1.

What is the definition of human migration, and what are the different types of
migration?

Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the
intention of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The different
types of migration are:

• Internal migration: the movement of people within a country, such as from rural to
urban areas.
• External migration: the movement of people across national borders, such as for work,
education, or asylum.
• Voluntary migration: the movement of people based on their own choice and
initiative, such as for better opportunities or lifestyle.
• Involuntary migration: the movement of people forced by external factors, such as
conflict, violence, persecution, or natural disasters.

2. What are the main causes of human migration in Bangladesh, and how do they
relate to environmental factors?

The main causes of human migration in Bangladesh, are:

• Economic factors: such as poverty, unemployment, low wages, lack of opportunities,

and unequal development.
• Social factors: such as family ties, education, health, culture, and religion.
• Political factors: such as conflict, violence, persecution, human rights violations, and
instability.
• Environmental factors: such as climate change, natural disasters, sea level rise,
salinity, drought, erosion, and land degradation.

These factors are often interrelated and influence each other. For example, environmental
factors can affect the economic and social conditions of people, and vice versa. Some
examples of real-life cases are:

• Coastal migration: Many people living in the coastal areas of Bangladesh are forced
to migrate due to the impacts of sea level rise, cyclones, storm surges, and salinity
intrusion. These impacts damage their homes, crops, fisheries, and freshwater sources,
and threaten their livelihoods and security. Some of them move to nearby towns or
cities, while others cross the border to India or Myanmar.
• Northern migration: Many people living in the norther regions of Bangladesh are
compelled to migrate due to the effects of drought(Monga explain what you know),
desertification and riverbank erosion These effects reduce their agricultural
productivity, income, and food security, and expose them to water scarcity and health
risks. Some of them relocate to other rural areas, while others seek employment in
urban centers or abroad.
 3. What are the impacts of human migration on the environment and society, and
how can they be mitigated?

The impacts of human migration on the environment and society are:

• Environmental impacts: Migration can have both positive and negative effects on the
environment. On the one hand, migration can reduce the pressure on natural
resources, enhance environmental awareness, and promote conservation and
restoration. On the other hand, migration can increase the demand for land, water,
energy, and waste management, degrade the ecosystems, and contribute to greenhouse
gas emissions.
• Social impacts: Migration can also have both positive and negative effects on the
society. On the one hand, migration can improve the living standards, education,
health, and human rights of the migrants and their families. Migration can also foster
cultural diversity, social cohesion, and innovation. On the other hand, migration can
create social conflicts, discrimination, exploitation, and human trafficking. Migration
can also affect the family structure, gender roles, and psychological well-being of the
migrants and their relatives.

Some examples of real-life cases are:

• Positive environmental impact: Some migrants from the coastal areas of Bangladesh
have participated in the Coastal Greenbelt Project, which aims to plant mangrove
trees along the shoreline to protect the land from erosion and storm surges. The
project also provides income and livelihood opportunities for the migrants and the
local communities.
• Negative environmental impact: Some migrants from the northern regions of
Bangladesh have settled in the Dhaka city, which is already overcrowded and
polluted. The influx of migrants has increased the demand for housing, transportation,
and services, and has worsened the environmental problems such as air quality, water
scarcity, and waste disposal.
• Positive social impact: Some migrants from Bangladesh have moved to Canada,
where they have access to better education, health care, and employment
opportunities. They have also contributed to the cultural diversity and economic
development of the country. Some of them have also sent remittances to their families
in Bangladesh, which help them improve their living conditions.
• Negative social impact: Some migrants from Bangladesh have been trafficked to
India, where they have been subjected to forced labor, sexual exploitation, and
violence. They have also faced discrimination and harassment from the authorities
and the society. Some of them have also lost contact with their families in
Bangladesh, which affect their emotional and mental health.
Geography and natural hazards
1. What are the main rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh? How do they
contribute to the economy and ecology of the country?

The main rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh are:

• The Ganges and its tributaries, such as the Padma, the Jamuna, the Meghna, the
Teesta, the Brahmaputra, etc. They contribute to the economy and ecology of the
country by providing water for irrigation, navigation, fisheries, hydroelectricity, etc.
They also support the rich biodiversity and cultural heritage of the country.
• The Surma and its tributaries, such as the Barak, the Kushiyara, the Manu, the
Khowai, etc. They contribute to the economy and ecology of the country by providing
water for agriculture, industry, domestic use, etc. They also sustain the wetlands and
forests of the northeastern region of the country.
• The Karnaphuli and its tributaries, such as the Sangu, the Matamuhuri, the Chengi,
etc. They contribute to the economy and ecology of the country by providing water
for the port city of Chittagong, the largest industrial and commercial hub of the
country. They also support the hill tracts and the coastal ecosystems of the
southeastern region of the country.

2. What are the major natural hazards and disasters that affect Bangladesh? How
can they be mitigated and managed effectively?

Some of the major natural hazards and disasters that affect Bangladesh are:

• Floods: Bangladesh is prone to floods due to its location in the delta of the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers. Floods can cause loss of life, damage to property,
infrastructure, and crops, and spread of water-borne diseases. The government has
taken several measures to mitigate the impact of floods, such as building
embankments, flood shelters, and early warning systems, and promoting flood-
resistant crops and livestock1.
• Cyclones: Bangladesh is also vulnerable to cyclones, which are severe storms that can
cause strong winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, and landslides. Cyclones can cause
similar damages as floods, but with more intensity and speed. The government has
taken several measures to manage cyclones, such as building cyclone shelters,
evacuation routes, and early warning systems, and promoting cyclone-resistant
housing and infrastructure1.
• Earthquakes: Although Bangladesh is not located in a seismic zone, it is still
susceptible to earthquakes due to its proximity to the Himalayan region. Earthquakes
can cause damage to buildings, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure, and trigger
landslides and tsunamis. The government has taken several measures to prepare for
earthquakes, such as conducting seismic risk assessments, retrofitting vulnerable
buildings, and training emergency responders1.

Here are some real-life examples of natural disasters that have affected Bangladesh:
 • In 2020, Bangladesh experienced one of the worst floods in recent history, which
affected over 5 million people and caused damages worth over $1 billion. The floods
were caused by heavy monsoon rains and upstream water releases from India and
Nepal1.
• In 2019, Bangladesh was hit by Cyclone Fani, which caused widespread damage to
infrastructure, crops, and livelihoods. The cyclone affected over 3 million people and
caused damages worth over $1.5 billion. The government’s early warning system and
evacuation measures helped to minimize the loss of life1.
• In 2013, Bangladesh experienced a deadly earthquake in the Chittagong region, which
caused the collapse of several buildings and killed over 100 people. The earthquake
was caused by the movement of the Indian plate under the Eurasian plate1.

The government of Bangladesh has taken several measures to mitigate and manage the
impact of natural disasters, such as:

• Developing a National Plan for Disaster Management and a National Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan.
• Establishing the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief and the Department of
Disaster Management.
• Building cyclone shelters, flood shelters, and early warning systems.
• Promoting disaster-resistant housing, infrastructure, and livelihoods.
• Conducting awareness campaigns and training programs for communities and
emergency responders.

These measures have helped to reduce the loss of life and property from natural disasters in
Bangladesh, but there is still room for improvement in terms of preparedness, response, and
recovery1.
 What are the impacts of climate change on Bangladesh? How can the country
adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change?

The impacts of climate change on Bangladesh are:1

• Sea level rise: Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to sea level rise,
which can inundate low-lying coastal areas, displace millions of people, increase
salinity intrusion, and damage infrastructure and livelihoods. According to the
BCCRF, a one-meter rise in sea level could submerge about a quarter of the country’s
landmass and affect over 20 million people by 2050.
• Extreme weather events: Bangladesh is also prone to more frequent and intense
floods, cyclones, droughts, heat waves, and storms due to climate change. These
events can cause loss of life, property, crops, and biodiversity, and increase the risk of
water-borne and vector-borne diseases. For example, in 2020, Bangladesh
experienced one of the worst floods in recent history, which affected over 5 million
people and caused damages worth over $1 billion.
• Food security and poverty: Climate change can adversely affect the agriculture sector,
which is the main source of income and livelihood for about 50% of the labor force
and 65% of the rural population. Climate change can reduce crop yields, increase pest
infestations, and disrupt the supply chain and market access. This can threaten the
food security and nutrition of the population, and increase the poverty and
vulnerability of the farmers and rural communities.

The country can adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change by:

• Building resilience: Bangladesh has taken several measures to enhance its resilience
to climate change, such as developing a National Climate Change Strategy and Action
Plan, establishing the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, and
implementing various adaptation and mitigation projects. Some examples of these
projects are building cyclone and flood shelters, promoting climate-smart agriculture,
and expanding renewable energy sources.
• Seeking regional and international cooperation: Bangladesh has also advocated for
regional and international cooperation to address the common challenges of climate
change, such as sharing water resources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
mobilizing financial and technical support. Bangladesh has been an active participant
and leader in various global platforms, such as the Climate Vulnerable Forum, the
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• Raising awareness and participation: Bangladesh has also engaged in raising
awareness and participation of the public and the stakeholders on the causes, impacts,
and solutions of climate change. This includes conducting campaigns, training
programs, and research activities, as well as involving the civil society, the private
sector, and the local communities in the planning and implementation of climate
change actions.
 3. What is the disaster management plan for Bangladesh? What are the objectives,
priorities, and focus areas of the plan? What are the proposed solutions for the
three fronts: outside Bangladesh, within Bangladesh, and coastal front?

The disaster management plan for Bangladesh is a comprehensive framework that aims to
reduce the risks and impacts of natural and man-made disasters in the country. The plan has
the following objectives, priorities, and focus areas:

• Objectives: To prevent the loss of lives and ensure the security of the people living in
disaster-prone areas; to mitigate the suffering of the victims; to raise awareness about
the existing hazards and risks and develop public resilience; to reduce the loss of
wealth and economic condition; to strengthen the rehabilitation and reconstruction for
the development; and to work towards resilience.
• Priorities: To protect the urban areas and vital facilities; to manage the disasters in
rural areas; to build resilience to climate change and related impacts; and to seek
regional and international cooperation.
• Focus areas: To address the three fronts of disaster management: outside Bangladesh
or Himalayan front, within Bangladesh or domestic front, and coastal front. The
proposed solutions for each front are:
o Outside Bangladesh or Himalayan front: To establish regional cooperation
between all riparian countries, namely China, Nepal, Bhutan, India, and
Bangladesh; to create reservoirs in the upper stream locations to store excess
water that may cause flood; to share water among all riparian countries by
signing a treaty in spirit of regional cooperation and development; and to
honor the UN Charter, Helsinki Convention, and other international laws.
o Within Bangladesh or domestic front: To ensure quick drainage of flood
water; to prioritize integrated flood drainage channel; to carry out
mathematical and physical models and research; to protect the major cities and
vital facilities; to construct strong buildings and structures as per building
codes; to prepare action plans, emergency preparedness, and emergency
response for each ward; to establish flood level markers; to raise the growth
centers; to ensure safe drinking water and disease control; to raise the roads
above the highest flood level; to increase the income and standard of living of
the rural people; and to develop coping mechanisms considering local
contexts.
o Coastal front: To construct a dam from Cox’s Bazar to Patuakhali across the
Bay of Bengal, which will have the following benefits: protection against
cyclonic surge, tsunami, tidal surge, and sea level rise; retention of water in
river network during dry season; prevention of salinity intrusion; land
reclamation; and generation of hydroelectricity.
Explain why Bangladesh is vulnerable to man-man and natural disasters

Bangladesh is vulnerable to natural and man-made disasters due to several factors. Some of
the reasons are:

• Geographical location: Bangladesh is located in a region that is prone to natural

disasters such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, and droughts. The country
is situated in the delta of three major rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna,
which makes it susceptible to riverine flooding. The country is also located in the Bay
of Bengal, which is prone to cyclones and storm surges. The funnel-shaped bay of
Bengal amplifies the impact of cyclones and storm surges, which can cause
widespread damage to the coastal areas of the country. For example, in 1991, Cyclone
Gorky hit Bangladesh and caused over 138,000 deaths and damages worth over $1.5
billion1.
• Population density: Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the
world, with over 160 million people living in an area of 147,570 square kilometers.
This high population density puts a strain on the country’s resources and
infrastructure and makes it difficult to manage disasters effectively.
• Poverty: Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world, with over 20% of the
population living below the poverty line. Poverty makes it difficult for people to
prepare for and recover from disasters, and it also exacerbates the impacts of disasters
on vulnerable populations.
• Lack of resources: Bangladesh is a developing country with limited resources and
infrastructure. This makes it difficult for the country to invest in disaster
preparedness, response, and recovery measures. The country also lacks technical
expertise and data on disasters, which makes it difficult to plan and implement
effective disaster management strategies.

The El Niño effect is a natural phenomenon that occurs when the sea surface temperatures in
the Pacific Ocean become warmer than usual. This can cause changes in the global weather
patterns and lead to extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms. El Niño can
affect the monsoon season in Bangladesh, which can cause droughts and crop failures in the
country. For example, in 1997-1998, El Niño caused a severe drought in Bangladesh, which
affected over 6 million people and caused damages worth over $1 billion2.

The funnel-shaped bay of Bengal is another factor that makes Bangladesh vulnerable to
natural disasters. The bay is shaped in such a way that it amplifies the impact of cyclones and
storm surges, which can cause widespread damage to the coastal areas of the country. For
example, in 2007, Cyclone Sidr hit Bangladesh and caused over 3,000 deaths and damages
worth over $1.7 billion3.
Rivers of Bangladesh
1. What is the definition of a wetland, how are they classified in Bangladesh, and
what are the main types of wetlands found in the country? What are the
ecological and economic importance of wetlands, and what are some of the
degradation concerns and challenges facing wetlands in Bangladesh?

• A wetland is defined as an area of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish
or salt, including areas of marine water that are less than six meters deep at low tide.
An example of a wetland in Bangladesh is the Sundarbans, which is the largest
mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
• Wetlands in Bangladesh are classified into three main types: coastal, inland, and man-
made wetlands. Coastal wetlands include mangroves, salt marshes, tidal flats, and
estuaries. Inland wetlands include rivers, lakes, ponds, beels, haors, baors, and
floodplains. Man-made wetlands include paddy fields, fish ponds, canals, and
reservoirs. An example of an inland wetland is the Chalan Beel, which is a large
inland depression that is seasonally flooded by several rivers .
• Wetlands are ecologically and economically important for Bangladesh. They provide
ecological services such as water purification, flood control, groundwater recharge,
and biodiversity conservation. They also support livelihoods, food security,
agriculture, fisheries, transport, trade, tourism, and cultural heritage. An example of
the economic importance of wetlands is the Hail Haor, which is a major source of fish
production and rice cultivation in the country .
• Wetlands in Bangladesh are facing various degradation concerns and challenges, such
as overexploitation, pollution, siltation, invasive species, climate change, population
pressure, and trans-boundary issues. These threats have reduced the area, quality, and
functions of wetlands, affecting their ecosystem services and human well-being. An
example of the degradation of wetlands is the Tanguar Haor, which has lost its natural
beauty and biodiversity due to illegal encroachment, logging, fishing, and mining .

Some examples and causes of wetland degradation according to the current web page context
are:

• The Chalan Beel wetland is fast silting up due to river diversion, flood control, and
land reclamation. It has shrunk from 1085 sq km to 26 sq km in recent decades.
• The Sundarbans mangrove forest is facing threats from deforestation, pollution,
overfishing, climate change, and sea level rise. It has lost about 5% of its area
between 1975 and 2015.
• The Tanguar Haor wetland has lost its natural beauty and biodiversity due to illegal
encroachment, logging, fishing, and mining. It has been degraded by about 40% since
1989.

2. What are the major rivers of Bangladesh? What are the issues and challenges of
trans-boundary rivers?
• The major rivers of Bangladesh are the Padma, the Meghna, the Jamuna, the
Buriganga, the Karnaphuli, the Tista and many others. These rivers originate from the
Himalayas and flow into the Bay of Bengal. They cover about 7% of the country’s
area and constitute a waterway of total length around 25,000 km.
• The issues and challenges of trans-boundary rivers are:
o Water sharing disputes with neighboring countries, especially India and
Myanmar, over the allocation and management of the Ganges, the
Brahmaputra, and the Barak rivers. These rivers are shared by more than one
country and have different water demands and interests. For example, the
Farakka Barrage built by India in 1975 reduced the water flow of the Ganges
into Bangladesh, causing drought, salinity, and ecological problems.
o Environmental degradation of the rivers due to upstream interventions, such as
dams, barrages, diversions, and pollution, that affect the downstream flow,
water quality, sedimentation, and biodiversity of the rivers. For example, the
Tipaimukh Dam proposed by India on the Barak river would reduce the water
flow and sediment load of the Surma and Kusiyara rivers in Bangladesh,
affecting the floodplain ecology and agriculture.
o Socio-economic impacts of the trans-boundary rivers on the livelihoods, food
security, agriculture, fisheries, transport, trade, tourism, and cultural heritage
of the people living along the rivers. For example, the Teesta River dispute
between India and Bangladesh has affected the irrigation and crop production
of the farmers in both countries, as well as the navigation and fishery activities
of the riverine communities.
Forest Chapter
1. What are the four types of forests found in Bangladesh?

The four types of forests found in Bangladesh are:

• Hill forests: These are mixed-evergreen or semi-evergreen forests that

grow in the hilly regions of the eastern and southeastern parts of the
country. Examples are the forests of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Sylhet, and
Chittagong Hill Tracts.

• Sal forests: These are moist or dry deciduous forests that are dominated by
the sal tree (Shorea robusta). They are mainly found in the central plains
and the freshwater areas of the northwest region. Examples are the forests
of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, and Rangpur.

• Mangrove forests: These are tidal forests that grow in the saline and
brackish water of the coastal areas. They are adapted to the harsh
conditions of high salinity, tidal fluctuations, and cyclones. The most
famous example is the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the
world and the home of the Bengal tiger.

• Freshwater swamp forests: These are wetland forests that grow in the
low-lying areas that are flooded by freshwater rivers or lakes. They have a
rich diversity of aquatic plants and animals. Examples are the haor and
baor areas of Sylhet and Khulna.

2. What are some of the threats faced by the forests in Bangladesh?

Some of the threats faced by the forests in Bangladesh are:

• Deforestation: The loss of forest cover due to logging, agriculture,

urbanization, and natural disasters. For example, the Sal forests in Madhupur
have been reduced to less than 10% of their original area due to encroachment,
illegal felling, and land use change.
• Degradation: The decline in forest quality and functions due to
overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. For
example, the Sundarbans mangrove forest is facing degradation due to top-
dying, salinity intrusion, oil spills, and cyclones.
 • Biodiversity loss: The reduction in the variety and abundance of forest species
and ecosystems due to habitat fragmentation, poaching, and trade. For
example, the Bengal tiger, the Asian elephant, and the hoolock gibbon are
some of the endangered forest animals in Bangladesh.

3. What are the main objectives of the National Forestry Policy 1994? Discuss.

The main objectives of the National Forestry Policy 1994 are:

• To meet basic needs of the present and the future generations by

providing timber, firewood, fodder, medicinal herbs, etc.
• To bring 20% of the area of the country under forest cover by
afforestation, reforestation, and social forestry programs.
• To create employment opportunities in the forestry sector for
poverty alleviation and rural development.
• To conserve biodiversity in the depleted forest areas by protecting
endangered species, habitats, and ecosystems.
• To fulfill all international commitments related to forests
conservation by participating in global initiatives, conventions, and
agreements.
• To stop forests encroachment, illegal tree felling and hunting with
the help of local community, law enforcement, and awareness
campaigns.
• To ensure participatory management of forests involving the local
community, NGOs, and other stakeholders.
• To promote social forestry and to share the revenue with the local
community by providing incentives, benefits, and rights.
• To maintain an ecological balance by enhancing the role of forests in
mitigating climate change, preventing soil erosion, and regulating
water cycles.

4. What are the challenges of conservation of forests? Discuss.

Some of the challenges of conservation of forests are:

• Deforestation: The loss of forest cover due to human activities such as

logging, agriculture, urbanization, mining, etc. Deforestation reduces
biodiversity, carbon sequestration, soil fertility, water quality, and climate
regulation. For example, Bangladesh has lost about 80% of its original forest
cover since 1947.
 • Degradation: The decline in forest quality and functions due to
overexploitation, pollution, invasive species, diseases, fires, etc. Degradation
affects the health and productivity of forests and the ecosystem services they
provide. For example, the Sundarbans mangrove forest is facing degradation
due to salinity intrusion, oil spills, shrimp farming, and poaching.
• Fragmentation: The breaking up of large and contiguous forest areas into
smaller and isolated patches due to human-induced or natural disturbances.
Fragmentation reduces habitat connectivity, genetic diversity, and wildlife
movement. For example, the Sal forest in Madhupur is fragmented by roads,
settlements, plantations, and agriculture.
• Climate change: The alteration of the global climate due to the increase in
greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Climate change affects the
distribution, composition, and functioning of forests and the vulnerability of
forest-dependent communities. For example, climate change may increase the
frequency and intensity of cyclones, floods, droughts, and pests that damage
forests in Bangladesh.

1. For conservation of the forests and wildlife, the Government of Bangladesh has
declared some areas as “Protected Areas”. What are they?

The government of Bangladesh has declared some areas a “protected areas” for
conservation of the forest and wildlife.
The three categories are:
o Wildlife Sanctuary – A place where no person can enter or reside without
permission, and where activities such as hunting, killing, capturing, or
polluting are prohibited. Some examples are Sundarbans East, West and South
wildlife Sanctuaries.
o National Park – A place where hunting, killing, capturing, or polluting wildlife
are prohibited but people may access for recreation, education, and research
purposes. Some examples are: Modhupur National park, Bhawal National park
and Himchhari National park.
o Game reserve – A place where wildlife is protected and tourist destination is a
key but of wild animals is illegal. An example is Teknaf Game reserve.

2. What are the differences between Sal forest and Mangrove forest?
Discuss.(Bullshit question but slides er end e lekha chilo)

Some of the differences between Sal forest and Mangrove forest are

• Location: Sal forest is found on the plains and high alluvium of dhaka,
Dinajpur and Myemensingh, while Mangrove forest is found in the
Sundarbans and some coastal areas of Chittagong and Noakhali.
• Type: Sal forest is a moist or dry deciduous forest, while Mangrove forest
is a tidal mangrove forest.
• Species: Sal forest is dominated by Sal (Shorea robusta) and other
hardwood trees, while Mangrove forest is dominated by Sundari (Heritiera
fomes) and other salt-tolerant trees.