt/1atamRadial t amm t a mtam / taem/t/atam /ta
a
(V
/a / a /
t a /
t
e/me a t am / a /at t a t a /a
t e/ t/a / t / t
e/me e
e/ e/me and indirectly e/me(by / t/aee/t fa t ee(/ I eveto
e//m / e/ \ ee/m e
.m/t/e.tm . e t.mte.m .m/t/e.tm
I� : IT�� r u
etem/mesodium, both directly inhibiting tm etem/m m/e;.tm
,',=""=-=-""'WJ!
. m . t .
m m/e.tm. t .
m m/e.tm. / . .
. m . t .
m . mI . m ) t m.m/.tm / .tm . .mt.m
t /
tt m:/t/. aldosterone :secretion). /. /:/t / . t / t t m /. . t / . t / / t :
t : : /. t t / t / / s:tps: s://s:/
:
'
/. /t :/ / / . /t :/ /
�ir--�
: /
/pss:/ /
s:tps: s :/ts:/: /t :/
/:pss:/ s:/ s: / / : /
/pss:/ s: s / : / s
s
: /:/pss:/ s: /pss: ps s: t p s s : / ps s: p s s: p t ps p
t•ptpsttpt Atrial natriuretic
ps
tpt t tpt peptide h(ANP) tpt t tpt works opposite ht tphhtt
p
tptpsttpt
ps
tpt t tpt tp ttp tpt t tpt ttp tt tp ttp tp tt
hht hh to RAAS. When hht hh there is higher ht hh blood volume,h ANP hht hh k, hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
bJJ
inhibits renin secretion b ebb by juxtaglomerular b ebb cells and b ebb bw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
ew b eb ADH by pituitary e b gland. It inhibits e ebw e NaCl reabsorption w e ebw e i w evew i e eb e ebw e e e w e ebw e e
v i v
i w e
iwviwi w e
v i
w
i viw
w uv
i
uv vi i
wuvviw i
uv w
viruvi vi w e
iwviwi w e
v i
w
i viw iwvi
w u v
i
v
w
uv v i wuvviw viuwviw
i i
uvavriuw
r
and concentration uv r u v of urine. r uv ur r
u ur r
u a r u uv r uv r uv r
u u u r
u ur r u r r
u
l ar urialaru i
a l ar uialar ial ar lialar li
a larilial l r
a urialaru - ialarulialar larilu a r·;; ilar ialar la ila
a l i li
a larilial
The renin-ang- i i otensinmilam mi
system l and ANP mil mifunction tamm/atamm Used i ilaim
amConstant il mi i il mi i
m mm
®
milamil taem/maintenance taem/t/atam /ae/t dialysing /atamm
il (body)
amm Fresh
tam tam/tam amm tam /tam/tam ataem/t/ata /tam
tt aem/t/atam
anatogonisitically
/a in the t/a /
t at of /
t a
fluid/electrolyte e/ t t e/t /at temperature t/at t/a
dialyzing
e/ / e t/at e/ /
t a e / t/
metm
e/me
.m ee./me .m/t/e.tm
e/me
.metm .me solution ee/m
.e
bath mee./mesolution
. /.tm .mte.m
e/me e e
.m/t/e.tm. t.mt.m .metm .me eme
tm.balance
/. . and blood/.tm
t /t
pressure.
/.tm /.tm
.
/t/.tm:/t/.
t/.s:/:/t/. A schematic diagram tm.mtm
t /t show t / /.tm / / /.tm / /t/.tm:/t/. /t.m/t.
/ :/t/. /:/t : ps s/:/ s:/:
/t
s:/: s:/:/ s:/:/pss:/
/:p/Fig.: s:/t:/pss:/: tokidney ://s:/the working
/t
s:/t:pss:/:/ s:p/ s: s:/t:/pss:/ s:/ s:/
ss:tptpss: OF OTHER
tpROLE tptphsttptORGANS INht tptpEXCIIETIOI\I
stptps ps
tpthht tpt
s: ps s ps t s
p tp p
• httphht httphtt
s of an tpt http ttp ttp
artificial t p p t
htt p t
h t
h h h ht ht
h h t t ptphst tpt h t h h h h t tphhtt htt ht h
h h Our lungs remove large amouuts of CO2 (18 litres/day)
h h h h h h
and also significant quantities of water every day. Liver, DISORDERS Of THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
binebbour body, secretes b ebb bile-containing b ebb • Kidneyebstone b ebb b ebb - formed by eprecipitation b ebb b b b ebb b eb
e b eb the largest gland eb e we eb w e we ebw
i e i w e i
w w e (Renal calculus) ebw e w e bw e wewe wevew bw
i e weiw
wvi w substances like we i w
ii viwbHirubin, biliverdin, i
w v
i i
w cholesterol, v i
w vi w of uricvi w v i acid or oxalate i we i
stone may pass i
into
w vi i
w the i i
ureter v i
w i i
u uv v w
r v
u r
u
vi
uvaruruv r
u
i
uvaruru v
ar
u v
r larur
u u v
uv v w
iruv v i w
r
u
vi
uvaruruv ruvru v r
u uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
arurlial
degraded lsteroid a r uialar hormones, vitamins
r u l ar i
a l and drugs. The
i l r
a ial sweat i
a l
and lia bladder. a r r
u l ar u l ar ial a a i l r
a ial l a i l a lial
and sebaceous mtilam
iamil glands in the ilaim
amil
skin can eliminate
amil
ilam certain milammi mtilam
ialmilia amil il il
ilaim amil
ilam i mi mi
t am /at amm/ at /at amm/
t at t/ataem/t/atHaematuria @ -
t m
a passing
a of blood/atin amm / aurine.
t a mtam /atammt/ at t a mtam
/ t/ataem/t/atam /t
substances / a
t/aee/t through their t
t ee/ secretions. Sweat /t e/ produced mee./me t/aee/t/ t
t ee/ e/ e/ t /t e/ / e/me e
e/m
etthe etem
mis
/m
. . m etem.me tm. /t/.tm Diabetes .insipidus /m
etem - excessive
e/m
m/e.tm. urination, m andtm . etem
.me t.mte.m
mdrinking
e
tm.m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
by m . sweat glands . a watery fl u id containing Na Cl, m . . m
@
.
tt m:/t/. m /.tm / . / t
. m /
t . /t/. tm / t
.m . t . / . t/. / /t/. : t /
s
:
/.
/:/pssmall
s: / amounts of s:
/t :/ t
/:pss:/ lactic acid, petc.
urea, s: :/ t :/:/
/pssSebaceous glands ps
:
/
s:tpss: /: of fluids
s: /
/
:/ts�.
:
//
t .
: polydipsia. s:/: s:/ :/ s:
/ /t
s
:/ t / t / /
s: :/ t :/
/pss:/ s: s / / : /
p s s:tps: s://s:/
:
/ s /
ps s t
tp ttp e Pyehmephritis ps p s p s
pt t tpt ttphtt p t
tp ttp tp tt p
tptpsttpt eliminate certain tpt t tpt tpt t tpt hht hh
tps ptps - inflammation tpt t tpt tp tof tp renalhttpelvis,
hht hh ht h
hht hh and wa.xes through hht hh substances hht hhsterols, hydrocarbons
like
h ht tphhtt hht hh ht h h hh h calyces
sebum. and interstitial tissue.
b b b b b b b eb b ebw b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
wviw e
iwviwi we w w
i viw i i w
wuvviw i viwi vi w e
iwviwi w e w i
i viw iwviw
w i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
w vi v i uv w vi v i
r
u
vi
u uv
a r u v
u
r larur lar
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u uv
r larur ruar l r
a uriualvar
amil
ilam ar lial l
amil
ilam
ialm
am am t a m
a m am t / a
a
t /am
e/t/aee/t
t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/at t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t /a
e/t/ae/t /t e/
a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
w w
ii vvi i w w
u
i
vvruuvvi w i i
u u
i i
vvruuvv i
ww
ii vvi i w
u v vi i
u
w
u vv i
u u vvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
r
r
ilimalaililaa ilima a
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r
a a
Human ilim i 277
mm m mm
t/taea//ttaa
m m mm
ttaea//ttaa
m mm
ttaea//tta a m mmtaamm a a mmttaa m m m
aa//ttaa m t aa//ttam
t
mm a
t//taea//ttaa / / / / / t a a t / t t / / / t
/ t eemee/ /
•
eem e //tee// eem/ ee
//tt:://// due to I //tt..m/m//tUraemia
eem e eem e eem e m m eem eemee m m m
t ..m/m//tt..m
t Glome:rulonephritis / /
m m
tt.:.////tt.. m - inflammation /
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
. . m of glomeruli //
. . m tt. .
t.. m - accumulation /
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
. . m of urea / / . mm . . m
tt:.////tt in blood due / //tto
/ t . .
: /
: //t..
/ t
/ // / / / ss: / /
:: ss etc. : :
sspss: / / / /
:: sof: kidney. It is highly / / :
:: ss harmful andssmay : : ss
ss::/ss:: injury, ss:: bacterial toxins,ssdrugs, sst:p:p/ss:: malfunctioning ppststttpps failureottttppststttpp ttphpttttpp
t tttphpttttpp t tttphpttttpp t tttphpttttpp h h ttttphphttttp t t p
t p t t t lead to t t
kidney/renal
t t h h h t t h
I
w w eew
i w i w
i w
eew
i i w ee bbeebb
w eew w w w
eew
i w iw
i
iwvviw w
vvriuiuwvvi i w
vvriuiuvv i : CONCEPT iwvviw vvriuiuwvvi i vvriuiuvvi
uuavvrruuv MAP uuvviuw
iw v iw
u u vvriuw u r u u r r ru u r r r r u r u u r r ru u r r ruuavvrru
alarrilialar alariliala alailiala alailila alarrilialar alariliala alailiala alailila
Regulation aa//tof aa kidney
ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim
m m m m m m m a m m m m m m m m a m
ee// ee appara�smm(eJGA ..mm ) is special region
m a m a
-
m a m a
tt.:.m/m///tt..m ' Juxtaglomernla:r tt..mmformed by cellular
m m ttaea//ttaa ttaea//tta a a
/e/ttee//t t m mttaa aa//tta a a
tte//t t
t//taea//ttaa eem. .e .
/ // t a a / t t t //tt / /
.·.m-
/ t / / e
mm/tt..mm -I1. ,- •..,"·"."-· ·.;
e / ee ee eem
modifications
;
mm/tt..mm in the DCT
.and afferent arteriole
..m/m/supplying Bmvman's
ee e ee e m e ee
' ss:: ss
"1
..m/m ..m/m//tt..mm tt.:.m/m///tt..m
capsule.
. . t t / tt t t / / . . t t . / t t t t / / /
Depending tttphpttttpp upon the excretory ttphpttttpp product, animals
t
/// /// t / // / / ' / '/ / / / / : t t
/// /// / // / / / /
:://s::/ / /
:: s/ :
ss::/ss:: ss::/ss:: sst:p:p/ss::
rl> •hhttJG thhtt cells contain granules hht hh of the proteolytic hh enzyme renin whichhhactivates
ss::/ss:: ttphpttttpp sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps ppststttpps
showhh hthe following types hh ofnitrogenous excretion.
p t t
renin - angiotensin - aldosterone pathway (RAAS) that leads to the
ttttphpttttpp t tt hh ht t t p p t t t t p t t t t t
t t t t h h
h hh
activation bbeebbof-angiotensin - II.
hh h
Angiotensin n increasesethe bbeesynthesis and release bbof eebbaidosterone. eew

Ammonotetism
b eb
Aldosterone causes sodium and waterreabsorption by the distal part of
vvruuvvithe
bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
wveiw •
bbeebb e eew bb
ii•wvviExcretion of ammonia. vvruuvv It is readily vvrsoluble,
e e e eew
tubules .
®
w ee w w i w w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i w i w
i wv v i i w w e w w i w w i i w i w
i w i w
i i v w
ii vvi i i uuav
ilila excreted by diffusion.
vv vrruu vv
l iAntidiuretic hormone lialariliala (ADH) or vasopressin alailiala from posterior alailipituitary
v v u uu uu u
r u r ru u v v u u u v v
r u u u u r r r
uruarru r r u u r r
aa aquatic //ttaa//tta facilitates waterreabsorption
r r
mmtaam • Bony fishes, mttaa aquatic amphibians,
rr r a a u r r l ilila
:fromDCT mttaaand CT
r alailiala ilimalaililaa ilima a l
i l r r ilim a
la ilima a
alaI-,
ilim ilim ilim
insects.
®
i
a t aa m m
t a
t amm
/ t t
m m m a m
aa mmtaamm ta a m m
tta a mm
/ t aa
t
m
//t aa//ttam
t
m m a
//ttee//a t // eet / / /
eem/ ee / eemee t
//tee// t / t / / / / / eemee
eem eem/ ee eemee
sst:Ip:pssNephron
eem m m . m eem m m m .m
t ..m/m//tt..m
t /
m m
tt.:.////tt.
/
. m
/ /
mm
tt.:.////tt
/
. . m
: /
. .
//tt::////
/
t t .
t ..m/m//tt..m
t /
m m .
tt.:.////tt.
/
m
/ /
m m
tt.:.////tt
/
..
: / //tt::////t.
/
. . t
ttttphphttttp f-> • Nephron is the structural
ppand t functional unittttof kidney. Each nephron is
/ / / : / / / :
'
/ / : / / :
Ureotelism
/ / ss:: ss: ss:: ss sspss / / : :: s ss ss
ss::/ss:: sst:p:p/ss:: ppststttpps
' hh h
ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp ttphpttttpp
hmade
ht hh up ofBmvman'shhcapsu]eand tubules.
tttphpttttpp p p t tt t t t t t
' Excretion ofurea. It is less toxic.
t hh h t t t t h h t t t tt tt hh hh h h h h h
hh h
--> • bbMannnals, terrestrialbbee and emarine
fishes.
eewwamphibians
ew b eb bb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb
i e e e e bb eiw w w
eew
i w e e bbeebb eew eew
w w w w i i i w i w w w i w i
vv iw iwvviw iw
u vvriuiuwvvi i
uuvvriuiuvv i
r ru u vvruuvv
r vv iwiwvviw iw
u vvriuiuwvvi u u vvriuiuvvi r ruuavvrr
u u u u
Bov,.1 111an 's capsule encloses a tuft of a glomerular capillaries .
u u r r r u u Bo,'llm:m.�s r r r
ur
alarrilialar
r
alariliala r alailila a
alarrilialar
u r alarilicapsule
r r alailila
•
ilim alailiala
ilim ilim ilim ala 1 alailiala
ilim ilim
The epithelial cells called
aapodocytes of Bowman's
aa//ttacapsule form //tte//t
ilim ilim
Kidney
m m
'
m m mm m mm a m aa mmt a a mmttaa m m m m m m a m aa mmt a a
f-> mme.efiltration slits through mm/tt.which
eemee ultrafiltration iseemcarried
ttaa
..m/m//tt..m out. ////tt.:.m/m///tt..m
m ttaea//ttaa aa//tta tte//t
t//taea//ttaa / t t / / t a a / t t // / t
/ t
./ .m/m//t•t..mmPaired, bea.11-shaped, ..m/m//tt..mmdarkred in colour .
/ / / ee e e e t
// ee // / ee e em e
Gtomerular filtration / / occurs due sto:://ssthe : pressure gradient
ee e ee e I ee I m//tt..mm
sst:p:pss,:outer and ss::///s/s:•:/// between
tt.:.m
ss:p:p/ss:: • Two distinct sst:p:zones - (i) :renal cortex
mm/tt..mm mm .m
glomerular sst:p:p/ss::capillaries andpBowman's sttpp : capsule. ttppststttppss
. . t t / t t / / / / / . . tt . t .
t . / / t t
ttp)hprenal
t t / /
//ss::/ / t t / / / / / / :
darker; (ti thttp medulla, inner ttphpand
thtt lighter, it is ttppttttpp
/// /// / / ::
ss::/ss:: tttphptttf-+
made up of8-1 0 conical :remd pyramids.
ttttphpttttpp t t t t t t t ttpp t t t tttt p t t t t h
hh h hh hh hhtt hh hht hh hh hh hh h
b ebb I
hh h
b s b ebb b ebb b ebb 4 IebTubule, b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
be e b ebw e ebw evew bw e weiw
-
e b w e e e w e i w ebw e wewe
wveiw e e w i e e w
1
e w w i i w e w i i
)
i i w vi i i
Prm;:im.a] Convoluted 'futm.les (PCT
w
ii viw i w w vi w vi i w i v w i w i i
Ureters
v w v i w v i vi uv u v
r larur uv v w
iruv vi w vi w
uvaruruv ruvru i i v v
uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
u r uv r
u u v r
u uvaruruv r
u uvarur ar u r uv u ur r
u arurliala
PCT is continuous amVvith Bo-wman'smtam capsule andtis mlined
u ar l ar l l ia u ar l ar l a l
' tUreters taem/t/atam are paired smooth tt aem/t/atmuscle tubes. e/t/at e/t/at
ar l a r >,
l ia i l ia lia l ar l ar l
iamil il iia a l a i l i
a l a i l li
a
il ia
milamil milamil
i
milam amil I
ammam
i mi ialmilia mtilam ilamamil i mi mi
t/aee/t by cuboidal epithelial t ee/ cells.
I
mtilam amm am taem/t/atam /ta
They
e open into urinary e/me bladder an.d carry .murine
tt/aaem/t/atam "
m'/e.tm
am t t / at a t /a
About 70-80% of electrolytes and water . e are reabsorbed
®
/ a a
"'
/ a / a t /a /a t / t
from the kidney.
/ a t t
/ e/ t e/ e e / e/me e
=
e/m e e/m e/m
etem /me .m/t/e.tm etem/m em .m/t/e.tm
in PCT. s:/: s:/
. m . tm. . t .
m m/e.tm . / .tm . m . t .
m m/e.tm . m . tm. m/e.tm . m t . m / .tm . .mt.m
t /
/ . / t ®
. t /. t / / t
• It helps tpt in
pstptmaintaining
t httphttp. pHhhtand tpt ht tionic
pt balance tp tt . httphhttp ttphtt
tt m:/t/.
/ . / /
t . :/ t : / t :/ t /: s /: /.t m /t/. / /
t . : / t / t / / : / t :/ t / / : / s:tps: s://s:/
/: s /:
/:/pss:/ 0
s : /:pss:/ s: /pss:/ s:tps: :/ts:-----1<
/ /: : / s: s: /pss:/ s: s
• Filtrate hht hhis ilsotonlic
s: ps ps t p
tp ttps s: ps s p s p t p s p
tptpsttpt tpt t tpt tpt t tpt hht hh tptpsttpt
ps
h ht h
hht hh hht hh hht hh hht hh h h
:bUrinary bladder 1ebb ebb b ebb
iwviwi _.. • Urinary bladder i viw is a chamber ofviwsmooth viw muscles. uvviruvi
b ebb ebb bw b ebb b ebb b b b ebb b eb
evew
Renie's loop
b ebw
eb e ebw e ebw e e e
It collects urine.
eb e e w e w e i w i eb e e e w e
viw
e w e w w i i i w e
iwviwi w e w
i viw iwvi
w i w v wuvviw viuwviw
i i
uvavriuw
Descendi.ng Hmb permeable to
arwater and
vi w vi u v vi w vi i r
•
uv r u v r uv r
u u v r
u uv ur r
u uv u v u r
u u v r
u r u r r
u
imp ermeable tto
arulialar larilial uialar ar ar larilial
mi mi m Filtrate
tam /becomes
il electrolytes.
r u
lliaariulialar iilalm ial ar lialar i lia l a r urialaru ial a r isl l i l ial lial ar la ila
i i lia
m i mil mi mamm ilaim
amil il mi m m m mm
t ee/t hypertonk. ee/mee/ e/ e
mi m amm amm ataem/t/ata /tam
m1----;,
tt aem/t/atam taem/t/atam taem/t/atam /ataem/t/at amm tam a t a /ta /
Ascending . .mist.mimpermeable
.m/t/.tlimb . to m/twater.m but
/ a
.m/t/e.tUrethra
/a t/a t/ a e / t / t
a /at t/a t/a t a / t t/a e / t t e/ t
e/me e/me e/me
.mt/e.tm .me etem/m e/me e e
permeable s:/t:/pss:/: to sK ://+s,:/ c1- and s:/t:psNa s:/: +. sFiltrate :/ s: becomes
m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm . .m/t/e.tm
s:/t:/pss:/: • Urethra ispsthe s:/t:pssduct
:/: that conveystpssurine :/tpss:/ from the s:/:/t/.s:/:/t
. . t m . t m m / tm
. . . t m m t m t . / tm
. t /
hypotoi:uk
tpt ttp : . tp ttp
t m /. / .
I I t / t m ®
/ . / . t : /
/. t t / t :/ : /. t t / / t / / s:/tpss:/ s://s:/
:/
bladder to tpt htbe tp discharged to hthe
ht hhoutside of thehhttphht tp
s: /:p/sts:/:/ ps p t p s p
hht hh 4 body. hht h
ps ps
tpt ttp tp t t p tps t ps ps tpt ttp tt tt p tp t t p p
t t t
tpt t tpt hht hh ht h hht hh h h hht hh ht h
• Muscular urethral sphincters keep theb urethra
hht hh
closed. b ebb b eb b ebb
Distalb ebb Convoluted Tubules b ebb (DbC'f)b b ebb b eb
DCT absorbs sodium chloride and other inorganic salts
b b b ebw
'
be e b e b ebw e ebw evew bw e weiw
__,,
e b w e e e w e i ebw e wewe
wveiw e w i e e w
while retaining water.
w
ii viw e i w e wi w v i i
w v wi vi i
w vi w vi w i w e i i
w w v i i
w i i v i
w i i i
u r u v v w
r uv r
u
vi
uvaruruv r
u
i
uvaruru v
ar
u v
r larur
u u v
r uv v w
iruv
u
vi w
r
u
vi
uvaruruv ruvru v r
u uvarur ruvruv
i uv uv
arurlial
a r u l a r u l r
a ial i l r
a ial ial lia a r u l ar l ar ial a a i l ar ial l a i l a lial
milamil
il ia milamil
i
milamil mil mi mtilam
ialmilia amil il il
ilaim ilamamil i mi mi
taem/t/atam amm amm mtam taem/t/atam /t
• Excretion e/meof uric acid. Its crystals e/me are non- toxicmeand . almost
tt aem/t/atam UricoteUsm tt aem/t/atam1 t mtam t
tt/aaem/t/atam t a /a
.) e t.mte.m
/a
(
am t / a
' tm.Collectin e
/ a a t
Tubule CT
/a /a t
e/me t
t/aee/t / a /a t
t ee/ e/ e/ t /a
t e/ t / / t
e/me e
_.. insoluble in water and hence excreted as pellets with min:imum
e/m e/m e
etem /me m/e.tm m/e.tm . . /t/.tm /m
etem m/e.tm m/e.tm .m/t/e.tm. .mt.m
loss/:pss:of
.
/ water.
. m . t m
T he entire /:duct / is permeable
. m
to water
/pss:/ is reabsorbed
t
.
s:tpsI: s://s:/
. m . t .
m t m / . . m . m . t m / . t /
•
/ . t . t / . / t
:/ts:__,,
tt m:/t/.
/. /t/ . :/ t t :/ t : / /: / .tm //
t . /t/ . :/ t / t / t :/ t / / / / : /:
•tptpstReptiles, birds, land
hht hsnails
tpt ht tpt and insects. hht tphhtt
: / /
s:tpss: / : / : / s
' It drains hht hhintohthe
tpt t tpt ttphrenal ttp pelvis
hht which
tpthht tpt leads ht h to the ureter hht hh. ht h
s : /:/pss:/ s: s: /pss:/ ps s : / /: s: p s s: s : / s: s : s :s p s p
tpt p s t p ps ps p s tp tt p t
tp ttp I tp tt
tptpsttpt tptpsttpt
hht hh hht hh hht hh
wveiw w e
iwviwi w e
vi w w
i viwe i v i i w
wuvviw i viw i
uv vi w e
iwviwi
w w e
vi
w e i
i viw iwviw
w v i i w
wuvviw viuwviw
i vi
r
u
v i
u u v
a r u uv
r larur l a r
uv
urialaru r
r
u
v i
uvaruruv a r r
u uv
uvarur ru ru v
a r u u v
ilamamil ar lial l
ilamamil
mtilam
a
t /a
e/t/aee/t
m t
t/a /t/a t
e/t/ae/t
/a /a
e/t ee/
/
t am
t/at /t/a t t /a
t/a /t ta /t a t
e/t/ae/t /t e/
/a a e/t ee/ /tae
/a t
v v
ww
ii vvi i w w
u
i i
vvruuvv w i i
uu
i i
vvruuvv i
r u
r u v vrruu v v vv
ww
ii vvi i w
u v v i
u
i
u
w
vv i
uuvvruuvvi
i i
r uuavv
r
uruarru u r u r rr r a uu r uu r r u r r rr r
278
r
alailila
r
alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim a
ilima
l ii l l a r
lialariliala
r alailiala
ilim a
alailila
ilim l ilila
a
ilima
ilim m m m
m m mm a m i m m m
m m aa//ttam
mm a
mm m m
t//taea//ttaa /
eem e /
eem e / /
eem e/ taa
//tee// t / t
eem/ ee
t // /
eemee
t
/t //
eemee
/ t ..m/m//tt..m
t / //
mm .
tt.:.////tt. m
/ /
/ /
mm .
tt.:.////tt . m
: /
:
. .
//tt::////
/
t t .
/ t
/ ..m/m//tt..
t
m
/ /
mm .
tt.:.////tt
/
. m
/ /
/
. mm
tt:.////tt
/
. .
::////t::////t.
t . . t
/ / / /
tttphpttttpp t t t t pp t t t t t t tt
Locomotion is the movement of an animal as a whole SKHHAL MUSCLE
t t h h t t tt t h h h
b b from one placebbtobbanother (L. locus bbee=bb place, moveoee= bbeto ebb @ Eachwwmuscle
bbeebb fibre is elongated bbeebb and syncytial e(multinucleate ). eebbeebb
move).
we eew bbeebb
uuavvrmembrane
Its is called iwvvisarcolemma and vvi cytoplasm isuvviuw
vvriuiuwits
ee e e eew i w ee e iw
iwvviw w
vvriuiuwvvii w w w
vvriuiuvv i w
i w i i i w w i ww iwvviw iw i
Locomotion takes several fonns such as walking (man),
vvriuw iw uuvv iw iw uuavvrru
ilila sarcoplasm.
ilialacalled alarrilialar The myofibrils a arranged in
alarilialare alaialiala
u u uu r r u u r rr r u vv u u uu r r u rr u rr
creeping alarrilial(earthworm, lizard), hopping (frog, rabbit), ammaammnumber of sections
u r
alariliala r u r r r alailila
of functional units of contraction called
ar alailiala
®
ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim

m
running t//taea//ttaa (dog, horse),ee.flying //ttaeae//tta (insects, birds) /e/tta swimming ee//ttee//t sarcome.res.//ttaaThe
ttaeaand
m m
endoplasmic reticulum
ttaea//ttaa i.e., sarcoplasmic
m m m m m m ma m a t mmttaa m mm m mma m aa t aa
m a ttaea//tta /e/ttee//t
eem ewhale).
(fish,
// / / / //
tt.:.m/m///tt..m reticulum m the muscle fibres
of ismthe storehouse ..m/m/of calcium
ee ee ee / ee e ee e e
..m/

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be b bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb bbeebb

ew bbeebb ee bbeebb e e eew bbeebb eew eew

be about e1.8 bbeebin

b b ebb b ebb Table : Role bof ebbga.sltrn:intesti.nai ebw bhormones

(1i,ecretebbsaliva bb with 6.7 pH)eebbeebb ee--bbee---l

The widest b ebb organ of the alimentary b ebb bcanal;

Peristalsis b ebbpushes the indigestible b ebb bmaterials

Book gills b epithelium ewe keeps the unwanted

Leading after several bbeeair bb into lungs for gaseous

ew b eb b bb b b b b b b b b e e bbpressu1re in the bbthonnx. As the pressure bbeebb falls below bbeethe bb

b ebb b ebb b eb(1855 b - 1911). b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb

b b b b ebb eb b ebb b b b ebb b b b ebb b eb

regulates the time of inspiration.

ttttphpttttpp t tttphpttttpp t tttphpttttpp t ttphpttttpp

?iout of the blood into the

hht hh hht hh @ hht hh h h

Respiration is controlled by nervous regulation, mechanical e regulation andebchemical regulation.iweew

b eb A n abnormal bbeebb rise in RBCeebcount beebb is called polycythemia. bbeebb

normal clotting iw iwtime is about 2vviuito i

• Choirdae tendineae are the special fibrous cords

clotting ofblood /pss:/ (orthromboplastin) s:tpson : injury.

formed bbby bb breakdown of bbamino

b b ebb b ebb b ebb b b b b ebb b eb

Angiotensin n increasesethe bbeesynthesis and release bbof eebbaidosterone. eew

ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim ilim

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