Phylum Mollusca

General characteristics
Soft Bodied Complete digestive tract

Digestive glands
Shelled

Specialized feeding
Some without

structures
Cephalization

Sensory organs
Circulatory system

Mouths
Heart (2 chambers)

Body Divisions
Open system in most
Visceral Mass (contain most internal
groups
organs)
Characteristics ctnd
• Advanced nervous system

– Brain

– Sensory organs

• Eyes (simple and camera)

• Sensory papillae

• Excretory system

– Kidney-like nephridia

• Reproduction

– Monoecious and dioecious

 Mollusc Taxonomy
• Major classes

– Polyplacophora e.g Chiton

– Gastropoda e.g slugs, snails

– Bivalve e.g Clams, oysters, mussels, scallops

– Cephalopoda e.g squids, octopuses,

• Minor classes
 Feeding Types

• Grazers (radula- scraping tongue)

• Filter feeding

• Egg eaters

• Active predation
 Mollusc Reproduction & Development
I. Sexes are separate and
Indirect development
the reproductive organs (gonads) are simple
Larval stages

II. Reproduction via an unfertilized gamete

Trochophore larva
(parthenogenesis) is also found among
Free swimming, ciliated, shell

formation begins gastropods

Veliger larva
III. Most reproduction is by sexual means. Eggs
Free swimming, ciliated velium forms,
and sperm are released into water
Shell/body torsion occurs
and fertilization occurs .
Spat
IV. Both male and female reproductive organs
Metamorphic form between veliger and

juvenile may be present in one individual

Shell elaborates (hermaphroditism) in some species

(gastropods and bivalaves)

 Mollusc reproduction and
development
In hermaphroditic bivalves and prosobranch gastropods, male and

female gonads are functional at separate times and in consecutive

patterns

Fertilization is by transfer of capsules containing sperm

(spermatophores) typically occurs in cephalopods and some

gastropods.

Eggs are deposited singly or in groups, generally on some hard surface

and often within jelly masses or leathery capsules.

Fertilized egg develop to trochophore larva and to veliger larva , and

finally adult
 Life cycle of
Mollusca
Life cycle of Gastropod (snail) Life cycle of Bivalve (snail)
Phylum Annelida
 General Characteristics
Metamerism

•Have an anterior prostomium and posterior pygidium; both non-

segmented

• Body is divided into a linear series of similar parts or segments, called

metameres

• The pattern of repeated segmentation is called metamerism

• Each metamere is separated from the next by a transverse septum

• Each metamere acts as a hydrostatic skeleton

• Each metamere has longitudinal and circular muscles

• Each segment usually bears one or more chitinous bristles called

 Metamerism ctnd
Annelids exhibit segmentation or metamerism

– Each unit contains components of most organ systems.

• Evolution of metamerism allowed:

– Increased burrowing efficiency

– more sophisticated nervous system

– Provided a safety factor

Nervous System
Consists of a brain, connected to a
pair of ventral longitudinal nerve
cords, with a ganglion in each
segment.

Circulatory System
• Closed circulatory system.
Blood is enclosed within blood
vessels that run the length of the
body and branch to every segment.

• Several hearts (5 in earthworms)

are used to pump blood through
the closed circuit
Excretory System
• Consists of paired metanephridia

• Excretory tubes with ciliated funnels that

remove waste from the coelomic fluid; open

to the outside via excretory pores.

Note:

Not all organ systems are metameric.

For example, the digestive system

extends the length of the organism and is

differentiated along its length

Reproductive System

• Most annelids are hermaphroditic, but they are usually cross

fertilizers.

•
Earthworms and leeches form pairs and reciprocally fertilize one

another.

•
Some annelids (e.g. marine sandworms) are dioecious and they

release eggs and sperm into the marine environment, where gametes
 Phylum Annelida
Traditionally, annelids are divided among 3 classes

– Class Polychaeta ( sandworms (Arenicola sp) ,clam worms (Nereis sp)

and fan worm (Sabella sp)

– Class Oligochaeta (earthworms)

– Class Hirudinea (leeches)

• Oligochaeta and Hirudinea

 Clade Clitellata
• Class Oligochaeta and Class Hirudinida

• Form reproductive structure called a clitellum

– Permanent in oligochaetes but visible only during

reproductive season in leeches.

• Hermaphroditic (monoecious) animals

• Young develop inside a cocoon secreted by the clitellum, and

emerge as small worms

Polychaetes

They are marine habitat dwellers.

Bears many chitinous bristles called setae on the parapodia (fleshy paddle –

like).

1. Movement

a. Each segment has paired parapodia for swimming/crawling.

b. May burrow, using peristalsis

2. Feeding
Reproduction

a. Dioecious (two sexes separate)

b. Segmentation allows regeneration.

c. Also allows Epitoky!

i. Posterior (tail) end of worm grows into enlarged gonads and eyes; parapodia

become modified for swimming.

ii. Often, the posterior end will then break off and swim away to reproduce! It is

called an epitoke.
Oligochaeta

Live in freshwater, land, ocean

Few bristles but lack parapodia

Movement

a. Most burrow with peristalsis. (Muscular contractions of body, using both

longitudinal and circular muscles).

b. Use setae as anchors.

Feeding

a. Deposit feeders (earthworms) b. Herbivores/scavengers

Reproduction
Hirudinea

Body is dorso-ventrally flattened

Anterior segments are modified as a small sucker which surrounds the mouth; posterior

segments form a larger sucker

Setae and parapodia are completely absent

Evidence of segmentation externally, but no internal septa

Mostly freshwater, some marine and ponds.

Movement

Leeches crawl over the surface in a loop like fashion, with the use of anterior and

posterior suckers, circular and longitudinal muscles.

Feeding

a. ¾ are blood-sucking ectoparasites

b. 1/4 are active predators

 Phylum Nematoda

Unsegmented roundworms.
 Nematodes
• Advancements over flatworms:

–Has a two-hole digestive tract.

• Not as advanced as “higher” worms, such as

earthworms because:

–They lack body segmentation.

 Characteristics
• Unsegmented roundworms are classified into about 16,000 species,

but the actual number of nematode species could be as high as 500,

000.

– Colorless

– Range in length from microscopic to several meters long.

– May be free-living or parasitic.

 Characteristics: Body Plan

• Nematodes have three cell layers:

– Ectoderm – outer tissue layer (epidermis)

– Mesoderm – middle tissue layer (muscle)

– Endoderm – innermost tissue layer (body cavity)

• They are known as psuedocoelomates because they have an internal cavity that is not lined with
peritoneum – therefore it is not a “true” coelom.

• They are bilaterally symmetrical – as is every organism we study from here on out.
 Characteristics: Epidermis

• The outside of the nematode is made up of a tough, flexible, non-cellular layer

known as the cuticle.

• The cuticle is secreted by epidermal cells.

• It functions to:

– Resist penetration – in free-living.

– Resist enzymatic digestion – in parasitic.

– Maintains internal hydrostatic pressure.

• The cuticle usually molts 4 times during maturation.

 Characteristics: Digestive System

• One way digestive system; remember this means that food goes in one way

and out another. Just like us.

• The digestive tract is a linear progression, as shown below:

mouth pharynx intestines rectum anus

• Food is pushed through this system by hydrostatic pressure.

 Characteristics :Musculature
• The nematode body wall has only longitudinal muscles.

– Remember longitudinal means lengthwise, so they only run from the

anterior to the posterior end of the worm.

– These muscles are used for movement.

– When these muscles contract it causes the thrashing movements from

head to tail.

– They lack circular muscles so they cannot crawl as we saw the leech do
on dry surfaces.
 Excretory System
• Aquatic species have ventral glands (called renettes) posterior

to the pharynx that absorb waste from the pseudo-coelom and

empties the waste through the excretory pore.

• Parasitic nematodes have a more advanced excretory system

known as tubular system

 Nematode Nervous System
• Nematodes have two nerve cords in their bodies.

– Ventral nerve cord – runs along the “belly.”

– Dorsal nerve cord – runs along the “back.”

• They have a central nervous system consisting of a circular brain.

• The nervous system allows the nematode to detect its environment

and react to it.

• Aquatic nematodes have a pair of ocelli (eyes).

 Nematode Habitat

• Nematodes live in:

– Parasitic nematodes live within a host

– Free-living nematodes live in marine, freshwater, or

damp soil environments.

 Free-living nematodes
• Free-living nematodes live in the sea, in fresh water, and in the soil.

• They occur worldwide in all environments and most live in the

interstitial spaces of sediments and soils.

• The slender, tapered body of nematodes equips them to live in

interstitial spaces.
 Characteristics of Parasitic Nematodes
1:The thick body wall is an excellent protection against chemical or immune

attack, allowing them to survive gut acids or antibody attack.

2: The vast numbers of resistant eggs allow dispersal in time and space,

maximixing the chance of infecting a new host.

3: The microphagous habit pre-adapts to a gut content / body fluid diet.

4: The body design works well at small body size, which is advantageous for

most parasitic lifestyles.

 Parasitic Nematodes
The basic lifestyle involves sexual fertilization, release of eggs which
hatch into larval nematodes, identical in shape form and cell number to
their parents.

These undergo 4 molts to attain adult size. Parasitic species follow this
pattern exactly, but still have a diversity of life styles.

Plant parasites

Fungal feeders

Animal parasites
Ascaris lumbricoides
• Roundworm of man

• 1.2 billion people worldwide

• Females lay 200,000 eggs a day

• Adults - males are 15 to 30 cm long,

with strongly curved tails; females are

20 to 35 cm long, with straight tails

• Unsanitary habits contaminate ground

(Night soil)

34
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Life Cycle of Ascaris Lumbricoides

Source: Redrawn From Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA. 35

Life cycle: Ascaris lumbricoides
• Humans ingest embryonated eggs containing infective larvae.

• Larvae hatch from the eggs in the small intestine, penetrate the

intestine wall, enter the bloodstream, migrate to the liver, travel to the

lung via the blood stream.

• Larvae break out of lung capillaries and are coughed up to the pharynx.

• They are swallowed and return to the intestine.

• Molts twice to 4th stage larvae take place in alveoli.

Life cycle: (continued)
• Larvae mature to adults in the small intestine.

• Worms do not attach to the intestinal wall, but maintain their

position by constant movement.

• Worms have a life span of approximately 1 year.

• Undeveloped eggs are passed in the feces.

• These eggs develop in soil and are infective after two weeks

to one month.

• The egg shell is very thick and resistant to environmental

changes.

• Eggs can remain infective for up to 5 years if protected from

direct sunlight and desiccation.

Enterobius vermicularis - the pinworm
• Most common helminth infection in the U.S.A.

• Transmission is direct, person-to-person.

• Egg is infective immediately or within hours of being

shed by the female.

• Common worldwide but more prevalent in

temperate climates.

• It is a group infection especially common among

children.

• Very often associated with low sanitation and

hygiene.
Enterobius vermicularis - the pinworm
• Adults - female: creamy white, ~ 8-13 mm long, with

sharply pointed tails; Wing-like flaps (cervical alae) at

head end; Male: small (2-5 mm) with strongly curved

posterior.

• Eggs - 50 to 60 x 20 to 32 microns, broadly oval.

Compressed laterally. Normally are embryonated

(contain a larva).
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Life Cycle of Enterobius Vermicularis

Source: Redrawn From Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA. 40

Life cycle: Enterobius vermicularis
• Eggs are ingested, hatch in intestine, larvae
mature to adults.
• Gravid females migrate to the perianal area
at night to lay eggs.
• Eggs develop to infective stage within 4-6
hours. Eggs can survive for extended
periods in cool, moist environment.
• Eggs are found rarely in fecal samples;
Release is most often external to the
intestines.
• Dying worms may release eggs in the bowel.
Trichuris trichiura - the whipworm.
Life cycle:

• Infective, fully embryonated eggs are ingested, larvae hatch in

small intestine, penetrate and develop in the intestinal villi and

migrate to the area of the cecum.

• Larvae mature and live in the colon. Worms embed their

anterior portion (as much as two-thirds of the worm) into the

mucosa.
Trichuris trichiura - the whipworm.
Life Cycle: (continued)
• Barrel-shaped eggs are released into the stool.

• Eggs must undergo development in the soil for

approximately 10 days to 3 weeks before they become

infective.

• The worm’s life span is estimated to be 4 - 8 years.

Hookworms
• Anterior end hooks
• Necator americanus
• Ancylostoma
duodenale
• Feed on blood
• Cause anemia

44
 Hook worms
Morphology:

• Rhabditiform larvae - long buccal cavity, indistinct genital

primordium. Filariform larvae lose oral structures & have

sharp pointed tails.

Hookworm rhabditiform
larva

• Adults - males: 7 to 11 mm long with a copulatory bursa;

females: 8 to 15 mm long.
Hookworm filariform larva

• Eggs - 55 to 70 x 35 to 40 microns; very thin shell; usually

seen in the 8 - 32 stage of cleavage.

Hookworm egg
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Life Cycle of Necator Americanus

Source: Redrawn From Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA. 46

 Hookworms
Necator americanus - The New World hookworm

Ancylostoma duodenale - The Old World hookworm

Life cycle:

• Eggs shed in soil hatch within 48 hours, becoming rhabditiform

larvae (1 & 2 stages).

st nd

• After ~ 7 days, worms stop feeding and molt, transforming from the rhabditiform

larvae to infective filariform larvae.

• Infections are acquired when the filariform larvae penetrates the skin of a human.
 Life cycle: (continued)
• Larvae enter the lymphatic system or bloodstream, and travel to the lungs.

• After maturating in the lungs, they migrate up the trachea to be swallowed back to small

intestine, where they mature to adults.

• Immature adults attach to the intestinal mucosa by means of their stout mouth parts and

suck blood and tissue juices of the host.

• About five weeks after infection, the worms have undergone a final molt to become sexually

mature adults.
 Hookworms
Morphology:

• Rhabditiform larvae - long buccal cavity.

• Filariform larvae lose oral structures & have sharp

Hookworm rhabditiform
larva
pointed tails.

• Adults - males: 7 to 11 mm long , females: 8 to 15 mm

Hookworm filariform larva
long.

• Eggs - 55 to 70 x 35 to 40 microns; very thin shell;

usually seen in the 8 - 32 stage of cleavage.

Hookworm egg
Dracunculus medinensis – The Guinea Worm

Morphology –
• Males measure 40mm in length.
• Females measure 800mm in length.

Diagnosis -
• Visual observation of skin blister. The worm’s
serpentine presence beneath skin can be seen.
• Induce release of larvae from the skin ulcer by
applying cold water.
51
 Class Nematoda -The Roundworms

The Filarial Worms

General life cycle:

• Human infection is acquired when infective larvae enter the skin at

the arthropod’s feeding site.

• Larval migration and development takes place in tissue.

• Adults are in various tissues (according to species). They mature

and produce microfilariae.
 The Filarial Worms
Wuchereria bancrofti:
“ Bancroft's Filariasis.” A blood & lymphatic

dweller. The infection often results in elephantiasis.

• Vectors - Culex, Aedes, & Anopheles mosquitoes.

Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaria in blood smear • Diagnosis - Detection and identification of microfilaria in stained blood
smears.

• Exhibits a marked circadian migration, best seen at night after 10 P.M.

• Morphology - Microfilariae are sheathed, and the nuclear column does

not extend to tip of tail.
 Class Nematoda -
The Roundworms

The Filarial Worms

Wuchereria bancrofti:
Major pathology and symptoms –
• Swelling, due to allergic reaction
occurring around adult worms, produces
obstruction & elephantiasis. Each
individual reacts differently. Very few
develop elephantiasis, but in some this is
extensive.
 Class Nematoda -
The Roundworms
The Filarial Worms
Brugia malayi:
“Malayan filariasis.” A blood & lymphatic dweller. The
infection can cause elephantiasis, but is not as
disfiguring or common as with Wuchereria bancrofti.
• Vectors - Mansonia, Anopheles & Aedes mosquitoes.
• Diagnosis - Detection and identification of microfilaria
Brugia malayi microfilariae in blood smear
in stained blood smears.
• Morphology - Microfilariae are sheathed, nuclear
column extends to tip of tail with two nuclei near end
of tail, one in a swelling just short of tail’s end, the
other in the end of the tail.
 Class Nematoda -
The Roundworms
The Filarial Worms
Brugia malayi:
Major pathology and symptoms -
• Swelling, due to allergic reaction
occurring around adult worms, produces
obstruction & elephantiasis. Each
individual reacts differently. More often
asymptomatic than infections with W.
bancrofti.
 Class Nematoda -
The Roundworms
The Filarial Worms
Onchocerca volvulus:
The “blinding filaria.” Infections involve the
dermis and subcutaneous tissues, where adults
gather within nodules.
• Vector - Simulium flies (blackfly, or buffalo gnat).
• Diagnosis - microfilariae are found in skin
scrapings from around nodules.
• Morphology - Microfilariae not sheathed; found
only in skin, not in the blood stream.
The Filarial Worms

The Filarial Worms

Onchocerca volvulus:
Major pathology and symptoms -
Characterized by fibrotic nodules which
encapsulate adults, usually on the trunk in
Africa, and on the head in central America. A
progressive, allergic skin rash develops.
Blindness occurs due to the presence of
microfilariae in ocular structures. This parasite
is a major cause of blindness in Africa. Control
is difficult because Simulium flies breed in
running water.
 The Filarial Worms

Loa loa:
The “eyeworm.” Infections involve the dermis and
subcutaneous tissues (Calabar swellings).
• Vector - Chrysops (mango fly), a large fly with
biting mouthparts.
• Diagnosis - Usually made from clinical symptoms,
but if laboratory confirmation is required, blood
should be drawn between 11 am & 1 pm.
• Diagnosis - Microfilariae are sheathed, nuclear
column extends to tip of tail.
The Filarial Worms

Loa loa:
Major pathology and symptoms -
Infections cause a localized
subcutaneous edema, particularly
around the eye, because of larval
migration and death in capillaries.
Living adults cause no inflammation;
dying adults induce granulomatous
reactions.
 Phylum Arthropoda
• The body structure shows bilateral symmetry.

• They are triploblastic.

• They can be found in all types of habitats – land, water and soil.

• They have jointed limbs.

• The body is segmented into three regions – Head, Thorax and Abdomen.

• The body cavity is filled with blood and is called the haemocoel. The blood is

white in colour.
They have a well-developed central nervous system.

The head is well developed and bears the sensory organs and brain.

They have compound eyes and mosaic vision.

The digestive tract is complete with the mouth and anus at opposite

ends of the body.

They have an open circulatory system with dorsal heart and arteries.

Respiration is through the general body surface or by gills in aquatic

forms and through trachea or book lungs in terrestrial forms.

Sexes are separate and sexual dimorphism is exhibited.

DIVERSITY
Numbers
• about 80% of all animals are arthropods
• estimated to be over 30 million arthropods
• far more of them than all other metazoan species
combined
• in virtually every conceivable environment:
marine, terrestrial, freshwater, and aerial habitats.

Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Trilobita (extinct)
Subphylum Chelicerata
Subphylum Crustacea
Subphylum Uniramia (insects)
 Arthropod reproduction and Life
cycle
Reproduction
Life cycle of Insect • General

• most arthropods are gonochoric

• fertilization may be external or internal in

aquatic arthropods

• always internal in terrestrial species

• 2. Sperm Transfer

• sperm transfer usually by mating or copulation

• females usually store the sperm in a seminal

receptacle