Intelligence

Jannat Mehboob
Lecturer (Psychology)
Department of Humanities
CUI, Lahore Campus
 Introduction
While intelligence is one of the most
talked about subjects in psychology, there
is no standard definition of what exactly
constitutes intelligence.

Some researchers have suggested that

intelligence is a single, general ability;
while others believe that intelligence
encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills,
and talents.
Intelligence has been an important and
controversial topic throughout
psychology's history.
Despite the substantial interest in the
subject, there is still considerable
disagreement about what components
make up intelligence.
In addition to questions of exactly how to
define intelligence, the debate continues
today about whether accurate
measurements are even possible.
 Definition
A typical dictionary definition
of Intelligence is “the capacity to acquire
and apply knowledge.”

Intelligence includes the ability to benefit

from past experience, act purposefully,
solve problems, and adapt to new
situations. Intelligence can also be defined
as “the ability that intelligence tests
measure.”
At various points throughout recent
history, researchers have proposed some
different definitions of intelligence.

While these definitions can vary

considerably from one theorist to the
next, current conceptualizations tend to
suggest that intelligence involves the level
of ability to do the following:
Learn: The acquisition, retention, and use
of knowledge is an important component
of intelligence.
Recognize problems: To put knowledge
to use, people must be able to identify
possible problems in the environment that
need to be addressed.
Solve problems: People must then be
able to take what they have learned to
come up with a useful solution to a
problem they have noticed in the world
around them.
Intelligence involves some different
mental abilities including logic, reasoning,
problem-solving, and planning.

While the subject of intelligence is one of

the largest and most heavily researched,
it is also one of the topics that generate
the greatest controversy.
 Concept of Intelligence
The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first
coined in the early 20th century by a German
psychologist William Stern.

 Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first

intelligence tests to help the French government
identify schoolchildren who needed extra
academic assistance.

 Binetwas the first to introduce the concept of

mental age or a set of abilities that children of a
certain age possess.
 Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed
a variety of theories to explain the nature
of intelligence. Here are some of the
major theories of intelligence that have
emerged during the last 100 years:
 Charles Spearman: General
Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman
(1863–1945) described a concept he
referred to as general intelligence or the g
factor.
After using a technique known as factor
analysis to examine some mental aptitude
tests, Spearman concluded that scores on
these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one
cognitive test tended to perform well on
other tests, while those who scored badly
on one test tended to score badly on
others.

He concluded that intelligence is a general

cognitive ability that can be measured and
numerically expressed.
 Theory of fluid and
crystallized intelligence
In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a
theory of intelligence that divided general
intelligence into two components:
crystallized intelligence and fluid
intelligence (Cattell, 1963).
Crystallized intelligence is characterized
as acquired knowledge and the ability to
retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and
recall information, you are using
crystallized intelligence.
 Fluid intelligence encompasses the
ability to see complex relationships and
solve problems. Navigating your way
home after being detoured onto an
unfamiliar route because of road
construction would draw upon your fluid
intelligence.
Fluid intelligence helps you tackle
complex, abstract challenges in your daily
life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps
you overcome concrete, straightforward
problems (Cattell, 1963).
Triarchic theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg developed another
theory of intelligence, which he titled
the triarchic theory of
intelligence because it sees intelligence
as comprised of three parts (Sternberg,
1988):
practical,
creative, and
analytical intelligence
Practical intelligence, as proposed by
Sternberg, is sometimes compared to
“street smarts.”
Being practical means you find solutions
that work in your everyday life by applying
knowledge based on your experiences.
This type of intelligence appears to be
separate from traditional understanding of
IQ; individuals who score high in practical
intelligence may or may not have
comparable scores in creative and
analytical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).
Analytical intelligence is closely aligned
with academic problem solving and
computations.
Sternberg says that analytical intelligence
is demonstrated by an ability to analyze,
evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast.

 When reading a classic novel for literature

class, for example, it is usually necessary
to compare the motives of the main
characters of the book or analyze the
historical context of the story.
Ina science course such as anatomy, you
must study the processes by which the
body uses various minerals in different
human systems.

In developing an understanding of this

topic, you are using analytical intelligence.
When solving a challenging math problem,
you would apply analytical intelligence to
analyze different aspects of the problem
and then solve it section by section.
Creative intelligence is marked by inventing
or imagining a solution to a problem or
situation. Creativity in this area can include
finding a novel solution to an unexpected
problem or producing a beautiful work of art or
a well-developed short story.

Imagine for a moment that you are camping in

the woods with some friends and realize that
you’ve forgotten your coffee pot. The person in
your group who figures out a way to
successfully make coffee for everyone would be
credited as having higher creative intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Multiple Intelligences theory was
developed by Howard Gardner.

 In Gardner’s theory, each person

possesses at least eight intelligences.
Among these eight intelligences, a person
typically excels in some and falters in
others (Gardner, 1983).
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
People who are strong in visual-spatial
intelligence are good at visualizing things.
 These individuals are often good with
directions as well as maps, charts, videos,
and pictures.
People with visual-spatial intelligence: Read
and write for enjoyment, Are good at
putting puzzles together, Interpret pictures,
graphs, and charts well, Enjoy drawing,
painting and Recognize patterns easily.
Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal
intelligence are able to use words well, both
when writing and speaking.
These individuals are typically very good at
writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.
People with linguistic-verbal intelligence:
Remember written and spoken information,
Enjoy reading and writing, Debate or give
persuasive speeches, Are able to explain things
well and Use humour when telling stories.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
People who are strong in logical-mathematical
intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing
patterns, and logically analyzing problems.

These individuals tend to think conceptually

about numbers, relationships, and patterns.

People with logical-mathematical intelligence:

Have excellent problem-solving skills, Enjoy
thinking about abstract ideas, Like conducting
scientific experiments and Can solve complex
computations.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence
 Those who have high bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control.

 People who are strong in this area tend to have

excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.

 People with bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: Are

skilled at dancing and sports, Enjoy creating things
with his or her hands, Have excellent physical
coordination and Remember by doing, rather than
hearing or seeing.
Musical Intelligence
 People who have strong musical intelligence are good
at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds.

 They have a strong appreciation for music and are

often good at musical composition and performance.

 Peoplewith musical intelligence: Enjoy singing and

playing musical instruments, Recognize musical
patterns and tones easily, Remember songs and
melodies and Have a rich understanding of musical
structure, rhythm, and notes.
Interpersonal Intelligence
 Thosewho have strong interpersonal intelligence are
good at understanding and interacting with other
people.

 Theseindividuals are skilled at assessing

the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.

 People with interpersonal intelligence: Communicate

well verbally, Are skilled at nonverbal communication,
See situations from different perspectives, Create
positive relationships with others and Resolve conflicts
in group settings.
Intrapersonal Intelligence
 Individualswho are strong in intrapersonal
intelligence are good at being aware of their own
emotional states, feelings, and motivations.

 They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis,

including daydreaming, exploring relationships with
others, and assessing their personal strengths.

 Peoplewith intrapersonal intelligence: Analyze their

strengths and weaknesses well, Enjoy analyzing
theories and ideas, Have excellent self-awareness
and Understand the basis for his or her own
motivations and feelings.
Naturalistic Intelligence
 According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this
type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are
often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment,
and learning about other species.

 These individuals are said to be highly aware of even

subtle changes to their environments.

 People with naturalistic intelligence: Are interested in

subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology,
Categorize and catalogue information easily, Enjoy
camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
and Dislikes learning unfamiliar topics that have no
connection to nature
 Intellectual Functioning
 IntellectualFunctioning Intelligence tests provide
at least one measure of ‘‘general intellectual
functioning’’ and are usually administered by
clinical psychologists in community settings and
by school psychologists in schools.

 General intellectual functioning typically refers to

one’s global or overall level of intelligence, often
referred to as IQ (intelligence quotient). Higher IQ
scores are assumed to mean that the individual
has higher intellectual functioning. Unfortunately,
this single score indicates general functioning.
Itdoes not necessarily explain, for example,
why a given student does not know how to
read even though he or she is in the fifth
grade, or if the student has some special
skills in an area such as art, music, or
learning a foreign language.

Performance on a single measure of

intellectual ability might be useful as a
starting point in efforts to understand a
student’s skills and needs, when used in
combination with other sources of information
including measures of cognitive abilities.
 Cognitive Abilities
One way psychologists have tried to gather
information about the specific abilities that
explain children’s learning and learning
problems is by focusing on cognitive abilities
rather than general intelligence.
Cognitive abilities are those skills that make
up an individual’s general intelligence.
According to recent research, the concept of
multiple abilities seems to better explain why
individuals may perform very well on some
types of tasks and poorly on others.
Methods of assessing intelligence

Intellectual or cognitive abilities are

typically assessed using a combination of
standardized tests and ecological
measures.
 Standardized and Norm-Referenced
Tests
 Themost common measures of intellectual ability are
standardized, norm-referenced intelligence tests,
many of which yield a score where average
performance is set at 100.

 The term IQ (or Full Scale IQ–FSIQ) is the traditional

designation for these scores, which represent global
intelligence and are associated most closely with the
Wechsler Scales of Intelligence.

 Other tests use different terms for scores that mean

essentially the same thing, such as General Intellectual
Ability (GIA) or Mental Processing Index (MPI).
Standardized tests
 Intelligence tests or batteries are made up of a series of tasks
or subtests that are usually administered on an individual
basis, although some group-administered tests are available.

 These tasks, intended to provide samples of a person’s

intelligence or cognitive abilities, with each yielding a score,
are referred to as standardized because each task is
presented to each examinee in the same or standardized way.

 When standardized tests are used, performance is thought to

show a person’s unique cognitive abilities, taking into account
any error resulting from factors such as the individual having
a bad day or imperfections in the test itself.
Norm-referenced test
 Tounderstand how the individual compares to others,
the test scores are then compared to the test’s norms.

 Norms are established when tests are first developed,

using large groups of individuals to determine the range
of typical performance.

 Forexample, if a child gets 3 questions correct on a test

of vocabulary and the norms tell us that most children
of the same age correctly respond to 8 to 10 questions,
we could say that this child’s vocabulary skills are poor
in comparison to most children of the same age. Most
intelligence tests are both norm-referenced and
standardized
Common intelligence tests
Commonly used norm-referenced tests include the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI), Wechsler Intelligence for
Children (WISC), Woodcock–Johnson Tests of
Cognitive Abilities (WJ), the Stanford–Binet
Intelligence Scale (SB), the Differential Abilities
Scale (DAS), and the Kaufman Assessment
Battery for Children (KABC).

There also exist brief measures of intelligence

such as the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of
Intelligence (WASI) and the Kaufman Brief
Intelligence Test (K–BIT).
Ecological Assessment Procedures
 Inaddition to formal intelligence tests, intellectual
assessment often includes ecological information that is,
information about the student’s environment and history,
or the context of the student’s learning and development.

 These procedures typically include a review of educational

records; observations of the child in different
environments (such as classroom, playground, gym);
interviews with parents, teachers, and other professionals
involved with the student; developmental history;
classroom work samples (reading assignments, class
tests, workbooks); and measures of adaptive behaviour
(the student’s degree of independence in various
situations).
 Intelligencetest scores can easily be misinterpreted if
ecological information is overlooked.

 For example, an extremely low overall IQ score on an

intelligence test could lead one to conclude that a student
might have mental retardation (very limited intellectual
ability).

 However, there are many factors that could prevent an

individual from demonstrating optimal performance on a
given test.

 These factors include illness, fatigue, poor motivation,

missed instruction due to frequent absences from school,
frequent moves or school changes, poor vision or hearing,
inattention, or difficulties with the English language (a
common issue for immigrant students).
 Individual Difference
“Individual differences stand for the
variations or deviations among individuals
in regard to a single characteristic or a
number of characteristics.”
Types of individual differences
Physical difference: Difference in
acquired physical characteristics.
Mental difference: People differ in
intellectual abilities and capacities. Idiot,
imbecile, moron, border line, normal, very
superior and genius
Emotional difference: Individuals also
differ in the manner they express their
emotions.
Differences in psychomotor skills:
Individuals are found to differ with regard to
development and acquisition of one or more
types of skills.
Differences in achievement: Differences exist
in achievement and in knowledge among
individuals.
Differences in interests and aptitudes:
Variations occur among the individuals in
relation to the specific tastes and interests.
Learning Differences: Some learn more easily
and are able to make use of their learning more
comfortably than others. Difference in attitudes,
beliefs and opinions
 Factors Effecting Individual
Differences

Heredity: Anything that occurs naturally

as a function of the genes.
Environment: Anything that is learned
and communicated in different cultures or
other social groups
 Giftedness
A gifted child can be any child who is naturally endowed
with a high degree of general mental ability or
extraordinary ability in a specific sphere of activity or
knowledge.

 Thedesignation of giftedness is largely a matter of

administrative convenience. In most countries the
prevailing definition is an intelligence quotient (IQ) of
130 or above.

 However, schools use multiple measures of giftedness

and assess a wide variety of talents, including verbal,
mathematical, spatial-visual, musical, and interpersonal
abilities.
In theory, there are three ways
of educating children who are intellectually and
academically more advanced than their peers:
Acceleration, whereby the gifted child is
allowed to learn material at a more rapid pace
or is promoted more rapidly through grades;
Enrichment, whereby the gifted child works
through the usual grades at the usual pace but
with a curriculum supplemented by a variety of
cultural activities; and
Differentiation, whereby gifted children are
accelerated or enriched within the regular
classroom.
Emotional Intelligence or EQ
 Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as
emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to
understand, use, and manage your own emotions in
positive ways to relieve stress, communicate
effectively, empathize with others, overcome
challenges and defuse conflict.

 Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger

relationships, succeed at school and work, and
achieve your career and personal goals. It can also
help you to connect with your feelings, turn
intention into action, and make informed decisions
about what matters most to you.
Emotional intelligence is commonly defined
by four attributes:
Self-management – You’re able to control
impulsive feelings and behaviours, manage
your emotions in healthy ways, take
initiative, follow through on commitments,
and adapt to changing circumstances.
Self-awareness – You recognize your own
emotions and how they affect your
thoughts and behaviour. You know your
strengths and weaknesses, and have self-
confidence.
Social awareness – You have empathy.
You can understand the emotions, needs,
and concerns of other people, pick up on
emotional cues, feel comfortable socially,
and recognize the power dynamics in a
group or organization.
Relationship management – You know
how to develop and maintain good
relationships, communicate clearly, inspire
and influence others, work well in a team,
and manage conflict.
 Importance
 As we know, it’s not the smartest people who are the most
successful or the most fulfilled in life.

 You probably know people who are academically brilliant and

yet are socially inept and unsuccessful at work or in their
personal relationships.

 Intellectual
ability or your intelligence quotient (IQ) isn’t
enough on its own to achieve success in life. Yes, your IQ
can help you get into college, but it’s your EQ that will help
you manage the stress and emotions when facing your final
exams.

 IQ and EQ exist in sequence and are most effective when

they build off one another.
Key skills to increasing your EQ
 The skills that make up emotional intelligence can be
learned at any time. However, it’s important to
remember that there is a difference between simply
learning about EQ and applying that knowledge to your
life.

 Justbecause you know you should do something doesn’t

mean you will especially when you become overwhelmed
by stress, which can override your best intentions.

 Inorder to permanently change behaviour in ways that

stand up under pressure, you need to learn how to
overcome stress in the moment, and in your
relationships, in order to remain emotionally aware.
The key skills for building your EQ and
improving your ability to manage
emotions and connect with others are:

Self-management
Self-awareness
Social awareness
Relationship management
 Artificial intelligence (AI)
The ability of a digital computer or
computer-controlled robot to perform
tasks commonly associated with
intelligent beings.
The term is frequently applied to the
project of developing systems endowed
with the intellectual processes &
characteristic of humans, such as the
ability to reason, discover meaning,
generalize, or learn from past experience.
Since the development of the digital
computer in the 1940s, it has been
demonstrated that computers can be
programmed to carry out very complex tasks
as, for example, discovering proofs for
mathematical theorems or playing chess with
great proficiency.

Still,
despite continuing advances in computer
processing speed and memory capacity, there
are as yet no programs that can match
human flexibility over wider domains or in
tasks requiring much everyday knowledge.
On the other hand, some programs have
attained the performance levels of human
experts and professionals in performing
certain specific tasks, so that artificial
intelligence in this limited sense is found
in applications as diverse as
medical diagnosis, computer search
engines, and voice or handwriting
recognition.
Types of Artificial intelligence
Although AI is undoubtedly multifaceted,
there are 4 specific types of artificial
intelligence under which extended
categories fall. These include;

Reactive machines
Limited memory
Theory of mind
Self-awareness
Type I: Reactive machines
Reactive machines are the most basic type
of AI system.
This means that they cannot form
memories or use past experiences to
influence present-made decisions; they
can only react to currently existing
situations hence “reactive.”
 An existing form of a reactive machine is
Deep Blue, a chess-playing supercomputer
created by IBM in the mid-1980s.
Type II: Limited memory
Limited memory is comprised of machine
learning models that derive knowledge
from previously-learned information,
stored data, or events.

Unlike reactive machines, limited memory

learns from the past by observing actions
or data fed to them in order to build
experiential knowledge.
Type III: Theory of mind
What constitutes theory of mind is decision-
making ability equal to the extent of a human
mind, but by machines.

While there are some machines that currently

exhibit humanlike capabilities (voice assistants,
for instance), none are fully capable of holding
conversations relative to human standards.

One component of human conversation is having

emotional capacity, or sounding and behaving like
a person would in standard conventions of
conversation.
Type IV: Self-awareness
Self-awareAI involves machines that have
human-level consciousness.

Thisform of AI is not currently in existence,

but would be considered the most advanced
form of artificial intelligence known to man.

Facets of self-aware AI include the ability to

not only recognize and replicate humanlike
actions, but also to think for itself, have
desires, and understand its feelings.