MODULE 7: PARTS &

frame is the movable crosshead

whose screws can be loosened
FUNCTIONS/USES OF UTM for height adjustment and
tightened.
• ELONGATION SCALE -
relative movement of the lower
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is
and upper table is measured by
used to determine the mechanical an elongation scale which is
properties of a material by a given provided along with the loading
specimen and can be used for wide unit.

range of tests and can perform over 2. Control Unit – where variations in
various materials. the application of the load and
the corresponding test result are
• for concrete compressive strength
• reinforced concrete for compressive obtained.
strength and flexural or bending strength • HYDRAULIC POWER UNIT -
• for steel tensile strength consists of an oil pump that
UTM FOR COMPRESSION AND TENSION provides non-pulsating oil flow
into the main cylinder of the load
unit.
• LOAD MEASURING UNIT -
has a pendulum dynamometer
unit that has a small cylinder
with a piston which moves with
the non-pulsating oil flow.
UTM FOR FLEXURE
The range of load application can be adjusted
by means of a knob in the load measuring unit
(0-100 kN; 0-250 kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN).
The accuracy of measuring unit controls the
overall accuracy of the machine.

• CONTROL DEVICES - can be

A universal testing machine consists
electric or hydraulic. Electric
of two main parts: control devices make use of
switches to move the crossheads
1. Loading Unit – where the
and switch on/off the unit. A
arrangement of the test hydraulic control device consists
specimen and the exertion of the of two valves, Right Control
load is held. Valve and Left Control Valve or
Release Valve. A right control
valve is used to apply load on the
• LOAD FRAME
specimen. The left control valve
is used to release the load
application.

FUNCTIONS OF UTM

Tension Test on Steel Rod - used to

test a wide variety of materials like
concrete, steel, cables, springs, steel
wires and chains, slings, links, rope,
winches, steel ropes, etc.

• UPPER & LOWER Compression testing - used to

CROSSHEAD - The upper determine how a product or material
crosshead is used to clamp one reacts when it is compressed,
end of the test specimen. The squashed, crushed or flattened by
lower crosshead in the load measuring fundamental parameters
that determine the specimen behavior Wood is the most common building
under a compressive load. materials because of the following
properties: a strong material,
Bending test, sometimes called
durability, light in weight, ease of
flexure testing or transverse beam
fastening; and with artistic and natural
testing, measures the behavior of
beauty.
materials subjected to simple beam
loading. It is commonly performed on
relatively flexible materials such as
polymers, wood, and composites.

GROWTH RINGS OR ANNUAL RINGS -

determining the age of a tree by
counting rings.

Force v/s Displacement (crosshead movement) Graph

From the load deflection graph, the stress-strain CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD

analysis, modulus of elasticity, yield strength of the
specimen tested can be determined. The wood that are classified as good lumber
that grows larger by the addition of new layer
on the outer surface each year identified by

MODULE 8: Testing of Wood

botanists as “oxygen’s” (alam kong ‘di tama
‘yang “oxygen’s” pero nasa module kasi
Samples for Bending, HAHAHAHAHA)

Compression, Shear, Tension and Some grow up to 1/8” to ½” in diameter per

Water Content year or more. Whereas some grow at the rate

of only ¼” to ½” in 10 to 15 years or more.

Timber - woody material of trees that

➢ MODE OF GROWTH - less
are suitable for house construction,
preferred for lumbering because
bridge and ship building, furniture and
of the center core of its log
cabinet making, carving, and
which is soft and brittle in
engraving for most structures used in
character.
agriculture, commerce, and
industries. We refer to trees in the
• Exogenous (MAHOGANY)
forest as standing timber, or to round
are those growing trees
or square logs as round and square
which are the most
timber.
preferred for lumbering.
• Endogenous (BAMBOO) are
the insides growing trees.
Wood - defined as the lignified water
conducting, strengthening and storage
➢ DENSITY - refers to the quality of
tissues of branches, stem, and roots of
the mass and volume of the
trees. Organic material that generally
wood.
used in its natural state. A fibrous
• SOFTWOOD (PINE) – also
substance which composes the pith
known as CONIFERS or
and the bark. Wood is also known as
EVERGREEN.
Xylem.
 • HARDWOOD (NARRA) - are strength. The size,
generally deciduous and character and location of
have broad leaves. the knots are of
importance. Example: in
cross bending strength,
➢ LEAVES - The characteristics of knots on the upper surface
the tree when it comes to its of the beam do not detract
leaves are needle shaped and from the strength as much
broad shaped. as on the lower part of the
beam.

➢ SHADES OR COLOR OF WOOD -

white, yellow, orange, red,
brown, and black, etc.

➢ GRAIN - straight grain, cross

grain, fine grain & coarse grain.

➢ NATURE OF THE SURFACE WHEN ➢ WEIGHT OF WOOD - is also an

SEWED - plain, grained and important consideration. Heavy
figured or marked. woods are generally strong, light
wood are usually weak.
➢ HARDNESS - expressed as
PROPERTIES OF WOOD resistance to indentation or to
the saw or axe across the grain.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• FURNITURE
➢ Strength is the general term • FLOORING
used in reference to the ability of • CROSS TIES
wood to resist stresses and • HANDLES
strain. ➢ CLEAVABILITY - the resistance
✓ Wood is resistant to of wood to cleavage along the
compression along the grains. The line of least
fibers. resistance in cleavage is along
✓ Stiffness or the ability to the radius because the wood
resist bending as in floor rays are in this direction.
joists and beams • Wood splits much more
supporting heavy load. easily when wet because
✓ Strength in tension or the moisture softens the fibers
ability to resist lengthwise and reduces adhesion
stresses. across the grain.
✓ Shearing strength or the Straightens in the grain
ability of the fibers to resist however, determines the
rupture along or across the ease with which wood
grain. splits.
➢ MOISTURE - is an important
factor in the strength of wood.
Thus, to a certain extent,
strength increases with the
degree of seasoning of wood.
• KNOTS or other defects in
wood also influence
 ➢ Flexibility and toughness,
moisture content of
influences flexibility
considerable degree.
➢ Toughness refers to combined
strength, shock resistance and
pliability of wood.
➢ Durability as applied to wood
means the ability to resist decay
or simply the length of its life
under a given condition.
Durability as applied to wood
means the ability to resist decay
or simply the length of its life
under a given condition.
TESTING OF WOODS IN
TERMS OF BENDING,
COMPRESSION, SHEAR,
TENSION, AND WATER
CONTENT
BENDING OR FLEXURAL TESTING -
performed to determine the elastic
modulus of bending or flexural stress
of timber or wood. A length of timber
or wood is placed across a span and
applying load perpendicular to the
grain of the specimen to bend until
failure.
COMPRESSION TESTING OF WOOD -
The determination of
measurement of the compressive
strength of wood is by loading a block
of wood parallel to the grain until it
fails.
➢ Moving stroke - It can give loads
in the load cell or also called
moving load.
➢ Load cell - a block
designed to hold a load at one
point to measure compression.
➢ Sample holder - it holds the
sample.
➢ Pneumatic controller - is used to
open and close the pins, as well
as to apply clamping force prior
wood to testing.
to a ➢ Loading direction - controls how
the test specimen is set up and
how much force is applied.
➢ Specimen - portion of a sample
taken for evaluation of some
specific characteristic or
property.
SHEAR TESTING OF WOOD - The
shearing strength of the wood is
dependent of the load applied on the
grains or fibers direction and the
breaking is on the radial plane or
tangential. Shearing strength is
measured 10 to 15 % of its tensile
strength along the grain and directly
proportional to its density.
➢ The self-adjusting bearing - Is
typically used in the
compression side of the wood
sample to minimize the friction
and lateral forces that can occur
during the testing process.
➢ Oil Hole - refers to a small, drilled
hole in the wood sample that is
filled with oil before the testing
process begins.
➢ Test Specimen - refers to a small,
rectangular-shaped piece of
wood that is cut from a larger
sample and used for testing.
TENSILE TESTING OF WOOD -
the conducted parallel and perpendicular
to the grain or fiber and it is defined as
the ratio of the ultimate strength from
a stress test to the cross-sectional
area of the specimen. The test is
performed parallel to the direction of
the gage section and the tensile
strength is directly proportional to the
density of the wood.
that is
WATER CONTENT TESTING OF WOOD -
The moisture content of wood varies
from 8% to 25% by weight and it is
defined as the ratio weight of moisture
or water in a piece of wood to the oven
dried weight of wood. Wood is
hygroscopic material, and its moisture
content is dependent on the relative • usually made of a mixture
humidity of the air and causes the ratio of 1:3:6 concrete with
wood to expand and shrink. cement and sand mixture
ratio of 1:7, 1:8 or 1:9 and a
➢ PIN METER gets their name
maximum size of 10 mm
because they have two pins, or
coarse aggregates.
electrodes, that must be pushed
into the wood. An electric Load bearing blocks range from 15 cm
current run between those two to 20 cm and are used to carry load
pins. aside from its own weight.
➢ PINLESS METERS use an
Non-bearing blocks are intended for
electromagnetic sensor to
walls, partitions, fences, or dividers
measure moisture content. All
carrying its own weight with thickness
you must do is hold the sensor
ranges from 7.5 cm to 10 cm.
plate in full contact with a flat
piece of wood.

MODULE 9: DETERMINING
THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

Compressive Strength (ASTM C140/140M -14)
MODULE 10: DETERMINING
• most common materials for
THE SETTING TIME OF
walling in building
PORTLAND CEMENT
construction because of
their availability, low cost,
and their ease in
installation. PORTLAND CEMENT
• classified as bearing and • most common type of cement in
non-bearing blocks and are general use around the world,
compressive materials, used as a basic ingredient of
filled with mortar in their concrete, mortar, stucco, and
hollow part, spread by most non-specialty grout.
mortar per layer and • Usually originates from
reinforced horizontally and limestones.
vertically to increase their • constitutes a finely ground
resistance lateral forces. powder, formed mainly by
• measured 40 cm (length) x calcium silicates and, to a lesser
20 cm (width) x 4 inches extent, by calcium aluminates.
(thickness) or 40 cm • type of hydraulic cement that is
(length) x 20 cm (width) x 5 typically used for reinforced
inches (thickness) have masonry.
three cells and areas
greater than 20% of the
gross area and one-half
cells open at both ends.
 HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT OPC and type IV LOW HEAT
1824 – when Joseph Aspdin & CEMENT. Manufactured
James Parker patented the Portland under ASTM STANDARD
cement mixture. ASTM C150 TYPE II.
1843 – when William Aspdin (son fo APPLICATION: USE WHEN
Joseph) improved the mixture and EXPOSED TO MODERATE SULFATE
started the production of Portland ACTION, OR WHERE MODERATE
cement near London, at factory in HEAT OF HYDRATION IS REQUIRED.
Rotherhithe.
C. RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND
CEMENT - Strength developed in
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND standard mortar cube after 3
CEMENT days is of the same order as the
7 days strength ordinary
• WET PROCESS
Portland cement, used where
• DRY PROCESS
high early strength is necessary
and should not be used in mass
concrete works owing to high
rate of heat development since
the difference in temperature
between interior and exterior of
the concrete may lead to cracks.

HYDRATION – chemical reaction with D. LOW HEAT CEMENT - Percentage

water. of C3S and C3A are lower in this
cement than ordinary Portland
cement and rapid hardening
CLASSIFICATION OF PORTLAND cement while that of C2S is
higher, results in a slower rate of
CEMENT
reaction, lower evolution of heat
A. ORDINARY PORTLAND and lower early strength but the
CEMENT - Nearly 60% of the ultimate strength remains more
cement used is Ordinary or less unaffected and used in
Portland cement, admirably mass concrete and places where
suited to all construction work moderate sulfate attack is likely
which is free from sulphate to occur.
attack, has a medium rate of Application/Use: Due to its low rate
strength development and heat of heat of hydration LHC is used for
generation and has an adequate mass cotreating structures such as
resistance to dry shrinkage and Dams, Large raft footings, Tunnels,
cracking, but has less resistance etc.
to chemical attack.
E. SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT -
B. MODERATE SULFATE
This type of cement is specially
RESISTANCE - This type of made to resist sulfate attack and
cement is resistant to it is suitable for structures to be
sulfate attack because of built in places where sulfate
certain limitations of attack is likely to occur.

composition. It is
intermediate between type I
 F. PORTLAND BLAST FURNACE fine powder and is at once ready
SLAG CEMENT - Blast furnace for use.
slag cement is the mixture of J. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT (HAC) -
ordinary Portland cement and It is a special cement compound
fine granulated blast furnace that develops strength very
slag obtained as a byproduct in quickly. It is produced much in
the manufacture of steel. the same way as other forms of
cement, but its unique makeup
Used in ready mixed concrete plants.
results in characteristics that
Used for structures meant for water
are unique to HAC. Specifically,
retaining such as retaining walls,
high alumina cement is chemical
rivers, ports, tunnels for improvement
resistant and can withstand
in impermeability.
frigid temperatures.
G. WHITE OR COLORED CEMENT -
similar to ordinary gray. Portland General Features of the Main
cement in all respects except for Types of Portland Cement as
its high degree of whiteness. It is available in the Market
made from raw materials
containing very high little iron
oxide (gray color of ordinary
Portland cement is due to the
iron oxide present). These raw
materials used for white cement
are high purity limestone, pure
white chalk and China clay.
H. SUPER SULPHATED CEMENT -
manufactured by grinding
together a mixture of 80-85
percent granulated slag, 10-15
percent gypsum, and about 5
percent Portland cement clinker.
The product is ground finer than
that of Portland cement. PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUAL CEMENT

Water cement ratio:

A minimum of 0.5 w/c ratio needs to

be used. Leaner mixes than 1:6 is
not recommended for super
sulphated cement.

USE FOR FOUNDATION, MARINE

WORKS, AND FABRICATION OF RC
PIPES.

I. NATURAL CEMENT - produced in

a simple process that begins
with the calcination, at a very
low temperature, of crushed
carbonate sedimentary rocks,
like limestone, in kilns. The
resulting clinker is ground into a
APPARATUS FOR TESTING OF
SETTING TIME OF PORTLAND
CEMENT (ASTM Designation C 191 –
08)

• VICAT APPARATUS/AUTOMATIC
VICAT APPARATUS
• BEAKER
• STEEL TROWEL
• CONICAL RING
• BENCHTOP LABORATORY MIXER
• SPECIMEN MOLDS