KIG 3001

INSTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

LECTURE 6:
Force Measurement

By:
Dr. Ahmad Saifizul Abdullah

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Saifizul (JKM)
 Introduction
A force sensor is a sensor or a transducer that converts a
load or force acting on it into an electronic signal. This
electronic signal can be a voltage change, current change
or frequency change depending on the type of sensor and
circuitry used. There are many different kinds of weight
sensors.

Saifizul (JKM)
 About force and weight
• Force is a derived physical quantity based on the
Newton’s law of motion – acceleration of a particle is
directly proportional to, & in same direction as, the Σ of
forces

• F = m × a; SI unit Newton (N), defined the same way (1

N = force that makes 1 kg accelerate by 1 ms-2) ←
derived unit

• Usually meas. of weight (&

mass), W = mg (Fgravitational):

Saifizul (JKM)
 Possible means of weighing 1
• A simple principle is by comparison of
moments of a lever system:
l1
l2
𝑚! 𝒈×𝑙! = 𝑚" 𝒈×𝑙"

• If equal-arm, unknown m2 is compared m

1 m
with known m1 (std. masses needed) 2

• If unequal-arm, only single std. mass

m1, lever is shifted for balance (l1 ≠ l2),
& m2 is calc. (or seen from calibrated
scale on lever). Alternative design? m1
movable instead of lever

Saifizul (JKM)
 A multi-lever example

Multi-lever system is used when simple-

arm balance is not adequate for large
weights, but the principle is still moment
comparison

Saifizul (JKM)
 Possible means of weighing 2
• Called ‘pendulum scale /
mechanism’; also a
moment comparison
device

• Applied load rotates

sectors about center A
due to connecting tapes;
counterweights move
outwards, ↑ moment until
load is balanced. Load
represented by gear /
linkage movement

Saifizul (JKM)
 Possible means of weighing 3
• Called ‘ballistic weighing system’

• For mass-spring system, if mass is

suddenly dropped (mg applied), by
undamped vibration eqn., response
will be oscillatory with dynamic
disp. 2× the final static disp.:

!
• Also, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 for undamped vib.
"

Saifizul (JKM)
 Measurement by deflection
• The major method of force
measurement is to let it act on
elastic element, and show up
as a deflection

• As long as within elastic region,

the Hooke’s law relates the
two: F = k (deflection)

• The measurable deflection can

be displacement, & can also be
strain at a location of element

Saifizul (JKM)
 Various elastic deflections

Saifizul (JKM)
 Various elastic deflections

Saifizul (JKM)
 Introduction
Types of weight sensors

Static Dynamic

Saifizul (JKM)
 Introduction
Types of weight sensors

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
LOAD CELL

Today, except for certain laboratories where precision mechanical

balances are still used, strain gauge load cells dominate the
weighing industry.

Pneumatic load cells are sometimes used where intrinsic safety and
hygiene are desired.

Hydraulic load cells are considered in remote locations, as they do

not require a power supply.

Strain gauge load cells offer accuracies from within 0.03% to 0.25%
full scale and are suitable for almost all industrial applications.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor

LOAD CELL TYPES

> Hydraulic load cells > Inductive and reluctance load cells

> Pneumatic load cells > Piezoresistive load cell

> Strain-gauge load cell > Magnetostrictive load cells

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> Hydraulic load cells
When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined
space, the pressure of the liquid increases. This increase in pressure of
the liquid is proportional to the applied force. Hence a measure of the
increase in pressure of the liquid becomes a measure of the applied
force when calibrated.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> Hydraulic load cells
If the load cells have been properly installed and calibrated,
accuracy can be within 0.25% full scale or better, acceptable for
most process weighing applications. Because this sensor has no
electric components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> Pneumatic load cells
Pneumatic type is similar: load is balanced by pressure on the other
side, but with pneumatic instead. Some diff. in working: force acts on
flexible diaphragm instead of piston; air pressure is supplied & allowed
to escape via position-controlled bleed valve connected to diaphragm.
Diaphragm seeks position that give just sufficient air pressure to
support load.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> Pneumatic load cells
Pneumatic load cells also operate on the force-balance principle. These
devices use multiple dampener chambers to provide higher accuracy than
can a hydraulic device. In some designs, the first dampener chamber is
used as a tare weight chamber.

Pneumatic load cells are often used to measure relatively small weights in
industries where cleanliness and safety are of prime concern.

The advantages of this type of load cell include their

being inherently explosion proof and insensitive to
temperature variations. Additionally, they contain no
fluids that might contaminate the process if the
diaphragm ruptures. Disadvantages include relatively
slow speed of response and the need for clean,
dry, regulated air or nitrogen.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
Strain gauge load cells are a type of load cell where a strain gauge
assembly is positioned inside the load cell housing to convert the load
acting on them into electrical signals. The weight on the load cell is
measured by the voltage fluctuation caused in the strain gauge when it
undergoes deformation.

Modern load cells have 4 strain gauges

installed within them to increase the
measurement accuracy. Two of the
gauges are usually in tension, and two in
compression, and are wired with
compensation adjustments.

Strain gauge load cells offer accuracies

from within 0.03% to 0.25% full scale and
are suitable for almost all industrial
applications.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
VIDEO: STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
> STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
When there is no load on the load cell, the resistances of each strain gauge
will be the same. However, when under load, the resistance of the strain
gauge varies, causing a change in output voltage. The change in output
voltage is measured and converted into readable values using a digital meter.

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
Video: Load Cell Working Principle

Saifizul (JKM)
 Static Force Sensor
TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL

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 Applications of Load Cell

Saifizul (JKM)
 Applications of Load Cell
Video: Mettler Toledo Factory Application

Saifizul (JKM)
 2. System Development Methodology

Dynamic Force Sensor

More suitable
Good for
Dynamic Force Sensor Technology for static
dynamic
application
application

Strain gauge based sensor

Quartz PVDF Piezo

Bending Plate Load Cell

• Insensitive to temperature and climate
changes
• Accurate for low and high speed
• Can be used to obtain all vehicle and
traffic parameters (need to develop • Sensitive to temperature
customized software)
• Accuracy deteriorates at high speed
• Robust to all weather conditions
• Very sensitive to lightning
• Easy installation
• Need to integrate with other devices to obtain more than
weight parameter
Saifizul (JKM)
 2. System Development Methodology

Dynamic Force Sensor

Piezoelectric Sensor

• Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates

in certain solid materials (such as crystals, certain
ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA
and various proteins) in response to applied
mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity electricity
resulting from pressure.

• The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear

electromechanical interaction between the mechanical
and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no
inversion symmetry

Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor
Video: What is Piezoelectric Material?

Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor
COMPARISON BETWEEN QUARTZ AND PVDF PIEZO
Quartz Sensor
• Sensitive to vertical force only
(no ghost axle, no lost of information)
• Stable properties with temperature
(no compensation needed)
• Insensitive to temp., & pavement characteristics
(No recalibration needed)
• No electromagnetic interference
• Robust to lightning
Saifizul (JKM)
PVDF Piezo Sensor
• Sensitive to pressure from any direction
(ghost axle appear, inaccurate)
•Characteristics vary with temperature
(compensation needed)
• Sensitive to temp., & pavement characteristics
(Recalibration needed)
• Electromagnetic interference
• Sensitive to lightning
 Dynamic Force Sensor
PVDF PIEZO SENSOR

Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor
QUARTZ PIEZO SENSOR

Quartz Sensor Core Element Sensor Construction

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor
Working Principle

Source: Kistler
Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor

Quartz Piezo Sensor Properties

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 Dynamic Force Sensor

Quartz Piezo Sensor Properties (Cont’)

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 APPLICATION OF DYNAMIC FORCE SENSOR
TRUCK WEIGHT MEASUREMENT & ENFORCEMENT

Static Load Dynamic Load

Source: Kistler
Saifizul (JKM) 36
 APPLICATION OF DYNAMIC FORCE SENSOR
TRUCK WEIGHT MEASUREMENT & ENFORCEMENT

Weighing In Motion is defined as the process of measuring the dynamic tire forces of a
moving road vehicle and estimating the gross-vehicle weight and the portion of that
weight carried by each wheel, axle, or axle group of a corresponding static vehicle.

A Weigh-in-motion (WIM) system implements the process of weighing a moving road

vehicle by first measuring the dynamic (varying with time), vertically-downward
component of the tire force from each wheel on the vehicle as the vehicle passes on a
smooth road surface over specially-designed sensors.

WIM was invented in the US (Texas) in the 50s by Pr Clyde Lee. Originally it was
mainly used to collect large sample of axle and vehicle loads for pavement design
purposes and the ASTHOO pavement design code. Bending plates were among the
first sensors used for weighing. From the 70s, new technologies of WIM sensors were
developed in Europe, such as wire, strip and bar sensors, capacitive, piezo-electric
(ceramic, then polymer andthen quarz), and finally fiber optics. Bridge WIM was also
introduced in the US in the late 70s and then developed in Europe in the 90s.

Source: http://www.is-wim.org/index.php%3Fnm%3D2%26nsm%3D1%26lg%3Den

Saifizul (JKM)
 APPLICATION OF DYNAMIC FORCE SENSOR
TRUCK WEIGHT MEASUREMENT & ENFORCEMENT

Source: http://www.is-wim.org/index.php%3Fnm%3D2%26nsm%3D1%26lg%3Den

Saifizul (JKM)
 FUNDAMENTAL OF DYNAMIC FORCE SENSOR
FOR TRUCK WEIGHT MEASUREMENT

Vehicle
Dynamic

Road Climate &

Condition Environment
al Condition

Static Load
(reference) Requires extensive study to
ensure WIM system produce
Dynamic Load accurate and reliable data
(bouncing effect, etc)

Saifizul (JKM) 39
 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

New standards have been established for WIM. There is no single globally
accepted standard for WIM. Each country that operates WIM did adopt own local
legislation and procedures.

Provide guidelines on:

Ø Installation Procedures
Ø Calibration & Validation test Procedures
Ø Performance Specifications
Saifizul (JKM) 40
 QUARTZ WIM SENSOR2. System Development Methodology
Quartz sensor was selected as a main
sensor to produce traffic and vehicular
data

Quartz Sensor
Souce: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM) 41
 QUARTZ WIM SENSOR
2. System Development Methodology

Quartz sensor was selected as a main

sensor to produce traffic and vehicular
data

Quartz Sensor

• Sensitive to vertical force only

(no ghost axle, no lost of information)
• Stable properties with temperature
(no compensation needed)
• Insensitive to temp., & pavement characteristics
(No recalibration needed)
• No electromagnetic interference Quartz Sensor
• Robust to lightning
Saifizul (JKM)
 INSTALLATION WORKS
INSTALLATION OF QUARTZ WIM SENSOR ON FEDERAL ROAD

Saifizul (JKM) 43
 Quartz WIM Sensor
A typical truck tire force signal as sensed by the Quartz WIM sensor is
shown below:

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 Quartz WIM Sensor
The typical force signals of a car tire with different inflation pressures is
shown below. The footprint length is calculated by multplying velocity by
sensing time. The area under the curve is constant (and proportional to
the wheel load), while peak and footprint lenght depend on the tire
pressure.

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 Quartz WIM Sensor

Applied force onto sensor Charge output signal of sensor

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 Quartz WIM Sensor
Weight Estimation

Saifizul (JKM) Source: Kistler

 Quartz WIM Sensor
Weight Estimation

Source: Kistler

Saifizul (JKM)
 2. System Development Methodology

Quartz WIM Sensor

Signal Processing
Output signal from quartz WIM
sensor when 2 axle vehicle pass
through the sensor Wheelbase (Peak time from the same sensor)

WIM Sensor Layout

Speed
(Peak time from different sensor)

Traffic direction

Wheel weight = (Speed / sensor width) x Area under curve x Calibration constant

Saifizul (JKM)
 Capability of Quartz WIM Sensor

In short….weigh various types of vehicle while in motion at any speed accurately

and automatically

Multi-parameters
Quartz WIM Front-end
Sensor Software
• Date & Time • Classification
• Counting • Axle Spacing
• No. of Axle • Axle Weight
• Lane & Direction • GVW
• Speed • Volume
• Acceleration • Time Headway
• Wheelbase • Gap Distance

Continuous measurement 24 All weather conditions

hours 7 days

Saifizul (JKM)
 WIM system project examples based
on personal experience
(refer to HSWIM ITSSB Slides)

Saifizul (JKM)