1

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
(EDUC 101)

EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
Module I
 2
Lesson 2


INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Intelligence is one of the topics most emphasized in education yet there

has been no standard definition of what exactly it is. Some researchers and
theorists propose that intelligence is one distinct general ability while others
suppose that it is not a single ability but a range of aptitudes, skills, or specific
abilities.
Read critically the concepts and theories that follow and be able to
highlight their basic premises, resemblances and differences that will help you
derive your own concept of intelligence.

A. Concept of Intelligence by Alfred Binet

Binet stated "It seems to us that in intelligence there is a fundamental

faculty, the alteration or the lack of which, is of the utmost importance for
practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical
sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances. A person
may be a moron or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good
judgment he can never be either. Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties
seem of little importance in comparison with judgment" (Binet & Simon, 1916,
1973, pp.42-43). Binet defined intelligence in terms of judgment, practical
sense, initiative, and adaptability (Binet & Simon, 1905). His concept of general
intelligence has three components 1) goal of the mental processes, 2)

capability to display adaptable solutions; and 3) ability to demonstrate

selectivity of judgment and critical anayisis of choices.
In 1905, the first IQ Test or intelligence test, known now as the
BinetSimon Scale, was introduced and became the grounds for the development
of intelligence tests which are being used up to now. In 1908, they made
revisions (dropping, changing and addition of tests then arranging them
correspondingly) of the scale to make it appropriate according to age levels as
the tests were intended to children from ages three through thirteen.

B. General intelligence of Charles Spearman (1904)

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British psychologist Charles Spearman described a concept he called
general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique of factor analysis
to investigate certain mental aptitude tests, Spearman found and concluded
that scores on specific tests gave
remarkably similar results. Those
who scored high on one cognitive
test tended to score high on other
tests, while those who scored low
on one test tended to score low on
the other tests. He concluded
that intelligence is a general
cognitive ability that is underlying
most if not all other factors which
can be measured and
numerically
expressed. He then proposed a
twofactor theory that explains the
“g” and the “s” factors of intelligence.
The “g” represents the general intelligence, a universal and innate ability to
understand the complex things and ideas surrounding us. An example of g
factor is cognitive ability and the extensive use of English as a language. The
“s” factor, on the other hnad is any specific aptitude or ability that has an
impact on a specific task. It varies from activity to activitiy, from person to
person and it can be cultivated and improved. For example, the picture
explains one general ability that is influencing various specific aptitudes
represented by specific ability a (sa), specific ability b (sb) and so on. There
are abilities that require greater amount of general intelligence. It is also
possible that specific abilities are correlated as represented by sh and sg and
that there is “s” that doesn‟t require “g”.

C. Primary Mental Abilities of Louis Leon Thurstone

Thurstone rebuffed the idea of any single ability that possesses general
application more than other abilities. After evaluating several factors that are
affecting performance on a specified test at one time, he devised new
statistical techniques he called factor analysis and generated his Primary
Mental Abilities Test in 1938. Instead of looking at human intelligence as a
single general ability, he proposed and focused on seven distinctive primary
mental abilities namely: verbal comprehension, word fluency, facility with
numbers, Perceptual speed, reasoning ability, spatial visualization, and rote
memory.
1. Verbal comprehension, the ability to define and understand words and is
assessed by tests in vocabulary and reading comprehension.

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2. Word fluency, the ability to produce words rapidly in sentences, and
other verbal (word) material.
3. Numerical, the ability to solve arithmetic problems (fast calculation and
solving simple word problems in arithmetic).
4. Perceptual speed, the ability to see differences and similarities as
commonly seen in proofreading and in quick recognition of texts (letters
and numbers).
5. Reasoning, ability to find rules, use patterns and results in problem
solving.
6. Spatial visualization, the ability to create in mind (visualize) shapes,
patterns, rotations of objects an example of which is how parts of a
puzzle fix together.
7. Memory, the ability to memorize quickly and recall and associate
previously learned items effectively.

D. Multiple Intelligences (MI) of Howard Gardner

The theory of multiple intelligences was initially proposed by Howard

Gardner in his book “Frames of Mind in 1983. Gardner defines intelligence as a
“biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a
cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a
culture” (Gardner, 2000, p.28). Thus, we may all possess these intelligences,
but our level or degree of these intelligences may differ from person to person
because of genetics or experiences. Gardner disagreed with the earlier view of
a single general type of intelligence which merely focuses on cognitive abilities
and proposed that not every intelligence that a person has and will have is
innate. He initially introduced eight types of intelligences comprising of
Logical-Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic,
Naturalist, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal. Later, he added the existential
intelligence.
According to MI Theory, identifying each student‟s intelligences has
strong consequences in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified,

then teachers can accommodate different children more successfully according

to their orientation to learning. Teachers in traditional classrooms primarily
teach to the verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences. Look into
these intelligence and their significance in the classroom.

The Multiple Intelligences of Howard Gardner and their Classroom Implications

Ability Description Implication
Verbal The ability has to do with Learners demonstrate
Linguistic words, written language and great skills in the
Intelligence how it is spoken, grammar, language arts as in

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writing skills speaking and writing,
reading and listening.
Logicalmathematic The ability in numbers, Learners score high in
al problem solving, reasoning, reasoning, numerical and
Intelligence logical reasoning and problem solving.
recognition of patterns
Musical The sensitivity to pitch, Learners learn well
Intelligence rhythm melody, and tone like through songs, patterns,
a composer, a singer or anyone rhythms, instruments and
who loves drumming, tapping musical expression.
their hands or feet to the
rhythm of a music.
Visual Spatial The ability to see and Learners understand
Intelligence manipulate things or objects in better if they see what is
mind and being talked about. They
graphical information love enjoy with maps,
art, charts, graphs,
tables, illustrations,
puzzles and so on.
Bodily The ability to utilize the body Learner learn best
Kinesthetic or parts of the body skilfully, through activities like
Intelligence to handle objects or simply games, hands-on tasks,
doing something involving love to join in athletics
their hands and body and in dances. In
efficiently. traditional classrooms,
they are the “overly
active".
Interperson The skill to communicate with Learners are sociable
al others, verbally and and visibly people
Intelligence nonverbally, to understand oriented, and love to do
people and relationship their learning tasks
(people smart) because of the cooperatively with a
sensitivity to subtle cues on partner or in groups. In
feelings. traditional classrooms,
they are the "talkative".
Intraperson It is the capability to access Learners are in touch
al and deal with one's inner life with their own feelings,
Intelligence and emotional state, thoughts values and concepts
and reactions to things as a thus, appear to be
way to know and appreciate intuitive and more
oneself and others. reserved. They know

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what they want in life.
Naturalist It is the capability to be Learners love the
intelligence connected to the details of outdoors like field trips,
nature or the natural field experiences and
environment as in rock experiential learning,
formation, insects, animals, technology outside the
plants and the like. classroom. They love to
pick up on subtle
differences in meanings
of nature.
Existential The ability to deal with bigger Learners learn may ask
intelligence life questions about existence "What is our part or role
and find answers to existential in this world?" These
questions like “Why do we learners love to go into
exist? Why are we here? “Why philosophy and related
do we die? It also has fields of study.
something to do with
questions on spirituality and
even about God.

E. Robert Sternberg‟s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg‟s theory seeks to highlight the interdependence of the

structures and the processes that cause intelligent behavior, the function of
these structures to the question of realizing goals in the outside world, and the
role of experience in building intelligence and its usage. The theory has three
components, analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical
intelligence.
1. Analytical intelligence, the ability to analyze, critique and
evaluate thus, refers to problem-solving abilities. The “book smart” uses this

ability for to analyze a math problem or to compare and contrast two concepts
or to do some evaluating a play or a group project presented in class. The
analytical skill depends largely on the cognitive processes as it is the ability to
reason, to process and organize information and to solve problems very
effectively.
2. Creative intelligence is the ability to discover, invent or to create
something in order to manage a new situation or a new task effectively utilizing
past experiences and existing knowledge and skills. The “arts smart” uses this
ability to create a poetry, art work, discovery or doable proposals for a project
and other creative outputs after learning a theory.

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3. Practical intelligence, the ability to apply, implement or put into
practice what has been learned allowing the person to react and adapt to the
environment or even change it to suit his or her needs. The practical skill is
used when a “street smart” navigates any kind of environment he is in.

F. Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are the foremost two theorists who
are associated with the cognitive information
processing theory. In 1968, they proposed a
multi-stage theory of memory that explains
how an information goes through a process
from the moment it is received (or sensed),
then processed, until it is stored in the
memory. Relative to the theoy, they
introduced the information processing model
that has three major components (Eggen &
Kauchak, 1999, pp. 243-244):
1. Information stores – repositories used
to hold information. Three types of
storage are assumed: sensory, shortterm (working), and long-term.
2. Cognitive processes – intellectual actions that transform information and
move it from one store to another. Processes include attention,
perception, rehearsal, encoding, and retrieval.
3. Metacognition – knowing about and having control over cognitive
processes; a form of self-regulation. Metacognition controls and directs
the processes that move information from one store to another.
The multi-stage theory of memory explains how information is received by
the sensory memory, processed in the short term memory (or working memory)
and stored in the long term memory. This information-processing model shows
that information which enters the brain is briefly recorded in sensory memory.
Once you focus your attention on it, the information may become part of short
term memory (STM), where it can be manipulated and used (thus, working
memory). Through encoding procedures like repetition and rehearsal,
information may be transported to long-term memory (STL). Retrieving
information from the LTM when needed in problem solving or in answering a
question in a test makes them active again in the STL. In particular ways, the
human memory and the computer memory are comparable. The LTM somewhat
functions like a hard drive of computer both taking lengthier time to respond
but can store a huge quantity of data.
The sensory memory serves as a tentative holding place for data.
Information enters the human information processing system through a variety
of channels associated with senses like:

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• Iconic memory, a sensory memory for vision that lasts just
milliseconds before fading
• Echoic memory, sensory memory that registers specific auditory
information
• Haptic memory, sensory memory for touch (pressure, hot, cold,
and pain)
In the short-term memory, information arrives through encoding (and
rehearsal). Information that enters STM fades away, or decays as soon as it is
no longer attended to within 30 seconds. Decay is a kind of forgetting that
happens when short term memories fade over time.
Long-term memory is the relatively permanent information storage
system. Information is retained and retrieved for hours, weeks, or years.
Storing information in LTM is equivalent to writing information out to a
computer hard drive. Permanent losses may occur as a result of brain damage,
and it is as well possible that some memories just decay away if they aren ‟t
retrieved for a very long time.
LTM has several categories like declarative memory and procedural
memory. Declarative memory is also called explicit memory as it is the
retention of facts, data, events like remembering information for a test or that
you have an appointment with your adviser, your home address and telephone
number, email addresses and passwords, pin numbers, names associated with
people‟s characterisics and the like. Declarative memory provides for
representations of relations beyond the province of events, encompassing the
relations among the facts that constitute our knowledge of the world. This idea
indicates further critical distinction: between episodic memory, which contains
autobiographical records of personally experienced events, and semantic
memory, consisting of world knowledge stored outside of personal contexts
(Tulving, 1972). Episodic memory is recollection of personal details like first
day in the university or your sister‟s graduation day while semantic memory is
recollection of the universal or common knowledge like the names of colors,
the sounds of the alphabets, the capitals of nations and other essential facts
learned over a lifetime.
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to perform
different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain
things as riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard, playing a musical instrument,
swimming, driving, surfing the Net, joining a virtual seminar or learning a
particular technology.

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THINK!

Create asummary chart that presents the major concepts of

the various concepts of intelligence and their application in
the classroom.

EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles