Hybrid Electric Vehicle Engine Operation and Engine Oil Degradation A Research Approach

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ARTICLE INFO
Article ID: 04-17-01-0001
© 2024 The Lubrizol
Corporation and Shell
Global Solutions US
doi:10.4271/04-17-01-0001
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Engine

Operation and Engine Oil
Degradation: A Research Approach
David Growney,1 Arndt Joedicke, 2 Megan Williams,1 Mathew Robin,1 Robert Mainwaring,3 and Mark Davies 1
1
Lubrizol, UK
2
Shell, Germany
3
Shell, UK
History
Abstract Received: 02 Aug 2022
Hybrid electric vehicles (xHEV) are a critical enabler to fulfil the most recent CO2 and fuel economy Revised: 03 Mar 2023
requirements in key markets like North America, China, and Europe [1, 2]. Different levels of hybrid- Accepted: 05 Apr 2023
ization exist; the main differentiator is the power of the electric system and battery capacity. Increased e-Available: 04 May 2023
electrical power enables the vehicle to run more often in electric mode and recuperate energy from
braking, which enhances the saving potential [3]. Mild (MHEV) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEV) Keywords
impose different duty cycles on the engine compared to a conventional powertrain, potentially Engine oil, Hybrid electric
altering the degradation mechanisms of the lubricant, and challenging the basis on which the lubri- vehicle, Degradation,
cant should be condemned [4]. The biggest concerns are water and fuel dilution [5], which promote Engine, Emulsion, Sludge,
corrosion and can form emulsions [6]. This may result in so-called white sludge formation (a thick Electrification, Hybrid, Drive
cycle, Lubrication
and creamy emulsion) which can deposit inside the engine on colder surfaces, potentially blocking
pipes and breather hoses [6]. White sludge deposits on the oil filler cap can become visible to the
vehicle operator and may be a reason for concern. Many original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), Citation
and their customers, need advice in defining the important oil parameters for the oil to be fit for Growney, D., Joedicke, A.,
purpose. If oil and additive companies are to respond to these challenges, an increased awareness Williams, M., Robin, M. et al.,
and understanding of oil degradation in modern vehicle platforms is required. In this work, we have “Hybrid Electric Vehicle
investigated the operating conditions in different hybrid vehicles and their impact on the engine oil. Engine Operation and
Engine Oil Degradation: A
First, a chassis dynamometer (CD dyno) test program was conducted to understand how three
Research Approach,” SAE
different concepts influence engine operation, specifically the engine oil temperature and the number Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 17(1):2024,
of stop/start events. Second, engine dyno testing was designed to replicate a worst-case scenario, doi:10.4271/04-17-01-0001.
extrapolating some of the observations from CD testing, to investigate the effect of an extreme
drive cycle on the engine oil degradation and contamination. Finally, an analysis of the chemical and ISSN: 1946-3952
physical properties of these engine test drain oils, and the resulting impact on wear protection and e-ISSN: 1946-3960
engine cleanliness, was undertaken to understand the risks associated with worst-case scenario
xHEV operation.
© 2024 The Lubrizol Corporation and Shell Global Solutions US. Published by SAE International. This Open Access article is published
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits distri-
bution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author(s) and the source are credited.
1
2 Growney et al. / SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. / Volume 17, Issue 1, 2024
Results—Hybrid Vehicle is certified with a ∼15% fuel economy benefit compared to the
conventional vehicle on an NEDC (New European Driving
Engine Operation Cycle) basis. The PHEV was certified 64% lower than the
conventional vehicle, but this difference is mainly caused by
Characterization with the specific legislation procedure for PHEVs and is not suitable
to compare the efficiencies between the concepts.
Chassis Dynamometer
Testing Test Protocol The different hybrid vehicles were run in
the Worldwide harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Cycle
(WLTC) on a chassis dynamometer (CD dyno)-driven roboti-
Methodology cally. The aim was to understand the potentially different
behaviors of these technologies. All vehicles were tested at
ambient temperatures of 23°C and 10°C. The PHEV was tested
Vehicle Selection Figure 1 gives a high-level overview
with the battery fully depleted and with the battery fully
of the different levels of powertrain electrification and the
charged. Typically, three WLTCs were run back to back per
additional functionalities enabled by the electrification. A
vehicle. The first WLTC was temperature-conditioned over-
vehicle platform was selected, which was available in
night and was therefore a cold-start test. The following two
two different hybrid vehicle concepts and a conventional
test cycles were started warm with the engine temperature
architecture for the same vehicle chassis (emissions level: EU6c
equal to that reached in the preceding WLTC. The battery
or higher). The powertrains are all based on the same four-
state of charge (SoC) was set the day before, ahead of the
cylinder turbo direct injection base engine. This helps to
soak time.
minimize the impact of the vehicle chassis and original equip-
The focus of this test program was to collect and compare
ment manufacturer (OEM)-specific calibration strategies
data for the different hybrid vehicle concepts concerning:
although this cannot be fully excluded. The following vehicles
were selected: •• Engine oil and coolant temperatures over time
•• Plug-in HEV (PHEV) with an electric range of about •• Incidence of start/stop events
50 km
•• Engine speed and load distribution in the test cycle
•• 48 V mild HEV (MHEV) without e-driving capabilities
Repeats of the above concerns were run for selected
•• 12 V stop/start conventional vehicle for reference vehicles and conditions to indicate the variability of the
In the 48 V MHEV, the electric motor is attached to the test runs.
front end assembly of the engine and is connected via a belt
to the crankshaft and cannot be decoupled from the internal Vehicle Instrumentation Most of the measurement
combustion engine (ICE). Fully electric driving is not possible variables were available from the engine management system,
with this architecture. Nevertheless, it is expected that 48 V while thermocouples were added to measure the temperature
hybrid vehicle concepts will have the highest growth rates in in the oil sump and for safety control. Vehicle speed and
the market driven by their cost-effectiveness. The 48 V MHEV torque at the wheels as well as the fuel mass flow (via a Coriolis
FIGURE 1 High-level overview of the different levels of powertrain electrification.

© The Lubrizol Corporation and Shell Global Solutions US
Growney et al. / SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. / Volume 17, Issue 1, 2024 3
FIGURE 2 Oil sump temperature in three consecutive WLTC for the 12 V stop/start vehicle (start temperature 23°C) measured
by the CD.
cell) were recorded by the test cell. The data were recorded response. The oil temperature in the oil sump (thermocouple
with a sampling rate of 1 Hz. from the test cell) rose more slowly as the whole oil volume
needed to heat up, and there were no heat sources in the sump.
Additionally, the oil sump was externally cooled by airflow
Conventional Vehicle: Warm- in the test cell, emulating the airstream typically present
Up and Ambient Temperature when driving.
Impact The impact of ambient temperature on engine oil temper-
ature can be seen in Figure 4, which shows engine oil sump
Figure 2 shows the engine oil temperature heat-up curve temperature for two cold starts at 10°C and two 23°C starts.
during back-to-back WLTC for the conventional vehicle. The The test cell temperature was closed-loop controlled and was
engine oil temperature reached more than 100°C at the end of constant during testing. For each start temperature, both the
the first WLTC and stayed at this level in the subsequent WLTCs. Eco and Comfort driving modes were tested. These different
A comparison between the different temperature sensors calibration settings showed only a minor difference in the
is shown in Figure 3. The coolant and the oil temperature engine oil temperature profile.
measured by the engine management system (probably located The difference in the starting temperatures reduced
in the cylinder head) show a much faster increase and a similar continuously over the test cycle run time. At the beginning
FIGURE 3 Comparison of the different temperature sensor signals in a WLTC for the 12 V stop/start vehicle (start temperatures
23°C).
FIGURE 4 Oil sump temperature and test cell temperature in the WLTC for the 12 V stop/start vehicle measured by the CD. The
test was repeated with two different start temperatures (23°C and 10°C) and two different calibration settings (Eco mode and
Comfort mode).

of the test cycle, the temperature difference was 13°C, but by Hybrid Vehicle Concept
the end of the WLTC, it was less than 2°C. After 1000 s, which
is the end of the medium phase of the WLTC representing fast
Comparison
city driving, the engine oil temperature was still ~10°C lower Figure 5 shows a comparison of the three test vehicles in the
for the 10°C cold start compared to that for the 23°C start WLTC. The MHEV and especially the PHEV showed on
temperature data, indicating a significant ambient impact on average lower engine oil temperatures in the WLTC versus
the engine oil temperature under city driving conditions. the conventional 12 V stop/start vehicle caused by the reduced
Under higher-speed driving conditions in the remainder of ICE run time. Even at the end of the WLTC, the oil tempera-
the WLTC, the ambient impact was reduced, and the engine ture of the 48 V vehicle was about 10°C lower than for the
oil temperature level was >90°C for both start temperatures other vehicles. In the consecutive WLTCs (not shown), the
by the end of the cycle. temperature stayed at this level (90°C) although the heat
FIGURE 5 Oil sump temperature in the WLTC for the 12 V stop/start vehicle, 48 V MHEV, and PHEV (100% initial SoC and 0%
initial SoC) with 23°C start temperature, as measured by the CD.
FIGURE 6 (a) Number of engine starts and (b) Time the engine is off during WLTC, measured by the CD. The PHEV was in
Auto-E mode.
produced by the engine should be sufficient to heat the engine dependence of the oil temperature warm-up on the SoC. It
to higher levels. The reason for the reduced temperature level can also be seen that the oil temperature mainly increases in
of the 48 V hybrid is unknown to the authors. the higher speed Phases 3 and 4 of the WLTC, showing the
Apart from the PHEV with 100% SoC, the engine is drive cycle impact.
stopped and started more often for the hybrid vehicle concepts, The behavior of the hybrid vehicles varied significantly,
as shown in Figure 6. While the conventional 12 V stop/start although the boundary conditions were the same between
concept only stopped the engine when the vehicle speed was tests. The operation strategy seemed to be impacted by the
zero, the hybrid vehicle concepts were shown to be capable of battery charge management and many more parameters.
stopping the ICE when the vehicle was still moving. As the We have selected here a cycle typical of the most
ICE can be restarted with the much more powerful electric common performance.
motor (versus a traditional starter motor), the ICE start is very
fast and comfortable, making this almost unnoticeable to the City Driving As a worst-case scenario, the low phase of the
driver. This allows the hybrid vehicle to switch off the ICE WLTC (representative of slow city driving) at 10°C ambient
even for very short durations and under decelerating condi- temperature was repeated four times for each of the three
tions. As the electric motor of the PHEV can propel the vehicle vehicle types (PHEV in max E-drive mode). The temperature
on its own the ICE can be switched off if it would, otherwise, profiles are shown in Figure 8.
be running at low efficiency. The PHEV behavior in Figure 8 was different from Figure
The increased number of engine stop/start events lead to 7, in which the engine had less run time in the first 600 s and
reduced engine run times for the hybrid vehicle concepts, a lower oil temperature was seen. This may be related to the
especially for the PHEV. At a sufficient battery charge, the ICE preconditioning of the battery on the day before the test. For
only needs to be started if the power demand cannot be met the full WLTP test (Figure 7), the vehicles were preconditioned
by the electric motor. Even when started with a nominally by running WLTPs until the battery was depleted; for the test
fully depleted battery (depleted the day before), the PHEV can in Figure 8, the battery was depleted by running the vehicle
run for a significant amount of time in E-drive mode, using under steady-state conditions at 80 km/h. Also, the drive
the energy from recuperation. In a typical PHEV run with a mode was different. This indicates that the PHEV shows even
depleted battery, the engine-off time is three times higher higher variations of the oil temperature warm-up in real-world
compared to the 48 V MHEV, leading to lower usage where the operation and boundary conditions are less
engine temperatures. controlled compared to a CD test.
The PHEV with 100% SoC has only five engine starts as The PHEV seemed to be able to heat up the engine oil
the engine run time is significantly reduced and the ICE is faster than the other vehicles and then will plateau as the
mainly on in the high-speed sections. Relative to the engine temperature is maintained—for example, at approximately
run time, this is a similar number of engine starts as with 0% 65°C between 600 s and 1200 s. We believe this is due to more
SoC. Figure 7 shows the oil temperature in three consecutive sophisticated thermal management with additional hardware
WLTCs for the PHEV with 100% SoC and 0% SoC. The oil and software measures to accelerate engine warm-up. The
temperature is lower for much longer when starting with a OEM appears to be aware of potential issues caused by low
full battery until the battery is depleted, showing the engine oil temperature and has committed to optimize the
FIGURE 7 Oil sump temperature in three consecutive WLTC for the PHEV (100% initial SoC and 0% initial SoC) with 10°C start
temperature, as measured by the CD. The PHEV was in Auto-E mode.

engine warm-up in the PHEV. In all vehicles, the engine oil low-load conditions if the battery charge allows. Both HEVs
temperature was higher than 50°C after 10 minutes. After four show a reduction of the higher load operation, indicating that
cycles the engine oil had reached the temperature levels seen the electrical powertrain is supporting the ICE under these
in the full WLTC test. Also, in this test the “final” temperature conditions. The PHEV was also running at significantly higher
level of the 48 V MHEV was roughly 10°C lower than in the engine speed levels compared to the other vehicles.
other vehicles. With 100% SoC in the PHEV, the ICE did not
start in max E-drive mode. Under these conditions, therefore,
no water or fuel was introduced into the engine oil. Summary of Vehicle CD
Engine Load and Speed Figure 9 displays the distribu-
Testing
tion of the engine speed and load (as fuel-mass/cycle calcu- The 12 V reference vehicle and the MHEV can usually achieve
lated from the fuel mass flow measurement) in the WLTC. engine oil temperatures above 45°C within 10 minutes. The
The HEVs show a reduction in the very low-load operation of PHEV showed significant variability in the operation strategy
the ICE since the engine efficiency is low at low loads. This is leading to variations in the engine warm-up, depending on
much more pronounced for the PHEV as the run time of the the battery SoC and likely the operation history of the vehicle.
ICE is much shorter and the ICE is not operating at all under This indicates the huge impact of customer usage patterns on
FIGURE 8 Oil temperature in the sump during four back-to-back WLTC city driving conditions for the 12 V stop/start vehicle,
48 V MHEV, and PHEV (0% initial SoC) with 10°C start temperature, as measured by the CD. The PHEV was in max E-drive mode.
FIGURE 9 WLTC distributions of engine load for the (a) 12 V, (b) 48 V, (c) PHEV, and engine speed for the (d) 12 V, (e) 48 V, (f)
PHEV. At 23°C start temperature, PHEV data for 0% SoC. The PHEV was in Auto-E mode.
the vehicle behavior and therefore on the oil temperature levels due to enhanced E-drive capabilities. Due to the reduced ICE
under real-world usage. Engine and vehicle design and calibra- run time, the engine oil warm-up is slower, and depending
tion also play an important role; the normal operating temper- on the drive cycle and SoC, it may lead to a situation where
ature level (~90°C, Figure 5) for the 48 V MHEV at the end the ICE is started occasionally but never reaches high enough
of a WLTC was the lowest, and this is likely a design decision. oil temperatures for entrained water to evaporate as the ICE
The number of stop/start events for the hybrid vehicles run time is short. If the SoC is high and the drive cycle power
in the WLTC was roughly two to three times higher than for demand low, the ICE does not have to run at all, and no water
the conventional 12 V stop-start vehicle. This will increase is entrained into the oil. If the SoC is low and the power
the stress in the first crankshaft bearing. demand high, the ICE run time is sufficient to reach higher
It can be expected that hybrid vehicles are more often run oil temperatures which enable the evaporation of accumulated
at low engine oil temperatures, PHEVs being the most critical water. The worst-case scenario regarding oil temperature is,
in the authors’ opinion, the PHEV when driven at a medium engine tests (xHEV drain and ICE drain), resulting in further
SoC, in low ambient temperatures, and on short trips with engine drains defined as “xHEV Aged Oil” and “ICE Aged
light-duty cycles such as city driving. Oil”; see Figure 10. This engine test was used to evaluate oil
The concern with low oil temperatures is that increased cleanliness performance when subjected to sump tempera-
water and fuel could accumulate in the engine oil. In extreme tures of 115°C sustained for 50 h and was used to determine
cases, high water and fuel content in the oil can cause issues whether an oil containing high water and fuel content is detri-
for the integrity of the engine. Corrosion, wear, additive chem- mental to engine cleanliness. Piston grooves, lands, and
istry depletion, and the formation of white sludge are potential undercrowns were visually inspected to obtain a piston merit,
problems the oil must protect against. These concepts will be and the drain oils (xHEV Aged Oil and ICE Aged Oil) were
discussed in more detail later. retained for further analysis.
Drain Oil Analysis and Testing

Results—Extreme Cycle Figure 11 depicts water build-up (measured by indirect Karl
Testing with Engine Dyno Fischer titration, ASTM D6304B) and fuel build-up (measured
by gas chromatography) over the course of the xHEV engine
tests. Water concentration is significant enough that, after 1
Test Cycles h of engine operation, the drain sample has visibly formed a
water-in-oil emulsion, despite less than 0.4 wt% water being
To explore extreme-low oil temperature engine operations, present in the oil. With further cold running, greater water
two engine test methods were created to explore the impact of content accumulates resulting in end-of-test drains with water
temperature on oil performance. Both engine tests make use levels of 8.5 wt% and 5.7 wt% for the repeat runs. Fuel dilution
of the same engine model, a modern 2.0 L four-cylinder direct into the oil is also significant under this condition; the fuel
injection gasoline engine. The oil used for all testing was an level rises to approximately 10 wt% in the end-of-test xHEV
SAE 0W-20 mid-SAPS (sulfated ash, phosphorus, sulfur) drain samples. This fuel content will be biased toward the
formulation. Engines were operated under differing test cycles, higher boiling components of the original fuel due to the
The first being sustained cold running to simulate a very higher volatility of the lighter ends.
extreme scenario where the vehicle does not reach its operating The drain data collected from the WLTP/RDE engine test
temperature. The drain oil collected from this test will are shown in Figure 12. In contrast to the xHEV images, the
be referred to as the xHEV drain. The second is a baseline for ICE drain images overlayed in Figure 12 do not show any
normal engine operation, achieved using a combination of the emulsion formation. Maximum water content was recorded
WLTC and real driving emission (RDE) test cycles; the end- at 0.02 wt% and fuel dilution at 1.9 wt%.
of-test oil from this method is referred to as ICE drain. Engine In addition to the concerns already raised around high
tests were run in duplicate for indication of repeatability and water and fuel presence, a further investigation point is that
to accommodate drain volumes required for further testing. of “white sludge.” This term is used to describe an extremely
The xHEV drain oil was generated using a bespoke high-water content emulsion with a much higher viscosity
sustained cold operation test method. This starts with 1 h of than that of the bulk oil. The issue presented by white sludge
normal engine operation (“Oil Break-In”) where oil sump is that it typically forms in cooler regions of the engine, where
temperature varies between 20°C and 100°C and then followed water condenses, such as underneath the oil filler cap and
by a water build-up section (“Cold Idle”) where the engine within the crankcase ventilation system [6].
remains at idle (approximately 800 rpm) for 6 h while the In Table 1, each drain oil is compared with respect to oil
engine is kept cold. This is achieved by cooling the coolant phase element concentration measured by inductively coupled
circuit via a heat exchanger, in place of a standard radiator, plasma analysis (ICP; ASTM D5185). Most elements show a
with a chilled water supply. Engine oil sump temperature is lower concentration in the xHEV drain versus ICE drain oil.
maintained at 16°C. It is assumed this is, in part, solubility-driven additive parti-
The ICE drain is generated using two combined test tioning into the aqueous droplets emulsified in the oil of the
cycles, the WLTC and a simulated RDE cycle produced from xHEV drain, reducing relative concentration in the bulk oil
real-world driving information. These test cycles are well phase. For example, the calcium level in the xHEV drain is 147
known to the industry as benchmarks for fuel consumption ppm lower than in the ICE drain. This difference is assumed
and emissions. The cycles are 30 minutes and 90 minutes to be driven by the partitioning of calcium carbonate sourced
respectively so to achieve a run time like that of the xHEV from overbased detergents. This phenomenon is to a certain
method which is repeated three times. The oil temperature extent inevitable due to additive molecule polarity, and can also
ranges between 40°C and 90°C over the course of the WLTC/ be driven by charge when the water is acidic (in cases where
RDE engine test, being more typical of everyday organic or inorganic acids have solubilized into the aqueous
vehicle operation. phase). It is noteworthy that fuel dilution will also play a role
An additional cleanliness engine test was performed in observed concentration differences here. This trend is
using the two drains generated from the previously discussed reduced when comparing the aged oils, between which water
FIGURE 10 Schematic showing initial engine test cycles and subsequent oil naming strategy for drain oils used in this study.
The fresh oil is first subjected to either the sustained cold operation test cycle to generate the “xHEV Drain” or the WLTC / RDE test
cycle to generate the “ICE Drain.” Both xHEV and ICE drains were then separately run through a cleanliness engine test cycle to
produce the “xHEV Aged Oil” and “ICE Aged Oil,” respectively.
FIGURE 11 Water content and fuel dilution measured over the course of the sustained cold operation engine test. Overlaid are
photographs of the intermediate “xHEV Drain” samples taken from the sump via the dipstick tube. Images were taken immediately
after sampling. The engine test cycle and temperature are shown in Figure 10.
9
FIGURE 12 Water content and fuel dilution measured over the course of the WTLC / RDE engine test. Overlaid are photographs
of the intermediate “ICE Drain” samples taken over the course of the test.

and fuel contents are roughly equivalent. Owing to this decrease valvetrain: load = 616 N, bath temperature = 60°C, frequency
in water and fuel content, some elements are seen to increase = 15 Hz, stroke length = 15 mm, test time = 3 h. This harsh
after the aging engine test. Volatilization of the base oil will boundary wear test saw significantly more wear take place
also contribute to the increase in additive element concentra- for the xHEV drain (see Figure 13) where metal surfaces are
tion. Iron content is broadly similar when comparing xHEV highly polished with no visible tribofilm on the upper
and ICE drains, and aged oils, suggesting no difference in wear specimen surface, suggesting that the water content in the
between these tests. It is noteworthy that values are low due to oil could be preventing the formation of a protective tribo-
relatively short/mild engine tests (see Figure 10). As expected, film. Once subjected to the secondary cleanliness engine test,
iron content is higher for aged oils versus drain oils. Boron and the xHEV drain oil contained negligible water so that the
phosphorous depletion were observed between drain and aged xHEV aged oil wear results were comparable to that of the
oils, as expected. Note that it was not possible to measure ICE aged oil. The similarity between these two aged oil
viscosity (neither kinematic nor high shear) for the xHEV drain samples suggested that there were no lasting effects on wear
oil sample due to the high water content emulsion formation. from the high water and fuel presence in the oil during the
To further explore the impact of water and fuel presence xHEV test cycle, as low wear performance was restored once
on wear, a laboratory test was conducted with both xHEV the water content evaporated during the high-temperature
and ICE drains, and aged oils using Phoenix Tribology’s cleanliness test cycle.
TE-77. The TE-77 is a floor-standing reciprocating tribometer In addition to the high wear in the boundary lubrication
set up in a cylinder on a flat configuration, with the flat being regime tribology test, the xHEV drain also caused deviations
submerged in the test fluid. The cylinder, ISO 8734B parallel from a standard Stribeck curve (see Figure 14). The high water
dowel pin (6 mm × 16 mm) was loaded against a ground 8620 and fuel presence in this oil drain causes a dip in traction
steel of a Rockwell hardness of 53. Wear was measured under coefficient in the mixed lubrication regime prior to boundary
the following conditions, representative of an engine lubrication. The drop in traction is likely due to changes in
TABLE 1 Element concentration (by weight) measured by ICP-AES (ASTM D5185) for each drain oil.
Elemental concentration
by weight (ppm) xHEV drain ICE drain xHEV aged oil ICE aged oil
Sulfur 1630 2019 1490 1505
Phosphorous 611 749 609 603
Zinc 687 831 880 820
Calcium 826 973 1108 1059
Magnesium 391 465 529 496
Boron 126 118 94 46
Iron 5 2 29 19
FIGURE 13 Average wear scar width in boundary wear test, as measured using a Phoenix Tribology TE-77. Inset: Microscope
images of the wear scar for Fresh oil, xHEV drain, and ICE drain samples (scale bars = 250 μm).
the emulsion under these conditions and the potentially resul- PM and 1.8 for UCM, and the standard deviation of reference
tant interactions with the surface thereafter. This drop in results is 0.25 for PM and 0.27 for UCM. The PM rating is
traction could impact the lubricating film, leading to addi- measured as 2.6 for the xHEV aged oil and 3.0 for the ICE
tional wear. Stribeck curves were generated using a PCS MTM, aged oil. The UCM rating is measured as 3.1 for the xHEV
using standard polished steel balls and disks at an SRR of aged oil and 3.6 for the ICE aged oil. The comparison of
100% (which corresponds to equal sliding and rolling) and Pistons 1–4 shows a clear reduction in performance for the
load of 72 N. xHEV aged oil relative to the ICE aged oil for both the PM
Engine cleanliness is also affected by the formation of a and UCM. (Note that Pistons 1 and 4 usually have the lowest
high fuel and water content emulsion during the xHEV cycle. severity [highest rating] as they experience slightly lower oper-
Figure 15 shows the results of running the xHEV drain and ating temperatures due to their position in the engine block.)
ICE drain through a high-temperature gasoline cleanliness The greater severity observed for the xHEV drain compared
engine test cycle. At the end of this 50 h test cycle, the pistons to the ICE drain indicates a high fuel and water dilution oil
were rated using a full CRC rating method; the method uses is less effective at realizing piston cleanliness. This could
a full color scale from 0 (being black) and 10 (being clean), be significant for xHEV vehicles which alternate between low-
with the depth of any carbon from trace carbon to full thick- speed city driving conditions (where high fuel and water
ness carbon also rated. Two ratings were obtained: piston content emulsions can form) followed by high-speed highway
grooves and lands merit (PM) and piston undercrowns merit driving conditions (where high-temperature oil degradation
(UCM). Each rating is a mean average of the pistons from all can occur).
four cylinders (as shown in Figure 15). The average delta When comparing the TBN of the drain/aged oils to that
between high and low reference oils used in this test is 2.0 for of the fresh oil [Figure 16(a)], the aged oils showed lower TBN
FIGURE 14 Stribeck curves for (a) xHEV drain oil and (b) ICE drain oil at five different temperatures.
© The Lubrizol Corporation and Shell
Global Solutions US
FIGURE 15 Piston grooves and lands merit (PM) and piston undercrown merit (UCM) ratings from high-temperature cleanliness
engine testing on xHEV aged oil and ICE aged oil used in this test. The values for Cylinders 1–4, and the mean average are shown. A
higher number equates to a cleaner surface.

FIGURE 16 (a) Total base number (TBN; ISO 3771), (b) total acid number (TAN; ASTM D664), and (c) initial pH (i-pH; ASTM
D7946) values for both xHEV and ICE drain oils and aged oils. The TBN for fresh oil is also included for reference.
12
(greater degradation) versus the initial drains, as expected. warm, and upon cooling, acidic water droplets may condense
Interestingly, the xHEV drain showed a lower TBN versus on metal surfaces.
both fresh oil and the ICE drain oil. It is assumed that, since Data relating to iron wear in the xHEV drain and aged
the xHEV drive cycle is not severe (see Figure 10), this may, oils (see Table 1) suggest corrosion was not significant here
in fact, be linked to additive partitioning into the aqueous since iron content is comparable with that for the ICE drain/
emulsion phase in the oil rather than acid neutralization [7]. aged oils. Furthermore, TBN and i-pH remain relatively high
Any basic additive that partitions into the aqueous emulsion and TAN relatively low (Figure 16), overall indicating rela-
phase is not measured (due to the insolubility of the aqueous tively low oil degradation. Although not observed in the
emulsion phase in the largely organic solvent system used current research, corrosion is something that could manifest
for ISO 3771 measurement), leading to a lower TBN for the over a longer period of vehicle operation for the aforemen-
oil phase. This hypothesis is in contrast to an irreversible loss tioned reasons and must be considered an engine degradation
of TBN in the presence of water, as reported elsewhere [7]. pathway in xHEVs.
TAN was also measured for the drain/aged oils to charac- Benchtop corrosion testing is often used to replicate real-
terize the build-up of acid [Figure 16(b)]. Performance was world issues. In this body of work, such testing has not been
similar between xHEV and ICE oils; in both cases, aged oils relied upon due to the complexity around the presence of water
demonstrated higher values than the initial drains, as and fuel in the drain and aged oils. In vapor phase corrosion
expected, due to further degradation during the second testing, the presence of fuel can protect the metal test piece since
(high-temperature cleanliness) engine test. The use of i-pH the fuel will vaporize and effectively reduce the local concentra-
[Figure 16(c)] is not standard practice for automotive engine tion of acid vapor around the test piece, therefore reducing
drain oil analysis; however, the authors believe it adds impor- corrosion. In the submersed phase corrosion testing, fuel
tant insights linked to oil degradation/acidification because presence can affect acidic water-in-oil emulsion stability and
the use of traditional TAN and TBN measurements is an therefore change the test piece exposure to acidic water versus
oversimplification of the complex acid and base mixtures in oil without fuel present. This can give misleading results which
used engine oil [8, 9]. In this case, the i-pH data shows a will not necessarily align with real-world engine conditions.
build-up of strong acids (lower i-pH) for each aged oil. This Emulsion stability is also a possible reason for concern.
appears slightly more significant for the ICE drain/aged oil If a hybrid vehicle which has accumulated significant water
versus the xHEV counterparts. Kinematic viscosity could (and fuel) in the engine oil (due to operating conditions), thus
not be measured for the xHEV drain due to the high water forming an emulsion in the oil, is parked for a long period
content emulsion. Kinematic viscosity measured at 100°C (weeks), phase separation may occur over time giving a water-
remained constant between 7.4 cSt and 7.9 cSt for all other enriched layer at the bottom of the oil pan. In extreme cases,
fresh oil, drain, and aged oil samples. phase separation may lead to a water layer at the bottom of
Water and fuel ingress cannot be considered as a single the sump where the oil pump pickup is located. When starting
effect on oil properties in an engine; there are multiple factors the engine, the oil pump would extract this water rather than
to consider when understanding the consequences on engine oil, thus leading to lubricant starvation. As such, the ability
hardware. Generally, water ingress will lead to water-in-oil of the engine oil to retain a stable emulsion is important
emulsion formation; however, in some areas of the engine, (although water release must also be a consideration, which
this will become a very high water content emulsion, with can be hindered if the emulsion is too stable).
consistency likened to mayonnaise (this is often called “white Cold temperature performance must be a consideration
sludge”). Typically, this water-in-oil emulsion will build up for xHEV architectures. It may be assumed that a high water-
in breather hoses and on the engine oil filler cap. White sludge content oil is more problematic at low temperatures (ice forma-
is known to be corrosive due to its high water content and can tion); however, the fuel content should also be considered. In
therefore be problematic. Other types of corrosion can also the current work, it was, in fact, observed that the low temper-
be important in an engine oil with high water and fuel ature cranking viscosity (CCS, cold cranking simulator)
dilution. Both submersed phase and vapor phase corrosion measured at −35°C according to ASTM D5293 was lower for
must be considered. The former can be significant when the the xHEV drain (2450 cP) than for the fresh or ICE aged oils
oil forms a water-in-oil emulsion and acid from oxidative (4656 cP and 4900 cP, respectively). Fuel dilution is assumed
degradation of oil and incomplete combustion of fuel, leading to be the reason for this, alongside the reduction in the freezing
to a subsequent corrosive acidic emulsion. This can be thought point of water observed when emulsified.
of as potentially significant in the lower parts of the engine
where component oil submersion is common. The latter is
assumed more significant in the upper parts of the engine/
valvetrain components, where volatile acids such as formic Conclusions
acid and acetic acid will form an acidic (and therefore corro-
sive) vapor cloud. This can further mix with water vapor to This work has shown that the implementation of vehicle
form a humid and corrosive environment when the engine is electrification may present new operating conditions for
the engine oil and new challenges that must be met. Chassis
dyno testing showed that even within the WLTC procedure,
Contact Information
a challenging operating regime can be identified; the David Growney
highest risk comes with the PHEV, promoted by the Corresponding author
following conditions: david.growney@lubrizol.com
01332845231
•• Medium battery SoC level
•• Low ambient temperatures
•• Short duration and light duty cycles like city driving References
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tion is that it leads to the potential for water and fuel build-up 2. Taylor, R.I., “Energy Efficiency, Emissions, Tribological
in the engine oil. The effect of high water and fuel content has Challenges and Fluid Requirements of Electrified Passenger
been assessed herein by choosing a simple, relatively extreme Car Vehicles,” Lubricants 9, no. 7 (2021): 66.
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via engine dyno testing. Analysis of the engine oil drains Viscosity and Driving Mode on Oil Dilution and Transient
during this procedure showed the build-up of 5–10 wt% water Emissions Including Particle Number in Plug-In Hybrid
and fuel, and the formation of water-in-oil emulsions (“white Electric Vehicle,” SAE Technical Paper 2020-01-0362, 2020,
sludge”). Subsequent analysis and testing of these high fuel doi:https://doi.org/10.4271/2020-01-0362.
and water content engine oil drains demonstrated the 4. Yan, C., Swarn, J., Ajinkya, R., Wenyang, Z. et al.,
following altered behaviors: “Performance Characteristics of Lubricants in Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles: A Review of Current and Future Needs,”
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including the partition of overbased detergent base away 5. Hakeem, M., Anderson, J., Surnilla, G., and Yamada, S.S.,
from the oil phase “Characterization and Speciation of Fuel Oil Dilution in
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continued need for high-performing engine lubricants. As Neutralization Rates—Why Total Base Number Doesn’t Tell
xHEV adoption increases, lubricant quality matters now the Whole Story: Understanding How the Colloidal
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27-40, doi:https://doi.org/10.4271/04-14-01-0003.
Acknowledgment 9. Growney, D., Trickett, K., Robin, M., Rogers, S. et al., “Acid
Neutralization Rates—Why Total Base Number Doesn’t Tell
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Whole Story: Understanding the Neutralization of
Emma Fahey, Chris Saxton, Chris Jones, and Benjamin Organic Acid in Engine Oils,” SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 14, no. 3
Haefele to this work. (2021): 297-309, doi:https://doi.org/10.4271/04-14-03-0013.
© 2024 The Lubrizol Corporation and Shell Global Solutions US. Published by SAE International. This Open Access article is published under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original
author(s) and the source are credited.
Positions and opinions advanced in this work are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE International. Responsibility for the content of the work lies
solely with the author(s).

Hybrid Electric Vehicle Engine Operation and Engine Oil Degradation A Research Approach

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Hybrid Electric Vehicle Engine Operation and Engine Oil Degradation A Research Approach

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Hybrid Electric Vehicle Engine

FIGURE 1 High-level overview of the different levels of powertrain electrification.

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Drain Oil Analysis and Testing

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