MENG2009 Lecture 3 11-12 S1 Temperature Measurement

MENG2009
Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture 3
Temperature Measurement
MENG2009 Industrial Instrumentation Lecture 3 Temperature Measurement 2
Review
Process
Observer
We have been concentrating on this element

Learning Outcomes from this Lecture
• Identify the main temperature sensors found in

process and manufacturing industries
• Explain mathematically and descriptively the
principles of operation of each temperature
sensor
• Describe the pros and cons of different
approaches to measuring temperature,
including the trade-off between cost, reliability
and data integrity
Analogue Temperature Sensors

• Resistance devices
– RTD: the Resistance Temperature Detector
• Semiconductor devices
– Thermistor
• Current devices
– IC temperature sensor
• Voltage (Thermoelectric) devices
– Thermocouples
• Others
– Bimetallic strips
– Fluid expansion
– Change of state
RESISTANCE
THERMOMETERS
Resistance Thermometers
• Technology: the resistance of conductors varies
with temperature
– E.g., a platinum resistance thermometer
• Has a resistance of 100Ω at 0oC
• Has a resistance of 138.5Ω at 100oC
– The relationship between temperature and resistance
is given by a power series in the form:
(
RT = R0 1 + αT + βT + γT + ... 2 3
)
R0 is the resistance at 0ºC
α, β, γ, etc. are temperature coefficients of resistance
Construction of an RTD
http://www.sensortips.com/2009/06/ http://www.altopindustries.com/image/rtd2.gif
• Typical metals used:
– Platinum
• R0 = 100Ω
– Nickel
• R0 = 120Ω Standardised
– Copper resistance
• R0 = 12Ω values at 0oC
– Nickel-Iron
• R0 = 604Ω
(
RT = R0 1 + αT + βT + γT + ... 2 3
)
• Linearity of metals used in resistance
thermometers
Preferred metal choice:
• In spite of its cost, Platinum is preferred for Lab
and high grade industrial use because of its
linearity.
– Lab grade device known as Standard Platinum
Resistance Thermometer (SPRT)
– Industrial grade as Platinum Resistance Thermometer
(PRT)
• Typical non-linearity
– +0.76% from 0oC and 200oC
(
RT = R0 1 + αT + βT + γT + ... 2 3
)
• First order approximation
– Neglect higher order terms
RT = R0 (1 + αT )
∆R = R1 − R2 = R0 (1 + αT1 ) − R0 (1 + αT2 )
∆R = R0α∆T
Temperature ∆R (expressed as a
coefficient: α= percentage and
R0 ∆T referred to 0oC)
Metal Temperature α @ 25 oC
Range (oC)
Platinum -200 to 850 0.39%
Nickel -80 to 320 0.67%
Copper -200 to 250 0.42%
Nickel-Iron -200 to 260 0.52%
Accuracies = ±0.75% FS up to 600oC

Accurate, sensitive, stable
Physical size determines time constant
Resistance Thermometers: Sources of Error

• Tolerance built into the device:
– Goodness of fit of the polynomial to the real
resistance curve
– IEC standard 751 sets two tolerance classes for
the interchangeability of platinum RTDs:
• Class A: ∆t °C = ± ( 0.15 + 0.002 • | t | ) from –200°C
to 650°C
• Class B: ∆t °C = ± ( 0.30 + 0.005 • | t | ) from –200°C
to 850°C
– Temperature gradients between the
thermometer and the medium being sensed
• Good thermal contact is essential
Resistance Thermometers: Sources of Error

• Tolerance built into the device:
– Errors introduced in the path between the sensor
and the readout
– Self-heating
• Power dissipation will cause heat rise and change
resistance
– Note that absolute accuracy is not necessary
most of the time
• If an RTD in a 100.00°C bath consistently reads
100.06°C, the electronics can easily compensate for
this error
• Focus should be on sensor stability and repeatability
http://www.rdfcorp.com/anotes/pa-rtd/pa-rtd_04.shtml
THERMISTORS
Thermistors
• Thermistors :
– Also resistance-based temperature
devices
– Semiconductor resistors
– Have a negative (NTC) or positive
(PTC) resistance/temperature
coefficient (RTC)
– Manufactured from the oxides of the transition metals:
• Manganese
• Cobalt
• Copper Nickel
– Operating range of -200oC to +1000oC
– Inexpensive, easily-obtainable
– Easy to use and adaptable
Thermistors
Highly
non--linear
non
response
Thermistors
• In semiconductors,
conductivity is due to
electrons in the
conduction band
• When temperature is
increased:
– Some electrons promoted
from valence band into
conduction band
– Conductivity increases
• Number of electrons in
conduction band depends
on temperature
Thermistors
• Conduction characteristic is very non-linear
• It can be approximated by:
1 1 
β  − 
 T T0 
R(T ) = R(T0 )e
T = Temperature in K
T0 = Reference temperature (0oC or 25oC)
β = Curve fitting constant (2000 to 5000)
R typically tens of Ω to MΩ
Sometimes combined with conditioning

circuitry into one integrated circuit
temperature sensor
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor

• An integrated circuit that can be used to
measure temperature
– Produces an output current proportional to absolute
temperature
• Two-terminal integrated circuit temperature
transducer
– Examples are LM35
and AD590/2
(Basically the same thing!)
• Sensing elements are PN diodes
• For supply voltages between +4V and +30V, the
device acts a high impedance, constant current
regulator passing 1 µA/K
Simple AD590 implementation circuit
Ranges (nominal) -55oC to 150oC


• Advantages:
– Simple application setup
– High linearity
– Low voltage excitation
– Current output, so long
leads are not a problem
– No bridge conditioning
required (like RTD’s
require)
THERMOCOUPLE
Thermocouple
• Based on the Seebeck effect
– Discovered by German physicist Thomas Seebeck
(1770-1831)
– Also called the thermoelectric effect and is the
basis of thermocouple....
Generation of a voltage in a circuit containing two

different metals, or semiconductors, by keeping the
junctions between them at different temperatures
Thermocouple
• Non-linear Output Voltage
– We have dealt with resistance (RTD & Thermistor)
and current (IC) so far...
2 3 4 n
V = a1T + a2T + a3T + a4T + ... + anT
T = temperature to be measured in oC
V = thermocouple voltage
n = order of polynomial
ai = polynomial coefficients
Thermocouple: Principle of Operation

• A closed circuit consisting of two junctions at
different temperatures
Thermocouple: Principle of Operation
• When the junction temperature, Tjct is different

from the reference temperature Tref:
– Low-level DC voltage will be generated between A & B
– Generated voltage can be measured by a high
impedance voltmeter to keep current flow negligible
Thermocouple
• Voltage produced by the Seeback effect is very
small
– E.g. 0.4mV/oC for a type K thermocouple
(56 mV over its useful range)
• Amplification is necessary
– Both signal and noise will be amplified
– However, noise will appear as a common mode input
(acts on both wires)
– The amplifier must amplify signal (differential input)
but reject noise (common mode)
• CMRR specification (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
Thermocouple
• Change the subject of the polynomial to obtain
an expression for temperature:
2 3 4 n
V = a1T + a2T + a3T + a4T + ... + anT
Becomes:
2 3 4 n
T = b1V + b2V + b3V + b4V + ... + bnV
• Polynomial coefficients bi standardised up to
several orders
– Internationally agreed values
– Avoids linearisation approximations
• Values could be stored in memory and
polynomial evaluated in real time
Thermocouple: Standard Tables
Corresponds to
-184oC
http://srdata.nist.gov/its90/download/type_j.tab
Thermocouple: Materials
• The three most common thermocouple alloys for
moderate temperatures are:
– Iron-Constantan (Type J)
– Copper-Constantan (Type T), and
– Chromel-Alumel (Type K)
• The first named element of the pair is the
positive element
• The negative wire is colour coded red (current
US standards)
• A number of different codes are available, each
consisting of different conductors and different
properties: B; E; J; K; N; R; S; T...
Iron--Constantan (Type J)
Iron
• Generates about 50µV/ºC
• The Iron wire is magnetic
• Junctions can be made by welding or soldering
– commonly available solders and fluxes can be used
Iron-Constantan thermocouples can generate a

galvanic EMF between the two wires and should
not be used in applications where they might get
wet
Chromel-Alumel (Type K)
Chromel-
• The Alumel wire is magnetic
– High temperature silver-solders and special fluxes
must be used
Chromel-Alumel thermocouples generate

electrical signals while the wires are being bent,
and should not be used on vibrating systems
unless strain relief loops can be provided
Copper-Constantan (Type T)
Copper-
• Neither wire is magnetic
– commonly available solders and fluxes can be used
Copper-Constantan thermocouples are very

susceptible to conduction error, due to the high
thermal conductivity of the copper, and should
not be used unless the runs of wire can be laid
along an isotherm
Thermocouple: Laws
EMF depends on
Law 1 temperatures of
junctions, not
interconnecting wires
If a third metal is
Law 2 introduced, then
provided that the new
junctions are at the
same temperature, EMF
Allows us to introduce a remains unchanged
voltmeter in the circuit
Thermocouple: Laws
Law 3
A third metal can be introduced at either junction without

effect once the junction temperatures are the same
Allows us to solder or braze wires without affecting the
measurement
Law 4
Law of intermediate metals

Allows us to deduce the EMF of one thermocouple from
the properties of another (e.g. behaviour of Copper-Iron
deduced from Copper-Constantan and Constantan-Iron)
Thermocouple: Laws
Law 5 T3 T3 Y
Law of intermediate temperatures

Allows us to increase the “length” of the thermocouple run.
This can be done by using an intermediate temperature
zone for a junction box
Thermocouple: Use
• The signal from a thermocouple depends on:
– The reference junction temperature; and
– The measuring junction temperature
• A reference temperature has to be established,
and there are a number of methods for doing
this:
– Ice baths
– Electronically controlled references
– Compensated reference temperature systems
– Zone box
Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Ice Baths
• Widely used because they are:
– Accurate
– Inexpensive
• Clean water freezing temperature is within
0.01ºC of zero
• A thermos flask will maintain 0ºC for several
hours if filled with finely crushed ice, and flooded
with water
Excellent for lab use
Not very convenient for use in a factory!

Electronically Controlled References
• Electronically controlled reference temperature
devices are available;
– For both high temperature and ice point
• Require periodic calibration and generally are
not as stable as ice-baths, but are more
convenient

Compensated Reference Temperature
Systems
• Uses an electronic EMP to create a reference
‘temperature’
• Source injects a voltage (millivolt level signal)
proportional to the reference junction
temperature
– Remember that the thermocouple’s output is a
voltage
No physical heating or cooling is necessary!

Electronic Cold Junction
Compensation
Recognise
this?
The reference might actually be 25ºC, but

the thermocouple must ‘think’ it is 0ºC

Zone Boxes
• A zone box is a region of uniform temperature
– Used to ensure that all connections made within it are
at the same temperature
• The temperature need not be controlled nor
measured, only uniform
– This uses thermocouple Law 5

Zone Boxes
• In practice, the signal must be brought out of the
reference temperature region to a voltmeter at
room temperature
• This is done using a pair of copper wires (from
the same spool)

Zone Boxes
• This can be done using extension wires and a
connector, instead of unbroken lengths of wire
• The connector can be either a thermocouple
grade connector, or a barrier strip inside a zone
box.
Thermocouple: Application Guidelines


• Wire Size of Thermocouple:
– Wire size used selection depends on the application.
– Generally, larger size wires for longer life or higher
temperatures
– Smaller sizes for greater sensitivity
• Length of Thermocouple Probe:
– Guideline: thermocouple be immersed for a minimum
distance equivalent to four times the outside diameter
of a protection tube or well
– This is to minimise the effect of conduction of heat
from the hot end of the thermocouple
http://instserv.com/rmocoupl.htm

• Thermocouples measure their own temperature
– You must infer the temperature of the object of interest by
being certain there is no heat flow between them when you
take the measurement
• Thermocouples can err in reading their own
temperature
– after being used for a while
– if the insulation between the wires loses its resistance due to
moisture or thermal conditions
– If there are chemical, nuclear radiation or mechanical effects
with the immediate surroundings.
• Beware of electrical hazards
– Thermocouples are electrical conductors should they contact
another source of electricity, they can killhttp://www.temperatures.com/tcs.html
you!
OTHER TEMPERATURE
SENSORS
Infrared Sensors
• Non-contact devices
• They infer temperature by measuring the
thermal radiation emitted by a material
• Different surface types
emit infra-red radiation
at different bandwidths
– Sensor can be calibrated
to receive 0.1 to 10
microns(usually)
• IR sensors convert
IR energy using
photo detectors
http://www.omega.com/ppt/pptsc_lg.asp?ref=OS530E-W9&Nav=temj04
Bi--Metallic Thermometers
Bi
• Take advantage of the difference in the rate of
thermal expansion between different metals
• Strips of two metals are bonded together
• When heated, one side will expand more than
the other
– The resulting bending is translated into a temperature
reading by a mechanical linkage to a pointer
Bi--Metallic Thermometers
Bi
Portable and do not require a power supply
Not as accurate as thermocouples or RTDs
They do not lend themselves to temperature
recording
Fluid Expansion Thermometers

• Fluid-expansion devices, e.g. The household
thermometer, generally come in two main
classifications:
– The mercury type, and
– The organic-liquid type
• Versions employing gas instead of liquid are

also available
Fluid Expansion Thermometers

• Response time typically takes minutes
– Do not respond well to transient temperature changes
• Fluid-expansion sensors
– Do not require electrical power
– Do not pose explosion hazards
– Are stable even after repeated cycling
• Disadvantages
– Do not generate data that can easily be recorded or
transmitted
– Cannot make spot or point measurements
Change of State Sensors

• Change-of-state temperature
sensors consist of labels,
pellets, crayons, lacquers or
liquid crystals whose
appearance changes once a
certain temperature is reached
• They are used as one-time
(warning) inicators
– E.g. When a pipe exceeds a
certain temperature, a white dot
on a sensor label attached to the
pipe will turn black
Final Comment
Generally do not give

• Bi-metallic electrical outputs and
are unlikely to be used
• Fluid expansion as process sensing
• Change of state devices instrumentation
Summary: What we have covered

• Resistance devices
– RTD: the Resistance Temperature Detector
• Semiconductor devices
– Thermistor
• Current devices
– IC temperature sensor
• Voltage (Thermoelectric) devices
– Thermocouples
• Others
– Bimetallic strips
– Fluid expansion
– Change of state

MENG2009 Lecture 3 11-12 S1 Temperature Measurement

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MENG2009

We have been concentrating on this element

Learning Outcomes from this Lecture

• Identify the main temperature sensors found in

Analogue Temperature Sensors

Accuracies = ±0.75% FS up to 600oC

Resistance Thermometers: Sources of Error

Resistance Thermometers: Sources of Error

Sometimes combined with conditioning

Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor

Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor

Simple AD590 implementation circuit

Ranges (nominal) -55oC to 150oC

Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor

Generation of a voltage in a circuit containing two

Thermocouple: Principle of Operation

Thermocouple: Principle of Operation

• When the junction temperature, Tjct is different

Thermocouple: Standard Tables

Iron-Constantan thermocouples can generate a

Chromel-Alumel thermocouples generate

Copper-Constantan thermocouples are very

A third metal can be introduced at either junction without

Law of intermediate metals

Law of intermediate temperatures

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

The reference might actually be 25ºC, but

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Establishing Reference Temp

Thermocouple: Application Guidelines

Thermocouple: Application Guidelines

Thermocouple: Application Guidelines

Fluid Expansion Thermometers

• Versions employing gas instead of liquid are

Fluid Expansion Thermometers

Change of State Sensors

Generally do not give

Summary: What we have covered

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