SS symmetry
Article
GomJau-Hogg’s Notation for Automatic Generation of
k-Uniform Tessellations with ANTWERP v3.0
Valentin Gomez-Jauregui 1, * , Harrison Hogg 2 , Cristina Manchado 1 and Cesar Otero 1






Citation: Gomez-Jauregui, V.;
Hogg, H.; Manchado, C.; Otero, C.
GomJau-Hogg’s Notation for
Automatic Generation of k-Uniform
Tessellations with ANTWERP v3.0.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376. https://
doi.org/10.3390/sym13122376
Academic Editor: SeongKi Kim
Received: 30 October 2021
Accepted: 6 December 2021
Published: 9 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym13122376
1 Department of Geographic Engineering and Graphical Expression Techniques, Universidad de Cantabria,
39005 Santander, Spain; cristina.manchado@unican.es (C.M.); cesar.otero@unican.es (C.O.)
2 Spotify, London WC2N 6AT, UK; harry@hogg.io
* Correspondence: valen.gomez.jauregui@unican.es; Tel.: +34-942-20-67-57
Abstract: Euclidean tilings are constantly applied to many fields of engineering (mechanical, civil,
chemical, etc.). These tessellations are usually named after Cundy & Rollett’s notation. However,
this notation has two main problems related to ambiguous conformation and uniqueness. This
communication explains the GomJau-Hogg’s notation for generating all the regular, semi-regular
(uniform) and demi-regular (k-uniform, up to at least k = 3) in a consistent, unique and unequivocal
manner. Moreover, it presents Antwerp v3.0, a free online application, which is publicly shared to
prove that all the basic tilings can be obtained directly from the GomJau-Hogg’s notation.
Keywords: notation; tessellations; tilings; n-uniform; polygons; symmetry
1. Introduction
Euclidean tiling is the covering of a plane where the repetition of regular polygons
make up tiles, which through symmetry operations can be extended indefinitely without
any overlapping [1]. There are three types of tilings:
• Regular tilings consist of a single polygon type, with each vertex surrounded by the
same kinds of polygons (vertex-transitive) (Figure 1). There are only 3 of them, having
six equilateral triangles (Figure 1a), four squares (Figure 1b) or three regular hexagons
(Figure 1c) at any vertex.
• Semi-regular tilings (Archimedean or uniform) are polymorphic (several polygon
types) and also vertex-transitive (Figure 2). There are only 8 of them.
• Demi-regular tilings (k-uniform) like semi-regular tilings are polymorphic but are not
vertex-transitive (Figure 3). For instance, there are 20 2-uniform tessellations and there
are 61 3-uniform (22 are 2-vertex and 39 are 3-vertex types).
Tiling configurations are usually named using Cundy & Rollett’s notation [2], which
adapted the Schläfli symbol. This notation represents (i) the number of vertices, (ii) the
number of polygons around each vertex (arranged clockwise) and (iii) the number of sides
to each of those polygons. For example: 36 ; 36 ; 34 .6, tells us there are 3 vertices with
2 different vertex types, so this tiling would be classed as a ‘3-uniform (2-vertex types)’
tiling. Broken down, 36 ; 36 (both of different transitivity class), or (36 )2 , tells us that there
are 2 vertices (denoted by the superscript 2), each with 6 equilateral 3-sided polygons
(triangles). With a final vertex 34 .6, 4 more contiguous equilateral triangles and a single
regular hexagon.
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Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

a b c
a b c
a b c

Figure 1. Regular tilings: a) 366, b) 633and c) 44. 4

Figure Regular
1. 1.
Figure tilings:
Regular tilings:(a)a)336,, (b)
b) 663 and
andc)(c)444. .
Figure 1. Regular tilings: a) 36, b) 63 and c) 44.
a b c
a b c
a b c

Figure 2. Semi-regular tilings, 3 examples: a) 3.12², b) 3.4.6.4 and c) 4.6.12.

Figure 2. Semi-regular tilings, 3 examples: a) 3.12² 2 , (b)
b) 3.4.6.4 and c) 4.6.12.
Figure 2. 2.Semi-regular
Figure Semi-regulartilings,
tilings,3 3examples:
examples:(a)
a) 3.12
3.12²,, b) 3.4.6.4and
3.4.6.4 andc)(c) 4.6.12.
4.6.12.
a b c
a b c
a b c

Figure 3. Demi-regular tilings, 3 examples: a) 36; 32.4.3.4, b) 3.4.6.4; 32.4.3.4 and c) 3.4.6.4; 3.42.6.
Figure 3. Demi-regular tilings, 3 examples: a) 36; 32.4.3.4, b) 3.4.6.4; 32.4.3.4 and c) 3.4.6.4; 3.42.6.
Figure 3. Demi-regular tilings, 3 examples: a) 366; 322.4.3.4, b) 3.4.6.4; 32.4.3.4 and c) 3.4.6.4; 3.42.6.
Figure 3. Demi-regular tilings,of
2. Problems 3 examples:
Cundy &(a) 3 ; 3 .4.3.4,
Rollett (b) 3.4.6.4; 32 .4.3.4 and (c) 3.4.6.4; 3.42 .6.
Notation
2. Problems of Cundy & Rollett Notation
The Cundy
2. Problems & Rollett
of Cundy notation
& Rollett has two main problems. First, when it comes to k-uni-
Notation
2.
form The
Problems Cundy
tilings, of
the &notation
Rollett
Cundy notation
& Rollett
does not has
Notation two main
explain problems. First,
the relationships when the
between it comes to k-uni-
vertices. This
form The Cundy
tilings, the & Rollett
notation notation
does not has two
explain main
the problems.
relationships First, when
between it
the comes to
vertices.k-uni-
makes The Cundy & Rollett
it impossible notation
to generate a coveredhas two planemain problems.
given First,
the notation whenLet
alone. it us takeThis
comes to
thek-
form
makes tilings,
it the notation
impossible to does not
generate a explainplane
covered the relationships
given the between
notation theLet
alone. vertices.
us takeThis
the
uniform tilings, as
above notation thean
notation
example, does (3 )not
6 2 ; 3 explain
4 the relationships
.6: If a single vertex was between the vertices.
placed, surrounded byThis
4
makes
above it impossible
notation as antoexample,
generate (3 a 6covered
) 2; 34.6: Ifplane
a given
single the notation
vertex was alone.
placed, Let us takeby
surrounded the4
makes
trianglesit impossible
and a hexagonto generate
(3 .6), there
4 a6 covered
would plane givenvertices
be 3 other the notation
with 2alone.
trianglesLet us
(A,take
B andthe
above notation
triangles and as an example,
a hexagon (34either (3 6) ;2 3would
.6), there
2 4 .6: If a single vertex waswith
placed, surrounded by 4
above
C notation
in Figure 4c). as an here,
From example, (3the 34 .6: Ifbe
) ;vertex a3single
type other vertices
vertex
of 36 (as shown 2 triangles
wasif placed,
Figure or(A,
34.6B(Fig-
surrounded
4b) andby
triangles
Ctriangles
in4c)
Figure and a hexagon
4c). a
From (3 4.6), there would be 3 other vertices with 2 triangles (A, B and
andhere, either
4 .6), the vertex notype beof336other
6 (as shown if Figure 4b) or 34.6 (Fig-
4ure and
is possible, hexagon (3
the notation there
gives would indication vertices
to which with 2 triangles
is correct. (A, B
C in4c)
Figure 4c). From here, either thegives vertex type of 3 (as shown if is Figure 4b) or 34.6 (Fig-
and C in Figure 4c). From here, either the vertex type ofto36which
ure is possible, and the notation no indication (as showncorrect.
if Figure 4b) or 34 .6
ure 4c) is possible, and the notation gives no indication to which is correct.
(Figure 4c) is possible, and the notation gives no indication to which is correct.
All three tessellations, with the same nomenclature, are represented in Figure 5. The
tilings are very similar but it can be noticed that the relative positions of the hexagons are
 Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 3 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW A 3 of 20

B not unique for each

different. Therefore, the second problem is that this nomenclature is
tessellation [3].

A C
B

Figure 4. Vertices (a) 36 in yellow, (b) 36 in green and (c) 34.6 (in blue), being (a) and (b) of different transitivity class, along
with the composition of one of the three different tessellations with the same vertex notation: (36)2; 34.6.

All three tessellations, with the same nomenclature, are represented in Figure 5. The
tilings are very similar but it can be noticed that the relative positions of the hexagons are
Figure 4. Vertices (a) 36 in yellow, (b) 366 in green and (c) 344 .6 (in blue), being (a,b) of different transitivity class, along with
different.
Figure 4. Vertices a) 36 in yellow, b) 3 Therefore,
in green and thec) second problem
3 .6 (in blue), is a)
being that
andthis nomenclature
b) of is not unique
different transitivity for each
class, along
thewith
composition of one of
the composition of the three
of thedifferent
onetessellation [3].tessellations
three different with the
tessellations withsame vertex
the same notation:
vertex (36 )(3
notation:
2 ; 34 .6.
6)2; 34.6.

a b
All three tessellations, with the same nomenclature, are represented in Figure 5. The
c
tilings are very similar but it can be noticed that the relative positions of the hexagons are
different. Therefore, the second problem is that this nomenclature is not unique for each
tessellation [3].

a b c

Figure 5. Three different tessellations with the same Cundy & Rollett nomenclature: (a) [(36)26; 324.6]41; (b) [(36)2; 34.6]2 and (c)
Figure6 25. Three different tessellations with the same Cundy & Rollett nomenclature: (a) [(3 ) ; 3 .6]1 ; (b) [(36 )2 ; 34 .6]2 and
[(36) 2; 34.6] 3. In green, vertices (36), in blue, vertices 34.6. Their configuration is different for the three of them.
(c) [(3 ) ; 34 .6]3 . In green, vertices (36 ), in blue, vertices 34 .6. Their configuration is different for the three of them.
3. GomJau-Hogg’s Notation: A New Notation
3. GomJau-Hogg’s Notation: A New Notation
Here we present the GomJau-Hogg’s notation, a slightly modified version of the re-
Figure 5. Three different tessellations
Here
search andwith
we the same
present
notation Cundy
the
presented &by
Rollett
GomJau-Hogg’s nomenclature: eta)al.
notation,
Gómez-Jáuregui [(3 6)2; 34.6]1; b) [(36)2; 34.6]2 and c)
a[3],
slightly
about modified
the generation version
and of
no-the
[(3 ) ; 3 .6] . In green, vertices
6 2 4 3 (3 6
research ),
menclaturein blue, vertices
andofnotation 3 4.6. Their
presented
tessellations configuration is different
by Gómez-Jáuregui
and double-layer for
grids. Theet the three
al. [3],
origin of them.
of about the generation
that notation is inspiredand
nomenclature
by Otero’s workof tessellations
[1] about domesand double-layer grids. The
and spatial frames. The present
origin ofwork
that allows
notationforisthe
inspired
in-
3. GomJau-Hogg’s Notation: A New Notation
byfinite
Otero’s work [1]
generation about domes
of regular polygonand spatial
tilings frames.
through a setThe present
of shape work allows
placement stages forandthe
infiniteHere we present
generation
iterative rotation the GomJau-Hogg’s
of regular
and polygon
reflection notation,
tilings
operations. througha slightly
a set ofmodified version ofstages
shape placement the re-and
search and notation presented by Gómez-Jáuregui
iterative rotation and reflection operations. et al. [3], about the generation and no-
menclature of tessellations and double-layer grids. The origin of that notation
Several examples will be used in the following sections. The above mentioned (3 )2 ; 34 .6is inspired
6
by Otero’s work
(the first of the [1] about
three domes
variants) and spatial
is translated toframes. The presentThe
6-3-3/m30/r(v3). work allows
stages arefor the in-
represented
finite generation of regular polygon tilings through a set of shape placement
as blocks separated by a forward-slash (/). When split up, the very first block is the “Shape stages and
iterative rotation
placement” stage,and
whichreflection operations.
takes care of placing the first regular polygons on the plane. The
blocks after this are the transformation functions, of which there will be two or more.
 3.1. Stage 1: Polygon Placement
The shape placement stage is made up of a series of hyphen (-) separated phases.
Similar to the Cundy & Rollett’s notation, each number represents the number of sides on
the polygon.

Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376

 Phase 1 (seed polygon phase): The very first phase will always contain a single num- 4 of 18
ber of either 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12. This is because there are seventeen combinations of reg-
ular polygons whose internal angles add up to 360°, however only eleven of these
can occur in regular polygon tilings [4]. This defines the ‘seed polygon’, which is the
firstStage
3.1. shape1:toPolygon
be placed at the origin of the area to be covered.
Placement
 The seed polygon is always (except for the 3-sided polygon, equilateral triangle)
The shape placement stage is made up of a series of hyphen (-) separated phases. Similar
placed at the origin of the plane so that the two sides that intersect the horizontal axis
to the Cundy & Rollett’s notation, each number represents the number of sides on the polygon.
“x”, stay perpendicular to that axis (Figure 6). For an equilateral triangle the left-hand
•edgePhase
will be1 the
(seedonepolygon phase): to
perpendicular The
thevery first
x axis andphase
will will alwayswith
be aligned contain a single number
the vertical
of either 3, 4,
axis ‘y’ [3] (Figure 7).6, 8 or 12. This is because there are seventeen combinations of regular
◦
 Phasepolygons whose
2: Following the internal
first phase, angles addpolygons
regular up to 360 are,systematically
however onlyplacedeleven of these can
clock-
wiseoccur
aroundin the
regular polygon
available sidestilings
of the [4].
seedThis defines
polygon, the 0‘seed
using polygon’,
to skip a side ofwhich is the first
a poly-
gon. shape to be placed
The principle at the
is to first fill origin of the
the upper area
right to be covered.
quadrant and then move clockwise.
 •PhaseThe3 (and
seed4, polygon
5, etc.): Regular
is alwayspolygons are for
(except systematically
the 3-sided placed clockwise
polygon, around triangle)
equilateral
the available
placed atsides of the polygons
the origin of the plane placed in the
so that theprevious
two sidesphase,
that in the same
intersect themanner
horizontal axis
as in“x”,
phase 2. perpendicular to that axis (Figure 6). For an equilateral triangle the left-hand
stay
edge
Let us usewill be the configuration
the above one perpendicular to the
example, (36)x2; axis
34.6 and
in itswill be aligned
former with
notation, the vertical
which
axis ‘y’
would become [3] (Figure 7). notation 6-3-3/m30/r(v3) (Figure 6). With this new nota-
GomJau-Hogg’s
tion • Phaseabove,
as shown 2: Following the first
the polygon phase,stage
placement regular polygons
(6-3-3) consistsare
of:systematically placed clock-
1. wise
A seed aroundwith
polygon the 6available
sides. Insides of6,the
Figure seed polygon,
hexagon using 0 to skip a side of a polygon.
in dark blue.
2. The principle is to first fill the upper right quadrant
A following phase with a three-sided shape; placed on the first and side
thenclockwise
move clockwise.
of the
•y axis.
Phase 3 (and 4, 5, etc.): Regular polygons
In Figure 6, equilateral triangle in light blue. are systematically placed clockwise around
3. the available
Followed by a finalsides
phaseofofthe
onepolygons
triangle; placed in the
placed on previous
the first phase,
available sideinclockwise,
the same manner
as in phase 2.
of the previously placed triangle. In Figure 6, equilateral triangle in white.

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

Figure 6. Equation formatting: 6-3-3.
Figure 6. Equation formatting: 6-3-3.

Figure 7. Seed polygons of 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12.

Figure 7. Seed polygons of 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12.
3.2. Let
Stage
us2:use
Firstthe
Transformation Function example, (36 )2 ; 34 .6 in its former notation, which
above configuration
wouldThe stages
become following the first
GomJau-Hogg’s polygon
notation placement stage
6-3-3/m30/r(v3) are a series
(Figure of transformation
6). With this new notation
asfunctions that take
shown above, theallpolygon
of the shapes currently
placement placed
stage onconsists
(6-3-3) the plane.
of:It is necessary to define
3 parameters for each transformation: the type of transformation, the angle and the origin.
1. A seed polygon with 6 sides. In Figure 6, hexagon in dark blue.
2.1. AType of transformation:
following phase with It is represented
a three-sided in theplaced
shape; notation
on by
theafirst
single character.
side clockwiseAnof‘m’
the y
(mirror) applies a reflection transformation
axis. In Figure 6, equilateral triangle in light blue.and a ‘r’ applies a rotation transfor-
mation.
2. Angle: When we have the polygons of the first stage, it is necessary to either rotate
or reflect them by a specified angle. When no angle is specified it defaults to 180°.
3. Origin: The origin of the transformation is specified between parentheses. When no
origin is specified it defaults to the center of the coordinate system. There are 2 types
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 5 of 18

3. Followed by a final phase of one triangle; placed on the first available side clockwise,
of the previously placed triangle. In Figure 6, equilateral triangle in white.

3.2. Stage 2: First Transformation Function

The stages following the first polygon placement stage are a series of transformation
functions that take all of the shapes currently placed on the plane. It is necessary to define
3 parameters for each transformation: the type of transformation, the angle and the origin.
1. Type of transformation: It is represented in the notation by a single character. An ‘m’
(mirror) applies a reflection transformation and a ‘r’ applies a rotation transformation.
2. Angle: When we have the polygons of the first stage, it is necessary to either rotate or
reflect them by a specified angle. When no angle is specified it defaults to 180◦ .
3. Origin: The origin of the transformation is specified between parentheses. When no
origin is specified it defaults to the center of the coordinate system. There are 2 types
of transformation origins, explained in the following lines.

3.2.1. Origin 1. Center of the Coordinate System—Continuous Centered Transformation

This is the default origin type (it is not defined between parentheses) and, when used,
the transformation is applied continuously by incrementing the angle on each transforma-
tion by a factor of 2. This is done while the accumulated angle is less than a full rotation on
the plane (e.g., 360◦ ). This is the case for both mirroring (m) and rotation (r) transforms.
With every iteration of the transform, all shapes on the plane including those from previ-
ous iterations of the same transform are then duplicated (there may be overlapping of a
polygon over the same shape, which would be automatically merged). Let us again take
the previous example, 6-3-3/m30/r(v3) in order to explain the meaning of m30, shown in
Figure 8:
1. m30: Type of transform: m for mirroring. Angle 30◦ . An origin is not specified
between parentheses, therefore the origin is the center of the coordinate system.
Therefore this transform is going to reflect by 30◦ the elements of the previous phase
obtained in Figure 6 along an axis passing by the center of the coordinate system.
2. Then, it reflects 60◦ (30◦ × 2) the result of the previous transformation.
3. Reflect 120◦ (60◦ × 2) the result of the previous transformation.
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20
4. Reflect 240◦ (120◦ × 2) the result of the previous transformation. This is the last
reflection as 240◦ × 2 is 480◦ and is above the 360◦ limit.

Figure 8. Continuous centered transformation (Mirroring): Example of 6-3-3/m30 with center in the origin of coordinate
system.
Figure 8. Continuous centered transformation (Mirroring): Example of 6-3-3/m30 with center in the origin of coordinate system.
Figure 9 shows another example (4-3-4,3/r90) where, instead of mirroring, a transfor-
mation Figure
has been applied
9 shows by means
another of a(4-3-4,3/r90)
example series of rotations.
where, instead of mirroring, a transfor-
mation has been applied by means of a series of rotations.
3.2.2. Origin 2. Points on the Polygons—Eccentric Transformation
There will always be a need for two or more transforms to completely cover a plane.
At least one of these transform functions will need to shift the transform’s origin from the
center of the coordinate system in order to expand the collection of shapes out to increase
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 6 of 18

Figure 8. Continuous centered transformation (Mirroring): Example of 6-3-3/m30 with center in the origin of coordinate system.
the area coverage. This is done by shifting the transform’s origin to either the vertex of a
polygon,Figure 9 shows another
the centroid exampleor(4-3-4,3/r90)
of a polygon a midpoint where,
of a instead of mirroring, a transfor-
line segment.
mation has been applied by means of a series of rotations.

Figure 9. Continuous centered transformation (Rotation): Example of 4-3-4,3/r90 with center in the origin of coordinate
Continuous centered transformation (Rotation): Example of 4-3-4,3/r90 with center in the origin of coordinate
Figure 9. system.
system.
3.2.2. Origin 2. Points on the Polygons—Eccentric Transformation
Unlike
Therewhen the transform’s
will always be a need fororigin
two or is at the
more center to
transforms ofcompletely
the plane,cover transforms
a plane. with its
origin
At elsewhere are not
least one of these continuous.
transform In will
functions other words,
need to shiftthey are performed
the transform’s origin only once before
from the
moving onto
center the
of the next transform.
coordinate system in order to expand the collection of shapes out to increase
the
Thearea coverage.
notation forThis is done
shifting thebytransform’s
shifting the transform’s
origin is done originbyto specifying
either the vertex of a
the vertex index.
polygon, available
The vertices the centroid forofaa transform
polygon or area midpoint of a line segment.
systematically indexed prior to the transformation
Unlike when the transform’s origin is at the center of the plane, transforms with its
and are grouped
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW by their vertex type and ordered by their distance and angle, relative to
7 of 20
origin elsewhere are not continuous. In other words, they are performed only once before
the center of the coordinate
moving onto the next transform.
system. Polygon centroids are prefixed with a ‘c’, vertices of a
polygon Theare notation
prefixed with a ‘v’ and line halfway points are prefixed with
for shifting the transform’s origin is done by specifying the vertex index. an ‘h’.
Taking
The
an example
theavailable
vertices
it would
configuration
thenforbe apossible
3–6to(Figure
transform are 10, left),indexed
systematically
reflect over the 1st
there are
vertexprior
16to possible origins in total,
the transformation
by specifying m(h7) in
made up
and of
are 2 shape
grouped bycentroids
their vertex (c1
typeto
andc2), 6 polygon
ordered by vertices
their distance (v1
and
the notation (Figure 10, right), and the vertices would be reindexed for the next transfor- to v6)
angle, and
relative8toline
the segment
centerpoints
halfway of the coordinate
(h1 to system.
h8). Polygonthe
Excluding centroids are prefixed
coordinate systemwith center
a ‘c’, vertices of a polygon
vertex.
mation function.
are prefixed with a ‘v’ and line halfway points are prefixed with an ‘h’.
Taking the configuration 3–6 (Figure 10, left), there are 16 possible origins in total,
made up of 2 shape centroids (c1 to c2), 6 polygon vertices (v1 to v6) and 8 line segment
halfway points (h1 to h8). Excluding the coordinate system center vertex.
Starting at 0° of the coordinate system, there are 4 vertices that exist at this angle,
labelled h1, v1, h2 and v2 in order of the shortest distance to the origin. Moving clockwise,
they are followed by vertex h3 which is next in turn by angle to the origin, and so on. As

Figure10.10.
Figure Eccentric
Eccentric transformation
transformation (Mirroring):
(Mirroring): ExampleExample of with
of 3-6/m(h7) 3-6/m(h7)
center inwith
pointcenter in point h7
h7 (sev-
(seventh
enth halfway
halfway point).point).

Starting
When at 0◦ ofthe
specifying thevertex
coordinate system, there
of a polygon’s are (Figure
centroid 4 vertices
11)that exist at
or vertex this angle,
(Figure 12), labelled
h1, v1, h2 and v2 in order of the shortest distance to the origin. Moving clockwise, they are
the angle that is used for the transformation is inferred from the angle of that vertex rela-
tive to the by
followed center of the
vertex h3 coordinate
which is nextsystem. However,
in turn by anglewhen using
to the the midpoint
origin, and so on. of As
a line
an example
segment (the polygon’s edge, as shown in Figure 10, right), the angle for
it would then be possible to reflect over the 1st vertex by specifying m(h7) in thethe transform is notation
inferred from the angle of that edge because any other angle would result in an incorrect
(Figure 10, right), and the vertices would be reindexed for the next transformation function.
overlapping
When and an invalid
specifying thetessellation.
vertex of a polygon’s centroid (Figure 11) or vertex (Figure 12),
the angle that is used for the transformation is inferred from the angle of that vertex
relative to the center of the coordinate system. However, when using the midpoint of a line
 Figure 10. Eccentric transformation (Mirroring): Example of 3-6/m(h7) with center in point h7 (sev-
Figure 10. Eccentric
enth halfway point).transformation (Mirroring): Example of 3-6/m(h7) with center in point h7 (sev-
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 enth halfway point). 7 of 18
When specifying the vertex of a polygon’s centroid (Figure 11) or vertex (Figure 12),
Whenthat
the angle specifying the the
is used for vertex of a polygon’s
transformation centroidfrom
is inferred (Figure
the 11) or vertex
angle of that (Figure 12),
vertex rela-
the angle that is used for the transformation is inferred from the angle of
tive to the center of the coordinate system. However, when using the midpoint of a line that vertex rela-
segment
tive (the
to the polygon’s
center of theedge, as shown
coordinate in Figure
system. 10, right),
However, whenthe angle
using theformidpoint
the transform is
of a line
segment (the polygon’s edge, as shown in Figure 10, right), the angle for the transform is
inferred
segment from the angle
(the polygon’s of that edge because any other angle would result in an incorrect
inferred from the angle edge,
of thatasedge
shown in Figure
because 10, right),
any other anglethe angleresult
would for theintransform
an incorrectis
overlapping
inferred from and
thean invalid
angle tessellation.
of that edge because any other angle would result in an incorrect
overlapping and an invalid tessellation.
overlapping and an invalid tessellation.

Figure 11. Equation formatting 3-6/m30/r(c2).

Figure 11. Equation formatting 3-6/m30/r(c2).
Figure 11. Equation formatting 3-6/m30/r(c2).

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

Figure 12. Equation formation 12-3,4-3,3/m30/r(v1).

Figure
Figure
3.3. Stage 3:Equation
12.
12. Equationformation
Repeatingformation12-3,4-3,3/m30/r(v1).
12-3,4-3,3/m30/r(v1).
the Transformations
3.3. This
Stageis3:the final stage
Repeating the to completing the tiling, which consists of continuously repeat-
Transformations
ing over the
This is transforms in order,
the final stage indefinitely
to completing (Figure
the tiling, 13). consists
which For notations that are valid,
of continuously the
repeating
tessellation would continue
over the transforms to grow,
in order, increasing
indefinitely in surface
(Figure 13). Forarea. Shapes
notations being
that are reflected
valid, the
into the exactwould
tessellation position of an existing
continue to grow, shape are merged,
increasing in surfacehowever validbeing
area. Shapes notations should
reflected into
not result in any gaps or intersecting shapes—as shown in Figure 14.
the exact position of an existing shape are merged, however valid notations should not
result in any gaps or intersecting shapes—as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 13. Repeated transforms /m(h2) → /m30* → /m(h2).

Figure 13. Repeated transforms /m(h2)  /m30*  /m(h2).

Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 8 of 18

Figure 13. Repeated transforms /m(h2)  /m30*  /m(h2).

Figure 14. Equation formatting 4-3-3-0,4/r90/r(h3).

Figure 14. Equation formatting 4-3-3-0,4/r90/r(h3).

4. ANTWERP, the Software

4. ANTWERP, the Software
The notation presented above has been thoroughly proved by means of the software
The notation presented above has been thoroughly proved by means of the software
“ANTWERP: Application for Nets and Tessellations With Edge-to-edge Regular Poly-
“ANTWERP: Application for Nets and Tessellations with Edge-to-edge Regular Polygons”,
gons”, in its version v3.0 [5]. ANTWERP is a free online application, which is publicly
in its version v3.0 [5]. ANTWERP is a free online application, which is publicly shared to
shared to prove that all the basic tilings can be obtained directly from the GomJau-Hogg’s
prove that all the basic tilings can be obtained directly from the GomJau-Hogg’s notation.
notation. It lets the user automatically generate all of the existing regular and semi-regular
It lets the user automatically generate all of the existing regular and semi-regular tilings as
tilings as well as the demi-regular tilings. The latter are also called k-uniform.
well as the demi-regular tilings. The latter are also called k-uniform.
The first version of this application (v1.0) was originally coded with Visual Basic for
Application (VBA) applied to AutoCad. The main problem was that users without Autocad
could not exploit the program. In its second version, ANTWERP v2.0 was accessible over a
network connection using HTTP; therefore the program could be run from any PC, tablet,
phone, etc. on a web browser that supported WebGL (over JavaScript).
The current version, ANTWERP v3.0, uses an updated version of the notation, from
that presented previously [3], with greater flexibility to generate the more complex tessella-
tions. It is a TypeScript React application, with a custom tessellation renderer that has been
published as a package (available online: https://www.npmjs.com/package/@hhogg/
antwerp, accessed on 29 October 2021) to produce SVGs from the notation. This package
can be imported into any Web Application that takes this notation (plus some optional
configuration) and renders a downloadable SVG file.

5. Results
One of the main results is the production of Table 1 and Appendix A, which show the
translation from Cundy & Rollett’s notation to GomJau-Hogg’s notation for the most basic
tilings, in such a way that if solves the two main problems of Cundy & Rollett’s notation:
1. The notation of the tilings can be automatically generated without ambiguity
2. There is no repetition on the names of the tilings, they are unique.
Table 1 and Appendix A list only the k-uniform tessellations for k < 4. More complex
tilings can be named and generated with GomJau-Hogg’s notation, but the list is longer
and longer as k increases. According to Galebach [6], the number of tilings for k = 1 is
11, for k = 2 is 20, for k = 3 is 61, for k = 4 is 151, for k = 5 is 332 and for k = 6 is 673. For
higher k > 6 the number of existing tilings is still unknown but very high. The current
version of this software does not convert the older notation into the new one. The process
that we have followed is to find, one by one, the notation that would create each one of
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 9 of 18

the k-uniform tilings for k < 4. It is a time-consuming process that should be improved in
order to find and generate all the existing k-uniform tessellations.

Table 1. Transformation of Cundy & Rollett’s notation to GomJau-Hogg’s notation, up to 3-Uniform

(3 Vertex Types). All of these can be seen in the tilings explorer application of Antwerp https:
//antwerp.hogg.io/library (accessed on 29 October 2021).

CUNDY & ROLLETT GOMJAU-HOGG

REGULAR
36 3/m30/r(h2)
63 6/m30/r(h1)
44 4/m45/r(h1)
UNIFORM
3.122 12-3/m30/r(h3)
3.4.6.4 6-4-3/m30/r(c2)
4.6.12 12-6,4/m30/r(c2)
(3.6)2 6-3-6/m30/r(v4)
4.82 8-4/m90/r(h4)
2
3 .4.3.4 4-3-3,4/r90/r(h2)
33 .42 4-3/m90/r(h2)
34 .6 6-3-3/r60/r(h5)
2 UNIFORM
36 ; 32 .4.3.4 3-4-3/m30/r(c3)
3.4.6.4; 32 .4.3.4 6-4-3,3/m30/r(h1)
3.4.6.5; 33 .42 6-4-3-3/m30/r(h5)
3.4.6.4; 3.42 .6 6-4-3,4-6/m30/r(c4)
4.6.12; 3.4.6.4 12-4,6-3/m30/r(c3)
36 ; 32 .4.12 12-3,4-3/m30/r(c3)
3.122 ; 3.4.3.12 12-0,3,3-0,4/m45/m(h1)
36 ; 32 .62 3-6/m30/r(c2)
[36 ; 34 .6]1 6-3,3-3/m30/r(h1)
[36 ; 34 .6]2 6-3-3,3-3/r60/r(h8)
32 .62 ; 34 .6 6-3/m90/r(h1)
3.6.3.6; 32 .62 6-3,6/m90/r(h3)
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6]1 6-3,4-6-3,4-6,4/m90/r(c6)
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6]2 6-3,4/m90/r(h4)
[33 .42 ; 32 .4.3.4]1 4-3,3-4,3/r90/m(h3)
[33 .42 ; 32 .4.3.4]2 4-3,3,3-4,3/r(c2)/r(h13)/r(h45)
[44 ; 33 .42 ]1 4-3/m(h4)/m(h3)/r(h2)
[44 ; 33 .42 ]2 4-4-3-3/m90/r(h3)
[36 ; 33 .42 ]1 4-3,4-3,3/m90/r(h3)
[36 ; 33 .42 ]2 4-3-3-3/m90/r(h7)/r(h5)
3-UNIFORM (2 VERTEX TYPES)
(3.4.6.4)2 ; 3.42 .6 6-4-3,4-6,3/m30/r(c2)
[(36 )2 ; 34 .6]1 6-3-3/m30/r(v3)
[(36 )2 ; 34 .6]2 6-3-3-3-0,3/m30/r(v2)
[(36 )2 ; 34 .6]3 6-3-3,3-3-3-0,3/r60/r(h7)
36 ; (34 .6)2 3-3,3-6/m90/r(h6)
36 ; (32 .4.3.4)2 3-4-3,3/m30/m(h2)
(3.42 .6)2 ; 3.6.3.6 4-6,4-4,3,3/m90/r(h4)
[3.42 .6; (3.6.3.6)2 ]1 4-6,4-0,3,3/m/r(v1)/r(h25)
[3.42 .6; (3.6.3.6)2 ]2 4-6,4-0,3,3/m90/r(v1)
32 .62 ; (3.6.3.6)2 6-3,0,3,3,3,3/r(h4)/r(v15)/r(v30)
(34 .6)2 ; 3.6.3.6 6-3,3-0,3/r/r(v1)/r(h12)
[33 .42 ; (44 )2 ]1 4-4-4-3/m90/r(h4)
[33 .42 ; (44 )2 ]2 4-4-3/r(h6)/m(h5)/r(h3)
[(33 .42 )2 ; 44 ]1 4-4-3-3-4/m90/r(h10)/r(c3)
[(33 .42 )2 ; 44 ]2 4-3,4-3,3-4/m90/r(h3)
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 10 of 18

Table 1. Cont.

CUNDY & ROLLETT GOMJAU-HOGG

(33 .42 )2 ; 32 .4.3.4
33 .42 ; (32 .4.3.4)2
[36 ; (33 .42 )2 ]1
[36 ; (33 .42 )2 ]2
[(36 )2 ; 33 .42 ]1
[(36 )2 ; 33 .42 ]2
3-UNIFORM (3 VERTEX TYPES)
3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6; 4.6.12
36 ; 32 .4.12; 4.6.12
32 .4.12; 3.4.6.4; 3.122
3.4.3.12; 3.4.6.4; 3.122
33 .42 ; 32 .4.12; 3.4.6.4
36 ; 33 .42 ; 32 .4.12
36 ; 32 .4.3.4; 32 .4.12
34 .6; 33 .42 ; 32 .4.3.4
36 ; 32 .4.3.4; 3.42 .6
36 ; 33 .42 ; 3.4.6.4
36 ; 32 .4.3.4; 3.4.6.4
36 ; 33 .42 ; 32 .4.3.4
32 .4.12; 3.4.3.12; 3.122
3.4.6.4; 3.42 .6; 44
3 .4.3.4; 3.4.6.4; 3.42 .6
2 6-4,3-3,3,4-0,0,6,3/m90/r(h17)/m(h1)
33 .42 ; 32 .4.3.4; 44
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6; 44 ]1
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6; 44 ]2
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6; 44 ]3
[3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6; 44 ]4
33 .42 ; 32 .62 ; 3.42 .6
[32 .62 ; 3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6]1
[32 .62 ; 3.42 .6; 3.6.3.6]2
34 .6; 33 .42 ; 3.42 .6
[32 .62 ; 3.6.3.6; 63 ]1
[32 .62 ; 3.6.3.6; 63 ]2
34 .6; 32 .62 ; 63
36 ; 32 .62 ; 63
[36 ; 34 .6; 32 .62 ]1
[36 ; 34 .6; 32 .62 ]2
[36 ; 34 .6; 32 .62 ]3
[36 ; 34 .6; 3.6.3.6]1
[36 ; 34 .6; 3.6.3.6]2
[36 ; 34 .6; 3.6.3.6]3
[36 ; 33 .42 ; 44 ]1
[36 ; 33 .42 ; 44 ]2
[36 ; 33 .42 ; 44 ]3
[36 ; 33 .42 ; 44 ]4
4-4,3,4-3,3,3-3,4-3-4/r/r(h17)/r(h18)
4-3,3-0,4,3/r/r(h2)/r(h18)
4-3,0,3-3-3/r(h5)/r(h19)/m(h18)
4-3,0,3-3/r(h3)/r(h15)/m(h14)
4-3-3-3-3-3/m90/r(h3)
4-3-3-3-3/m90/r(h2)/m(h22)
12-6,4-3,3,4/m30/r(c5)
12-3,4,6-3/m60/m(c5)
6-4-3,12,3-3/m30/r(h2)
6-4-3,3-12-0,0,0,3/m30/r(c2)
12-4,3-6,3-0,0,4/m30/r(h11)
12-3,4-3-3-3/m30/m(h9)
12-3,4-3,3/m30/r(v1)
6-3-3-4-3,3/m30/r(h10)
3-4-3,4-6/m30/r(c5)
6-4-3,4-3,3/m30/r(c5)
6-4-3,3-4,3,3-3/r60/r(v5)
3-4-3-3/m30/r(h6)
12-4-3,3/m90/r(h6)
6-4,3-3,0,4-6/m90/r(v5)
4-3-3-0,4/r90/r(h3)
4-4-3,4-6/m/r(c3)/r(h29)
4-4,4-3,4-6/m90/r(c5)/r(v1)
6-3,4-0,4,4-0,4/m90/r(h9)
6-4,3,3-4/m(h4)/r/r(v15)
4-6-3,0,3,3-0,0,4/m90/r(h4)
4-6,4,3-0,3,3,0,6/m(h2)/m
4-6,4-0,3,3/r(h2)/m90/r(c9)
4-6,4-0,3,3-0,3,3/r/r(c1)/r(h17)
6-6-3,3,3/r60/r(h2)
6-6,6,3-3,3/m//r(h8)/r(h49)
6-3-3/m/r(h3)/r(h15)
3-6/r60/m(c2)
6-3-3,3-3,3-0,3/r(h7)/r(h29)/r(h29)
3-3,6-3/m/r(h6)/r(c6)
6-3-3/m90/r(h2)
3-3,3-3,6,3/m90/r(v1)/r(v15)
3-3-6-0,3/r60/m(c1)
3-3-6/r60/r(v4)
4-4-3-3/m90/r(h7)/r(v1)
4-4-3-3-3/m90/r(h9)/r(h3)
4-4-3-3-3/m(h9)/r(h1)/r(v1)
4-4-3-3-3/m(h9)/r(h1)/r(h3)

6. Conclusions and Further Research

As a conclusion, this work presents a method for generating all the regular, uniform
and k-uniform (up to at least k = 3) in a consistent, unique and unequivocal manner by
means of a new notation applied to a new software (ANTWERP v3.0). Further communi-
cations will prove that it is possible to deduct automatically, from our notation, to which
group of wallpaper symmetry each tessellation belongs.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 11 of 18

Building an Exhaustive Tessellation Database

In further research, we plan to use computing resources to continuously iterate through
the permutations of this notation to build an exhaustive database of possible tessellations.
This will be done by representing the tessellation notation as a tree data structure, traversing
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
it to find the paths that lead to an infinitely repeating tessellation (Figure 15) and optimizing
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
by removing paths that lead to invalid tessellations that either do not expand 13 ofor
20 cause

overlaps (Figure 16).

Figure 15. Tree data structure representation of the valid notation 3-4-3,3/m30/m(h2).
Figure
Figure15. Tree
15.15.
Tree data
datastructure
structure representation ofof thevalid
validnotation
notation3-4-3,3/m30/m(h2).
3-4-3,3/m30/m(h2).
Figure Tree data structurerepresentation
representation of the
the valid notation 3-4-3,3/m30/m(h2).

Figure 16. Tree data structure representation of an invalid notation 3-12,6. Invalid due to the angle of the empty space
Figure 16. Tree data structure representation of an invalid notation 3-12,6. Invalid due to the angle of the empty space
Figure
between the 16. Tree data
hexagon structure representation of an invalid notation 3-12,6. Invalid due to the angle of the empty space
Figure 16.the
between Tree data and
hexagon
the dodecagon.
structure
and the representation of an invalid notation 3-12,6. Invalid due to the angle of the empty space
between the hexagon and thedodecagon.
dodecagon.
between the hexagon and the dodecagon.
Using this tree data structure approach and a breadth-first-search algorithm, we
Using
Using this
this tree
treedata
data structure
structure approachand
approach andaabreadth-first-search
breadth-first-search algorithm,
algorithm, wewe willwill
will also
Using bethis
abletreetodata
improve on approach
structure our current andby findings by identifying
a breadth-first-search the most
algorithm, we optimal
will
also be able to improve on our current findings identifying the
also be able to improve on our current findings by identifying the most optimal notations most optimal notations
notations
also be abletotorepresent
improve tessellations.
on our current For example,
findings by 4-3,3,3-4,3/r(c2)/r(h13)/r(h45)
identifying the most optimal notations which
totorepresent tessellations.
represent tessellations. For example, 4-3,3,3-4,3/r(c2)/r(h13)/r(h45) which
example, 4-3,3,3-4,3/r(c2)/r(h13)/r(h45) which uses 3 trans- uses 3 trans-
uses
to 3 transformations,
represent wastessellations. was manually created by us to construct the tessellation, however
formations,
formations, manuallyFor
was manually example,
created
created by us4-3,3,3-4,3/r(c2)/r(h13)/r(h45)
by us totoconstruct
constructthe thetessellation,
tessellation, which
however
however uses 3algo-
thisthis trans-
algo-
this algorithmic
formations,
rithmic was
rithmicapproach approach
manually
approachmight might
created
might discover discover
by us
discover aa notation to a notation
construct
notationtotodo the
doititininjust to do it
tessellation,in just 2
however
just2 transformations.
2 transformations. transformations.
Part this
Part ofalgo-
of this,this,
Part of
rithmic
will
will this,
require
require will
approach require
mightto
aamethod
method toa perform
method
discover
perform to perform
a comparisons
notation
comparisons to docomparisons
on
onitgenerated
in ontessellations
generated
just 2 transformations.
generated tessellations tessellations
(for Part of this, (for
example,
(for example,
example,
will require
through
through through
a method
pattern
pattern pattern
recognition
recognition recognition
to perform
machine
machine machine
comparisons
learning
learning [7])learning
on
[7])thatgenerated
that have
have[7])
beenthat
been have been
tessellations
produced
produced with produced
(for example,
different
with different with
different
through structures
pattern
structures but but
ultimately ultimately
recognition machine
lead to the lead
same to
learning the
output
structures but ultimately lead to the same output (Figure 17). same
[7]) that
(Figureoutput
have
17). (Figure
been 17).
produced with different
structures but ultimately lead to the same output (Figure 17).

aa bb
a b

FigureFigure 17. same

17. The The same tessellation
tessellation pattern
pattern butbut with
with different
different notations:(a)
notations: a) 4-4,4-3,4-6/m90/r(c5)/r(v1)
4-4,4-3,4-6/m90/r(c5)/r(v1) and b)
and6-3,4-0,4,4-
(b) 6-3,4-0,4,4-
Figure 17. The same tessellation pattern but with different notations: (a) 4-4,4-3,4-6/m90/r(c5)/r(v1) and (b) 6-3,4-0,4,4-
0,4/m90/m90(c5)/m(v1).
0,4/m90/m90(c5)/m(v1).
Figure 17. The same tessellation pattern but with different notations: a) 4-4,4-3,4-6/m90/r(c5)/r(v1) and b) 6-3,4-0,4,4-
0,4/m90/m90(c5)/m(v1).
0,4/m90/m90(c5)/m(v1). All these findings can be applied to many fields of engineering where tilings have a
Allimportance
major these findings can be
in design applied to many
configurations fields ofcivil,
(mechanical, engineering
chemical,where
etc.). tilings have a
Allimportance
major these findings can beconfigurations
in design applied to many fields of engineering
(mechanical, where
civil, chemical, tilings have a
etc.).
major importance in design configurations (mechanical, civil, chemical, etc.).
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 12 of 18

All these findings can be applied to many fields of engineering where tilings have a
major
Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW importance in design configurations (mechanical, civil, chemical, etc.). 14 of 20

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.G.-J. and H.H.; methodology, C.O. and C.M.; software,
H.H.; investigation, V.G.-J.; writing—original draft preparation, V.G.-J. and H.H; writing—review
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.G.-J. and H.H.; methodology, C.O. and C.M.; software,
and editing, V.G.-J., H.H., C.O. and C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
H.H.; investigation, V.G.-J.; writing—original draft preparation, V.G.-J., H.H; writing—review and
ofediting,
the manuscript.
V.G.-J., H.H, C.O, C.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This
Institutional research
Review received
Board no external
Statement: Notfunding
applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: https://antwerp.hogg.io/library (accessed on 29 October 2021).
Data Availability Statement: https://antwerp.hogg.io/library (accessed on 29 October 2021)
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Appendix A
Appendix A
Appendix A shows an array of figures representing graphically all the tilings gathered
Appendix
in Table A1 withAboth
shows an array of figures representing graphically all the tilings gath-
notations.
ered in Table A1 with both notations.
Table A1. Array of figures representing graphically all the tilings gathered in this table with both notations.
Table A1. Array of figures representing graphically all the tilings gathered in Table A1 with both notations.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 13 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

Table A1. Cont.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 14 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20

Table A1. Cont.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 15 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20

Table A1. Cont.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 16 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 20

Table A1. Cont.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 17 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 20

Table A1. Cont.
Symmetry 2021, 13, 2376 18 of 18

Symmetry 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 20

Table A1. Cont.

References
References
1. 1. Otero,
Otero,C.C.Diseño
DiseñoGeométrico
Geométrico dede Cúpulas
Cúpulasno NoEsféricas Aproximadas
Esféricas Aproximadaspor Mallas Triangulares
por Mallas con uncon
Triangulares Número Mínimo Mínimo
un Número de Lon- de
gitudes de Barra. PhD Thesis, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain, 1990.
Longitudes de Barra. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain, 1990.
2. 2. Cundy,
Cundy, H.M.;
H.M.; Rollett,
Rollett, A.P.
A.P. MathematicalModels;
Mathematical Models;Tarquin
TarquinPublications:
Publications: Stradbroke,
Stradbroke, UK,
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