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[MPa]
[kg/m3]
Temperature in Pipelines
Temperature in Pipelines
T1 T2
TLMTD
q UATLMTD T1 T
ln
T2 T
q m C p (T1 T2 ) (T1 T2 )
m C p (T1 T2 ) Ud ( L)
T T
(T1 T ) (T2 T ) ln 1
T2 T
TLMTD
T1 T
ln
T2 T
Ud
T = Constant = Sea Temperature T2 T (T1 T ) exp L
mC p
A d (L)
Temperature and Distance
Temperature in Pipelines
Ud
T2 T (T1 T ) exp L
mCp
2 3.1416 0.370
T2 5 (86 5) exp 20 103 71C
67 3500
Temperature and Distance
Åsgard Transport (69.4 vs. 76.9 MSm³/d)
210 50
200 45
190 40
Temperature (°C)
Pressure (barg)
180 35
170 30
160 25
150 20
140 15
130 10
120 5
110 0
0 200 400 600 800
Distance KP (km)
Aamodt (2006)
Wax Appearance Temperature
Crude oil and condensate WAT (=cloud point) typically at 30-40 [C]. Pour
point typically 15 [C] below cloud point. Wax crystals in oil increases viscosity.
Paraffin Wax
Cloud point (WAT) and pour point
Wax Build-Up
With time and distance
dx
k1 k2 x
dt
x 1 exp( k 2 t )
k1
k2
Gas Hydrate
•Major obstacle to production of oil and gas through
subsea pipelines (due to cooling). Blocks pipelines.
•Forms when liquid water (condensed out from moist
reservoir gas) and natural gas are present at p & T above
equilibrium line (typically 20 C and 100 bara).
•Water molecules are stabilized by small gas molecules
such that hydrates form (physical process, not chemical
reaction).
•Antifreeze chemical used/injected to lower the T at which
hydrates form (lower “freezing” point of hydrate).
•Typically, 50 % antifreeze (in liquid phase) required to
prevent hydrate formation. Expensive.
A: Gas reservoir,
B: Oil reservoir,
C: Aquifer,
D: Cap rock,
E: Sealing fault.
A/B: Gas-oil-contact.
B/C: Oil-water-contact.
Gas in A saturated with
water vapour (condenses
out at surface).
Oil formation B contains
formation water (saline).
Gas Molecules Trapped in Cages
12-sided, 14-sided and 16-sided polyhedra
Small non-polar molecules, methane, ethane, propane and butane form gas
hydrate. Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen also form hydrate.
Structure II Gas Hydrate
24 X 136H 2O
Dissociation Pressure
Hydrate Equilibrium
Dissociation Pressure Gas Hydrate
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
p [kPa]
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
T [C]
Lower line natural gas mixture; upper line with CO2 and N2
Hammerschmidt’s Equation
K x
T
M (1 x)
Hydrate Equilibrium Midgard Field Gas