Cagayan State University – Carig Campus BS Civil Engineering Department

Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

unit 1 – introDuction to fLuiD mecHAnics

AnD HYDrAuLics

This unit will discuss the common properties of liquid, liquid pressure and its
forces, fluid flow equation, flow rates, continuity equation, energy equation,
momentum equation and flow in closed conduits.

FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

Fluid mechanics (Munson, et.al, 2013) is that discipline within the broad field
of applied mechanics that is concerned with the behavior of liquids and gases
at rest or in motion. It covers a vast array of phenomena that occur in nature (with
or without human intervention), in biology, and in numerous engineered,
invented, or manufactured situations. There are few aspects of our lives that do
not involve fluids, either directly or indirectly.
Fluid is further sub-divided into liquid and gas. Liquids and gases exhibit
different characteristics on account of their different molecular structure. Spacing
and latitude of the motion of molecules is very strong in a solid and weak in liquids
and is large in a gas. This is due to the to the aspects that solid is very compact
and rigid in form, liquid accommodates itself to the shape of the container, and
gas fill up the whole of the vessel containing it.
A fluid is a substance that flows. A fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of an applied force, whereas a solid deforms a finite amount and then
resists further deformation. This is because a solid can sustain a static internal shear
stress whereas a fluid cannot. The molecules of a fluid are not held in a fixed
arrangement and can move past each other.
Fluids include liquids and gases, and for civil engineers the most important
fluids are water and air. As civil engineers, you need to understand the behavior
of fluids in both the built and natural environment. Engineers study flow in
reservoirs, pipes, water, and wastewater treatment, and building
ventilation, and river flooding, groundwater flows, waves and wind loading on
structures.
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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Branches of Fluid Mechanics:

Fluid Statics: It is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the
response/behavior of fluid when they are at rest.
Fluid kinematics: It deals with the response of fluid when they are in motion
without considering the energies and forces in them.
Hydrodynamics: It deals with the behavior of fluids when they are in motion
considering energies and forces in them.
Hydraulics: It is the most important and practical/experimental branch of fluid
mechanics which deals with the behavior of water and other fluid either at rest
or in motion.
The term ‘hydraulics’ is related to the application of the Fluid Mechanics
principles to water engineering structures, civil and environmental engineering
facilities, especially hydraulic structures (e.g. canal, river, dam, reservoir and
water treatment plant).
The word “hydraulics” originates from the Greek word “hydraulikos”
meaning Study of pipe.
In applied engineering it is the study of water or other fluids at rest or in
motion.
Some of the applications of hydraulics is shown below:

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Source: Siddique & Merabtene (2016)

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/488429522061474866/
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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Significance of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid is the most abundant available substance e.g., air, gases, ocean, river and
canal etc. It provides basis for other subjects e.g.,
Public health/environmental engineering
Hydraulic Engineering Irrigation Engineering
Coastal engineering

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS:

A dimension is a name which describes the measurable characteristics of an
object such as mass, length and temperature etc. a unit is accepted standard
for measuring the dimension. The dimensions used are expressed in four
fundamental dimensions namely Mass, Length, Time and Temperature.
Mass (M) – Kg
Length (L) – m
Time (T) – S
Temperature (t) – 0C or K (Kelvin)

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

 Students plan and carry out an investigation to discover and compare
the properties of different liquids;
 Students will develop an understanding that liquids, like solids, have
characteristic properties;
 Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior;
 Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information;
 Explain effects of fluid compressibility;
 Use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

Density (ρ)
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. It is usually denoted by the
Greek letter ρ. In SI units density is given in kg m-3. In general the density can vary
at different points in space and at different times so ρ(x,t), although we will
generally deal with uniform fixed density.
For simpler definition, density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of
a fluid to its vacuum. It is denoted by The density of liquids are considered as
constant while that of gases changes with pressure & temperature variations.

The metric system was originally devised so that water would have a density
of 1g/cm31g/cm3, equivalent to 103kg/m3103kg/m3. Thus, the basic mass unit, the
kilogram, was first devised to be the mass of 1000 mL of water, which has a volume
of 1000cm31000cm3.
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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Gases
Solids Liquids
(0.0°C,0.0°C,
(0.0°C0.0°C) (0.0°C0.0°C)
101.3 kPa)

Substance ρ(kg/m3) Substance ρ(kg/m3) Substance ρ(kg/m3)

Aluminum 2.70×103 Benzene 8.79×102 Air 1.29×100

Bone 1.90×103 Blood 1.05×103 Carbon dioxide 1.98×100

Ethyl Carbon
Brass 8.44×103 8.06×102 1.25×100
alcohol monoxide

Concrete 2.40×103 Gasoline 6.80×102 Helium 1.80×10−1

Copper 8.92×103 Glycerin 1.26×103 Hydrogen 9.00×10−2

Cork 2.40×102 Mercury 1.36×104 Methane 7.20×10−2

Earth’s
3.30×103 Olive oil 9.20×102 Nitrogen 1.25×100
crust

Glass 2.60×103 Nitrous oxide 1.98×100

Gold 1.93×104 Oxygen 1.43×100

Granite 2.70×103

Iron 7.86×103

Lead 1.13×104

Oak 7.10×102

Pine 3.73×102

Platinum 2.14×104

Polystyrene 1.00×102

Tungsten 1.93×104

Uranium 1.87×103

Densities of Some Common Substances

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Specific Weight (γ or gamma)

Specific weight of a fluid is defined as the ratio between the weights of a fluid to its volume.
It is denoted by γ.
γ = mg/v, but m/v is ρ. Thus, γ = ρg

Specific Volume
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid
occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called
specific volume.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density of
a fluid to the density or when density standard fluid.
The relative density is the density relative to some standard or reference density.
Generally, only used for liquids rather than gases, and so the reference density is
often the density of water. The relative density is sometimes referred to as the
specific gravity (s.g.). Thus, if a manometer fluid has a specific
gravity of 0.75, then it has a density of 750 kg m-3. Note that relative density has
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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Summary of the fluid properties:

Sample Problems:

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Viscosity
As the fluid molecules move past each other there is a resistance to this relative
motion. While the stress in a solid depends on the amount of deformation (strain)
of the solid, for a fluid it is the rate of deformation (strain rate) that is related to the
stress.
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Let two
layers of a fluid at a distance dy apart, move one over the other at different
velocities u and u + du.
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Source: Bansal, R.K., Revised 9th Ed.

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

The viscosity together with the with the relative velocity between the
two layers while causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers, the
top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower
layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is
proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by
τ.

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Kinematic Viscosity
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density
of fluid. It is denoted by υ.

Newton’s law of viscosity:

This law states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality
is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Types of Fluids

Fluids maybe classified into the following five types:

1. Ideal Fluid – a fluid which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known
as an ideal fluid. It is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have
some viscosity.

2. Real Fluid – a fluid which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids,
in actual practice are real fluids.

3. Newtonian Fluid – a real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is know as a Newtonian fluid.

4. Non-Newtonian fluid – a real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional
to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), known as a non-Newtonian fluid.

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid – a fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and
shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is
known as ideal plastic fluid.

Source: Bansal, RK, 9th Ed.

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Surface Tension

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of

a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible
liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a stretched membrane
under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free will
has the same value as the surface energy per unit area.
It is denoted by σ.

Capillarity
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when
the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is is
known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid

Source: Source: SCTE & VT, Learning Material

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Sample Problems:

Source: Munson, et.al. (2009)

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Source: Munson, et.al. (2009)

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Source: Munson, et.al. (2009)

*Sample problems below (1.1, 1.2, 1.8, 1.9, 1.16) are taken from R.K.Bansal, 2010)
Problem 1.1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one
liter of liquid which weighs 7 N.

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Problem No. 1.2: Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one liter of
petrol of specific gravity = 0.7.

Problem No. 1.8: Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space
between them being filled with oil and viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear
stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5m/s

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Problem No. 1.9. The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with
oil. Each side of the plate is 60cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The
upper plate, which moves at 2.5 m/s requires a force of 98.1N to maintain the
speed. Determine i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise and ii) the kinetic
viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95.

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Lecture notes in HYDrAuLics (2nD semester sY 2020-2021)

Problem NO. 1.16: A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft
and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of
40N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force
of 200 N is applied.

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