UNIT 4 SETTLEMENT

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definition of Settlement
4.2.1 Immediate Settlement
4.2.2 Consolidation Settlement
4.3 Causes of Settlement
4.3.1 Settlement due to Increasing Load on Surrounding Soil
4.3.2 Settlement due to Excavation
4.3.3 Settlement due to Lowering of Water Table
4.3.4 Settlement due to Vibration
4.3.5 Settlement due to Reduction in Volume of Soil
4.3.6 Settlement due to Deterioration
4.3.7 Computation of Settlement
4.4 Evaluation of Immediate Settlement
4.4.1 Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity
4.4.2 Influence of Pressure in the Soil
4.4.3 Effect of Footing Size on Stress Zone
4.5 Deformation Equation for Settlement
4.6 Alternative Methods for Computing Settlements
4.6.1 Jambu - B j e m - Kjaernsli Method
4.6.2 Lambe Method
4.7 Settlement of Footings on Sand
4.8 Settlement of Footings in Clay
4.9 Settlement of Layered Soils
4.10 Consolidation Settlement
4.1 1 Proportioning of Footings for a Given Settlement
4.12 Reliability of SettlementComputations
4.13 Differential Settlement
i
4.14 Control of Settlements

I
4.14.1 Preloading
4.14.2 Utilisation of Buoyancy Effect
4.14.3 Mininusation of Differential Settlement
4.14.4 Settlement Cracks
4.14.5 Controlling Consolidation Settlements
4.14.6 Correction for Construction Period
i 4.15 Empirical Approximations for C, & CE
i 4.16 Creep Settlements
4.17 Coda1 Provisions
4.18 Summary
4.19 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
All soils subjected to stress undergo strain. This will be taking place within the soil
skeleton. This strain is caused by rolling, slipping, sliding and crushing at the particle
contact points. The integration of the strain (deformation per unit length) along the vertical
direction (over the depth of influence) is Settlement. Settlement is not recoverable when
the stress is removed. This is because, a permanent reduction in the void ratio has been
produced. The effect of settlement depends on factors like, uniformity, type of structure
and iQ magnitude. Therefore all foundations shall be checked for total and differential
Foundation Eogineehg -I settlements. These settlements have to be within permissible limits as per IS coda1
provision.
The change in state of strain in soil layers will result in settlement. The construction of
foundation structures will increase the stress level at various layers in the soil. The
increase in stress will modify the strain field beneath the foundation structure. Hence, the
various aspects to evaluate settlement are analysed in this unit. The chapter is concluded
by stressing the need for usage of IS codes for settlement evaluation.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
compute the settlement beneath foundations,
compute differential settlement,
predict settlement in sand/clay, and
design foundations, safely against settlement.

4.2 DEFINITION OF SETTLEMENT

4.2.1 Immediate Settlement
Strain in all coarse grained, dry or partly saturated fine grained soils occur immediately
after the application of stress. Hence, this change in strain is referred to as immediate
settlement. Application of stress to saturated fine grained soils (or nearby saturated soils)
produces strains that are time dependent.
4.2.2 Consolidation Settlement
The resulting settlements which are time-dependent and are termed consolidation
settlements. After the consolidation settlements take place, creep (or secondary
consolidation) of the soil under applied stress may continue for some additional time. Soil '
creep is a major portion of the total settlement for many organic and peaty deposits. It
appears further, the poorer the soil (soft, stratified, filled-in type), the less likelyhood for a
reliable settlement estimate.
Settlement is not always a bad characteristic for the structure, provided it is UNIFORM
throughout and does not reach excessive limit or permissible value. If the sefflements are
unequal, i.e. if one corner settles down more than the rest of the structure, then it is a very
adverse design. Unequal settlement may cause floors to cracks, plasters to crack badly.
Sometimes it may result in the failure of the structure.

4.3 CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT

The various causes of settlement are:
1) increasing load on the surrounding soil deposit,
2) excavation,
3) lowering of water table,
4) vibration in the vicinity of the structure.
5) reduction in volume of the soil caused by the weight of the building,
6) deterioration of foundation concrete, and
7) soil getting saturated with structural loading on top.
43.1 Settlement due to Increasing Load on Surrounding Soil
When any portion of the ground surface has been loaded, it causes the surface of adjacent
soil also to tilt and settle. The amount,of tilt will depend on the nature and type of subsoil.
If subsoil consists of soft clay, the effect of the weight of a new structure on the
neighbouring structure can be quite high. It may cause extra settlement due to old
structure. Such tilt may not be detrimental to the structure.
4.3.2 Settlement due to Excavation Settlement

If an excavation is made in a sandy soil, the structure founded near the excavation will be
affected and it will cause extra settlement. The settlement due to excavation of the cut will
not extend beyond a distance equal to the depth of cut. For example, if the depth of cut is
5m, then the building at a distance of 5 m from the excavation only will effect. This can be
minimised by adequately providing the bracings.
When any cut is made in soft clay stratum, the structure loaded at the sides of the cut acts
like a surcharge. Therefore the clay near the bottom of the cut yields laterally towards the
excavation under this surcharge. Hence, the ground surface above the yielding clay starts
settling.
4.3.3 Settlement due to Lowering of Water Table
Water table is encoun!ered with, whenever any excavations are made for foundations. The
water is to be out for working conditions. The lowering of water table affects the
structures founded in the vicinity. The effective stress on the subsoil increases, due to
ground water lo$&ing. This causes extra settlement of the nearby structure. Lowering of
water table in cla* soil results in large settlement. In the case of sandy soils, the effect of
lowering of water table on settlement is rather small.
4.3.4 Settlement due to Vibration
The foundation resting on cohesionless soil and subjected to vibrations will result in
settlements of higher magnitude. In sandy soils largest settlement will occur within a range
of about 500 to 2500 impulses per minute. This is known as optimum range for vibrations.
The impulses produced by the turbo-generators, turbines etc. will be in the optimum range.
Generally, the settlement caused by the vibration on clayey deposits are small. Hence, it
does not cause any damage to the structure.
4.3.5 Settlement due to Reduction in Volume of Soil
The weight of the structure causes reduction in volume of soil due to expulsion of pore
water from the voids. This reduces the void ratio, maintaining same volume of solid
particles. The effect of this decrease in volume will result in vertical downward movement
of the superstructure.
The compressible soil layer under the foundation of the structure is stressed upto a large
depth due to the weight of the structure. The stress will be maximum at the foundation
level which will gradually decrease with depth. Hence, any compressible structure lying
within the depth of the stressed zone will undergo settlement.
Settlement on sandy soil is usually less and whatever settlement has to take place occurs at
fast rate. In case of cohesive soil, the settlement is usually more and the rate of settlement
is also very much prolonged.
4.3.6 Settlement due to Deterioration
The deterioration of foundation concrete will result in the vicinity of sulphates, chlorides
and chemically contaminated soils. Due to deterioration, it develops large cracks leading
to extra settlement of the structure.
4.3.7 Computation of Settlement
The settlement in any soil mass under an applied stress is given by
s = si+ sc + ss
where,
S = total settlement,
Si = immediate (or elastic) settlement,
S, = primary consolidation settlement, and
S, = secondary consideration'settlement.
In granular soils, elastic settlement is the predominant part. In inorganic silts and clays, the
primary consolidation settlement probably predominates. The secondary consolidation
settlement forms the major part of the total settlement in highly organic soils and peats.
 I

Foundation Engineering -I SAQ 1

i) Distinguish between immediate settlement and consolidation settlement.
ii) What are the causes of settlement?
I iii) What is the impact of excavation on settlement ?
I

, iv) Bring out the role of lowering the water table on settlement.
v) How do you compute the settlement?

I
4.4 EVALUATION OF IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
I

4.4.1 Immediate Settlement from Theory of Elasticity

a) Concentrated Point Load at Surface
Figure 4.1 shows a concentrated load, Q, acting on the surface of an elastic medium. From
stress distribution consideration, the strain at a depth is given by

~ where,
1 E, = Strain at a depth 2,
a,,o, ,o, are stresses along radial, tangential and depth respectively,
E = Young's modulus for the soil mass, and
~1 = Poisson's ratio.

Q = POINT LOAD

figure 41 :Immediate Settlement due to a ConcentratedLoad (Cylindrical Coordinates)

Substituting

where, Q = concentrated load.

 From Boussinesq theory (Reder to unit on stress distribution) substituting Settlement

in Equation 4.2, and on simplification,it yields to

The settlement at depth Z can be

At the surface, z = 0, the Equation 4.4 reduces to

I where, p = Poisson's ratio.

b) Settlement at the Surface due to a Uniformly Loaded Flexible Area
Figure 4.2 shows a uniformly loaded circular area. The settlement can be determined by
using the strain equation at any depth z is given by Equation 4.2. (Same procedure given
in(a) for point load.)
rB1= 2b

q o LOAD INTENSITY

Figure 4 2 :Immediate Settlement due to a Uniformly Load Circular Area

The relationship for 0,,4and 4is given by (Ahlvin and Ulery, 1962)
a, = q(A'+ B') . . . (4.6)

where, q = intensity of load,

i A' , B' C, D, E, F are functions of s/b and &.(The values of these are given in Tables 4.1
to 4.6).
Substitution of the relation of Equations 4.6 to 4.8 in Equation 4.2 and on simplification it
reduces to

Table 4.1 :Function 'A'

Foundation Engineering -I Table 4.2 :Function 'B'

Table 4.3 :Function 'C'

Table 4.4 :Function 'D'

zn, sn,
0 0.2 0.6 1 5 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.2 0.0943 0.0955 0.1055 0.1093 0.0008 -
0.6 0.1892 0.1888 0.1788 0.1414 - -

1.O 0.1767 0.1750 0.1582 0.1251 0.0038 0.0005

5.0 0.0189 0.1950 - 0.0181 0.0070 0.0030
10.0 - - - - - 0.0036

Table 4.5 : Function 'E'

Table 4.6 :Function 'F'

The vertical deflection at any depth can be obtained by integrating Eq (4.9) and is given by
4 . r1 + P I z
. b . - . I, + [(I - p)] I, ...
Si = E b
where,
I, = A,, and
b = radius of the loaded area.
The numerical values of I, (influence number) are given in Table 4.7.
 Table 4.7 : Value of 1; Settlement

The term I, is
usually referred
( as influence number I

Hence,

Si (surface) = qb
I - p2
-
.*.
E
For ~aturatedcla~s, p = 0.5. Hence at the centre of the loaded area (sh = 0) and I, = 2,

Si (surface, centre) =
1.5 qb - 0.75 qb . . . (4.12)
E E
At the edge of the loaded area, i.e. z/b = 0. s/b = 1 and I, = 1.27

S, (surface, edge) = 1.27 x 0.75 x

@ -
0.95 b 0.475 q B . . . (4.13)
E E E
The average surface settlement is
S, (surface, a,) = 0.85 x Si (surface, centre) . . . (4.14)
The value of the influence factor depends on shape and rigidity of the foundation. For a
rigid circular foundation, hfluence factor I = 714 and for an elastic circular foundation
I = 0.85: I = 0.95 for flexible square foundation and reduce to 0.8 for rigid square foundation.
The elastic settlement (si) of both rigid and flexible foundations increases in direct
proportions to the foundation pressure and width of foundation. The elastic settlement of a
flexible foundation on clay is shown in Figure 4.3(a). From this figure it can be seen that
settlement is maximum at centre and gradually decreases towards edges. It also extends
heyond the loaded area.
q = I N T E N S I T Y OF L O A D I N G

(a) Elastic Settlement of Clayey Soil (b) Elastic Settlement of CohesionlessSoil

Figure 4.3 :Hastic Settlement on Different Types of Soil

Figure 4.3(b) shows the elastic settlement of the cohesionless soil. The settlement profile
is opposite to that of clayey soil. This is due to the fact that modulus of elasticity of sandy
soil increases with confiing pressure.
4.4.2 Influence of Pressure in the Soil
Figure 4.4 shows the stress state beneath a footing. The steady state situation prior to
footing as well as qualitative variation of pressure are also shown. From this Figure it can
be seen that the strain E occurs in a zone directly beneath the footing of about 0.3 to 0.5
where the increase in pressure from the footing is greatest. These profiles also show that
depth 'L' producing a significant strain contribution is between 2 and 4B. The correct
estimate of strain is rather difficult since E, varies with depth. The other earth pressure
coefficient will also vary and probably larger than KO.The value of Poisson's ratio is
assumed to be in the range of 0.3 to 0.4.
In such condition, the trapezoidal formula can be used to obtain average value of E,.
Alternately, one may subdivide the stratum into several increments and compute the
Fonndation Engineering -1 settlement of the increment. Total settlement can be computed as the summation of the
several layer.

PRESSURE BULB
DEPENDS ON W I D T H
AND 6-U

I =
0
,
5 63 = PRINCIPAL STRESSES

0.1 INSITU STEADY b ) U N S T E A D Y STATE DUE TO ADDITIONS

STATE OF FOOTING

Figure 4 4 :Effect of Stress Changes Producing Settlements Beneath a Footing

4.4.3 Effect of Footing Size on Stress Zone

The modulus of elasticity of the soil may be determined by plotting stress-strain diagram
based on triaxial test or plate load test. In granular soils it is found that E, increases with
depth (i.e. sensitive to lateral pressure). The test sample should be taken at a depth B/2 or
B beneath the proposed footing to get an average value of E,. ?he modulus of elasticity of
cohesionless (pure sand) material. will not be influenced by moisture content and particle
size. However void ratio affects to a considerable extent. E, is a function of depth in
granular soil.

ST RATIFICATION
BOUNDARY

B 1 = WIDTH OF PLATE

Figure 4.5 : Effect of Footing Size on Stress Zone

The modulus of elasticity determined from plate load test is to be correspondingly

modified as
 Let A,, = settlement of plate of width B,,
,
A = settlement of a footing of width B = nB,,
q = intensity of stress (constant),
D, = depth of influence for plate Be,
nD,= depth of influence for footing tlD1 = Bf,
Ep = modulus of elasticity from B,, and
Ef = modulus of elasticity to use for footing B,.
From Figure 4.5 the settlement of a plate would be proportional to the depth of stress
influence B,. Hence by proportioning

But from Mechanics of materials

A PL ED,
and A - -4 nD1
- AE - Ep f - Ef
Terzaghi indicates that for granular soils the following relationship to be true:
A 2~:
-
f =- . . . (4.16)
1 Bf + Bl
'
or solving for E, by appropriate sub situation

Hence modulus of elasticity of the granular soil can be extrapolated from plate load test.
Modulus of elasticity of cohesive soils has been found to be relatively constant with depth.
~ e n c depth
e correction is not necessary.

When a load is applied on an elastic body, it results in strain. The summation of strain over
a length is deformation or settlement. In the soil media, the strain (deformatiodunit
length) is produced primarily by a combination of particle rolling, slippage and sliding
displacements. The deformation AH, is the statistical summation of the strain in that
direction. Hence, along the direction of stressed depth
D,
AH = =IED^ . . . (4.18)
0

where,
O
E = - = Strain (depends on Hooke's law), and
Es
Dl = Depth over which the foundation is resting.
Most of the strain occurs directly beneath the footing, upto a depth of 0.3 to 0.5 B.

4.6 ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR COMPUTING

SETTLEMENTS
-
4.6.1 Jambu Bjerrum-Kjaernsli Method
The settlement can be computed by using the following relationship . . . (4.19)

where,
E, = Modulus of elasticity to be computed by triaxial test as
- O1- O3
--
AWL
Foundation Engineering -I The values of p,, pl, can be obtained from graph (vide Ref. Figure 221, p. 92, Bowles,
1968).
The values depend on the location of the footing below the ground surface and the depth
of stratum. In this method, the finite thickness of the stratum is taken into consideration.
4.6.2 Lambe Method
In this method, settlement can be computed by dividing the stratum interlayers.
n

where,
n = number of parts that a stratum can be considered beneath the footing, and
q, = corresponding average strain associated with vertical stress, caused by the
surface loading in each stratum.
Lambe's method includes the location of the footing, pressure, and thickness of the
stratum. The realistic stress-strain curve is to be established for the evaluatio~lof E.
, SAQ 2
i

i) Derive an expression for immediate settlement using the concept of strain.

( ii) Obtain an expression for the settlement at the surface due to uniformly
i distributed load.
i iii) Explain the influence of pressure in the soil on settlement.
iv) Discuss the effect of size of the footing on settlement.
', \,
v) What are the alternative methods for computing settlement ?
\

4.7 SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS ON SAND

Immediate settlement for footing on sandy soils or for the soils in which consolidation
theory does not apply, the following Equation 4.21 based on theory of elasticity is used.

Si = A p . B -(1 -p2) lw
E
where,
Ap = pressure intensity,
B = least lateral dimension of the footing,
E = modulus of elasticity of the soil,
I, = influence factor as given in Table 4.8, and
Table 4.8 :Influence Factor for Different Types of Foundation

Footing Shape Flexible Footing Rigid Footing

Centre Corner Average
a) Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82
b) Circular 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.88
c) Rectangular

;-
-- 1.5
1.36 0.68 1.20

1.31
1.06

1.20
2.0 1.53 0.77
5.0 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70
10.0 2.52 1.26 2.25 2.20
100.0 3.38 1.69 2.96 3.40
 .~
. .
w = Poisson's ratio and can be taken as Settlement
0.25 for fine grained sand
0.2 - 0.3 for sandy clay
0.3 - 0.35 for silt
0.1 - 0.3 for unsaturated clay
0.4 - 0.5 for saturated clay

4.8 SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS IN CLAY

In the presence of ground water table, the underlying clay stratum may be saturated. The
settlement of the footing in the saturated clay stratum can be calculated by using
Equation 4.22 namely

s=-
Cc + H
1 + eo log10 IT)
PO + AP
. . . (4.22)
If the soil is preconsolidated, preconsolidation pressure of p,' can be used instead of
existing overburden pre p, for a realistic evaluation of the settlement. Equation 4.22
overestimates the settlement for preconsolidated soils.
Terzaghi and Peak (1948) proposed that if the ratio of

AP 5b2
@d - PO) . . . (4.23)
the compression of the stratum would be from 10% to 25% of the computed value and if
AP
2 1
PO' -PO . . . (4.24)
the computed value of the settlement can be used.
If e-log p plot does not clearly distinguish pre-consolidation pressure, other factors are to
be carefully examined. Natural moisture content is one indicator of preconsolidation
pressure. If it is closer to plastic limit, than to the liquid limit, the clay is almost certainly
preconsolidated. If the natural moisture content is closer to or greater than liquid limit, the
clay might not have been preconsolidated and may be sensitive. Settlement computed by
using Equation 4.22 will be quite less. This is due to the fact that preconsolidated soil is
more dense and thus if it is saturated, the moisture content will be lower than the same soil
. in a less dense state.
p in Equation 4.22 can be determined by any method. The ratio e is a function of depth.
Hence it may be estimated for each increment of strata as
po+Ap'
e = eo - cc log
Po ... (4.25)
where,
e, = void ratio of soil of the depth of sample,
e = void ratio at any other depth,
P" = overburden pressure, and
Ap ' = change in effective pressure due to weight of soil in selected increment.
Generally, for thick strata, it is recommended that stratum be broken up into increments of
atleast 2 m for settlement computations. Reasonably good results can be obtained by using
the effective pressure at the mid height of the stratum in combination with the average
pressure y for the entire stratum.
The average Ap can be calculated by using Boussinesq charts or Westergared theory or
pressure bulb concept.

4.9 SETTLEMENT OF LAYERED SOILS

Soil strata normally consists of several layers. These strata is subjected to consolidation
due to external loading as shown in Figure 4.6. The total settlement can be computed by
determining C, from consolidation test for several layers of stratification. The rate of
FoundationEndneeling -I consolidation is quite complicated. The settlements of the lower (or interior strata)
depends on Cv of particular stratum as well as C, of the exterior strata. It is evident that
drainage must travel through both the stratum under consideration and exterior strata to
free surface. Drainage depends on

Coefficient of permeability, void ratio, stress response and applied stress. From this it is
evident that even to approximate a solution, consolidation tests are required for each
stratum so that Cv and C, can be obtained. Theoretical solutions for this case are beyond
the scope of this module.
f
1111111111111 , : 4, LOADING INTENSITY

-GUT
y1 C~ 1 t1 CLAY 1
t 1

"3 C ~ 3 CLAY 3

RIGID

Figure 4.6 :Layered Soil with Single Drainage

4.9.1 Approximate Solution

A clay deposit consisting of a system of layers with different coefficients of consolidation
can be converted to an equivalent layer, with equivalent properties.
For example, a4-layer deposit with thickness H I , H2,H3, and H4 C,,, Cv2,Cv, and Cv4
with coefficient of consolidation C,,, C,,, C,, and C,, respectively. The thickness of
second and subsequent layers can be transferred into an equivalent layer, considering the
properties of 1st layer. The procedure is
H; = HI + H2 ( c ~ ~ / c ~ ~ ) ~ ~ . . . (4.27)
H: = H3 ( c ~ ~ / c ~ ~ ) ~ ~ . . . (4.28)
H: = H4 ( c ~ ~ / c ~ ~ ) ~ ~ . . . (4.29)
Hence, equivalent thickness of the total soil deposit
H: = H , + H ~ + H ~ + H ~
where, H: is assumed to possess a coefficient of consolidation of C,,. The degree of
consolidation at different times t' will be determined from the equivalent layer thickness.

4.10 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

The integration of strain over the depth is settlement. The method of producing the
settlement is non-recoverable when the intensity of stress is removed. Hence, a permanent
reduction in void ratio has resulted in the soil media.
Strain in all coarse grained and partially saturated fine grained soils occurs very soon after
the application of the stress. Application of stress to saturated fine-grained soils produces
strains that are time dependent. The resulting settlements are also time-dependent and are
called Consolidation Settlements.
The time needed for consolidation settlements to take place depends on the dissipation rak
of excess pore pressure due to external loading.?he tilt in the Leaning Tower of Pisa is at
least partly due to differential consolidation settlements that have been ongoing over the
last 700 years.
 The consolidation characteristics of a soil are C,,compression index and C,,coefficient of Settlement
consolidation. The compression index relates to how much settlement will take place
whereas coefficient of consolidation relates to how long it will take for an amount of
consolidation to take place.
The parameters Ccand C, are to be determined from consolidation test. The settlement dial
readings are converted by computations to either void ratio ( e )or strain, E. The increment
can be used to calculate pressure, p. The plot of either a) e vs p or log p or b) E vs log p
can be made. The primary consolidation settlement (Skempton's eq) can be calculated by

s,.= c, log PO +AP

-x -
H,
1 + eo . . (4.30)
Po
where,
p, = overburden pressure, and
H, = thiclcness of compressible layer.
Figure 4.7 shows a typical plot of e vs log p for normally consolidated clay. The slope of
the end branch of the curve is denoted as compression index Ccand computed as

e2 -el -
- Ae
c, =
log P, - log Pl log P ~ / P I
. . . (4.31)

CORRECTED VIRGIN CURVE

LAB UNDISTURBED CURVE

DETERMINE LAB TEST LOAD ZOO0 k Pa

OR ESTIMATE AT 0 . 3 5 TO 0 . k 5 e .

log pressure

Figure 4.7 :Void Ratio vs Logp Curve Normally Consolidated Soil (Qualitative )

It is convenient to consider p, - p, = 1 log cycle, so that log p,lp, =1 (and extending the
curve slope as necessary). When no clearly identified linear region exists, the slope
defining C,should be taken in the general region applicable to the stress increase Ap.
Strictly, C,is negative, but conventional practice ignores the sign and value is usually
reported as positive.
Solving the above Equation 4.3 1,it reduces to
Ae = Cclog p,lp, ...
. For E vs log p plot we can obtain in a similar manner
where, E = CC1log PJPI . . . (4.33)
where, C: = compression ratio
Figure 4.8 shows the settlement of a soil sample of layer thickness H.
Foundation Engineering -1

PI:---7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----.AH=

it :-- -1
VOIDS
H
SOLIDS

Figure 4 8 :Settlement of a Soil Sample of Layer Thickness

Since
AH
Ae=-=M [for H, = 1 is shown]
Hs
Equation 4.32 can be written as
Ae = AH = C, logpz/p,
The definition of A&is

Equating Equation 4.33 and 4.34 it reduces to

CE = CJ(l+e,)

4.11 PROPORTIONING OFFOOTINGS FOR A GIVEN

SETTLEMENT
Footings overlying clay strata, the settlement is computed by

The above equation is not sensitive to dimensions of the footing. But it is known from the
pressure bulb concept that the intensity of pressure is larger at greater depths for larger
footing for same contact pressure. But the equation for computation of settlement using
theory of elasticity solution is given by (this Equation is same as Equation 4.21)

where,
q = intensity of load,
B = Breadth of the footing,
E, = Elasticity properties of soil strata, and
I = Influence factor (Tabulated values).
Equation 4.37 is quite sensitive for size of the footings. That is to say, for all things being
equal, the pressure change can be computed as
A P, B, = A Pz B, . . . (4.38)
where,
Ap, = pressure intensity for B,,and
Ap2 = pressure intensity for B,.
Hence, Settlement

4.12 RELIABILITY OF SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS

Inspite of the of sample disturbance, if 1) e or E vs log p curve is interpreted,
reasonably with some corrections for sample disturbance, 2) if the sample disturbance is
not too much 3) the field exploration correctly located all the consolidating strata, and 4) if
the deposit is not very soft, computed settlement will usually be reliable to about 10 to
15% of measured values.
In soft stratified soil deposits, where the settlements are large, the reliability of settlement
estimate becomes highly inaccurate. The computed settlement will be either too low or too
high. Computed to measured settlement ratios may be in the range of 0.57 to 3.1.
Finite difference and finite element techniques may be used to model settlement and time
rates. But these sophisticated methods are not in vogue due to
1) settlement computations are sensitive to several parameters (C, etc.) as the
classical methods, i.e. output is no better than the input,
2) necessity for computer access, and
3) lack of general familiarity with computer technology.
More valves of C, for a stratified deposits are needed to produce a statistically reliable
"parameter".
A minimum of two independently determined values of the compression index should be .
,

determined which are in agreement before a 'value' is selected for stratum.

4.13 DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

Structural stability is not very much affected by uniform settlement of a structural system.
Major amount of damages will be taking place to the structure due to differential
settlement. Hence, the maximum differential settlement is the determining factor for the
design of foundation. Even slight amount of differential movement can cause substantial
damage between two adjoining columns of a structure.
Figure 4.9 shows the settlement of a number of columns. Some columns have settled more
and some have settled less. Maximum differential settlement is 6. The critical settlement is
that settlement which causes the maximum amount of distortion to a part of the building
only. The ratio of 6/L is called the angular distortion.

S = M A X . VERTICAL SETTLEMENT
'&I= M A X . DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
S/L=MAX ANGULAR DISTORTION
L =DISTANCE BETWEEN FOOTING

Figure 4.9 :Settlement of Number of Columns

Foundation Engineering -I Hence the settlement is to be computed at various points in a structure such as comer,
centre, heaviest column location, lightest column location.
If the angular distortion is less than 11300, structural damage or damage to the interior wall
finish will not occur. The permitted angular distortion in framed structure (without interior
brick wall) is 11150. Hence in a brickwall a differential settlement of 1 cm can be
permitted for a span of 3 m. Differential settlement will occur either due to a) differences
in loading or b) differences in soil conditions.

4.14 CONTROL OF SETTLEMENTS

Large settlements cannot be permitted in the life cycle of structure. Hence efforts are to be
made to reduce the settlement. The various methods of minimising the settlement are:
4.14.1 Preloading
This method consists of loading the soil strata by a load intensity which will be equal to or
higher than the expected load intensity. The soil strata will settle due to preloading. Later,
remove the preload and construct the structure. The period of preloading depends on the
time rate of settlement. Hence, if the rate of settlement is slow, then, period of preloading
will be too long. The compression under preloading will be very rapid in porous soils with
low relative density. Rebound after removal of preload is also less in such soil deposits.
Addition of water during preloading may be advantageous, since it breaks the weak bonds
in strata having silts and loosely packed sands. Organic silts, peats, sanitary fills can be
precompressed effectively by preloading. Lowering of ground water table also contributes
for preloading.
Reloading in the site is time consuming in soils where consolidation settlement is
important unless drainage facility like sand drainslband drains, well points,
electro-osmosis methods are used along with preload. Reloading is generally adopted in
poor soils with relatively high water contents. With preloading, unless drainag; is rapid,
pore pressure build up will take place, reducing the shear strength.
4.14.2 Utilisation of Buoyancy Effect
Submerged part of the substructure will be subjected to buoyancy effect. The uplift
pressure from the ground water can be utilised by constructing a water tight basement
below the water table. Water table must remain at constant level for this method to be
effective. Hence, location of the substructure very close to a large body of water is
essential.
4.14.3 Minimisation of Differential Settlement
You are aware that differential settlement causes more distress to the structure, when
compared with that of total settlement. The various causes for differential settlement are
1) Variations in soil strata.
2) Variation in the loading of different parts of foundation.
/- 8 STOREY

5 STOREY

Figure 4.10 :Deep Basement to Reduce Net Bearing Pressure

 3) Difference in time of construction of adjoining parts of a structure Settlement

4) Large loaded areas on flexible foundations.

You must identify the causes for differential settlement. Then only you can choose suitable
remedial measure. The various remedial measures are
1) Provision of a rigid raft foundation with a thick slab or with deep beam at two
or three directions.
2) Provision of deep basements to reduce the net bearing pressure (Figure 4.10).
3) Provision of additional loading on the lightly loaded areas in the form of
kentledge.
4) Transferring load to deeper and less compressible soil strata by piles or piers.
5) Provision of greater flexibility between elements of the structure. This can be
accomplished by construction in independent segments.
4.14.4 Settlement Cracks
Settlement cracks normally take place in diagonal position. Sometimes vertical cracks may
also take place (Figure 4.11(a)). Settlement cracks start from the top bottom or end of the
wall. Crack due to differential settlement may take place if the top end of the wall has
settled more than the rest of the building.
Cracks developed due to other reasons (not settlement) will be irregular as shown in
Figure 4.1I (b).

CRACKS DUE TO SETTLEMHT

/i/l 3 STOREY COMPLEX :

I
UNIFORM DEPOSIT
GOOD
DEPOSIT

(a) Cracks due to Differential Settlement (b) Crarks not due to Settlement
Figure 4.11 :Cracks in Buildings

Cracks may develop in buildings due to other factors like thermal changes, bad
construction, faulty placement of concrete etc.
4.14.5 Controlling Consolidation Settlements
You already know that consolidation settlement is predominating in saturated clays and
inorganic silts. A method which is normally suggested is that
~2 = AP + P'I . . . (4.40)
Remove the soil by excavation so that
Po - Pexe + AP + Po . . . (4.41)
If you can achieve this then

Hence consolidation settlements will be generally negligible. This is a common practice in

construction and is known as "floating" foundation. At this juncture, you must note that C,
1s less than C, (or its primed equivalents). Hence, if sufficient time is given, and site area is
preloaded, the working pressure and settlements will be greatly reduced. This is because
 From the concept of preloading. This construction practice will not eliminate settlements
but controls the same when they occur during preloading period. If it is not practical to
preload or to excavate or to "float" the foundations, it may be essential to carry the loads
through consolidating the stratum into a more competent underlying soil.
4.14.6 Correction for Construction Period
You are aware that construction of any type of structure takes sometime. Pressure due to
the building will be applied gradually and not instantaneously. Excavation for the
construction of the foundation is essential. This results in the release of pressure. Hence,
original pressure is reached gradually as the construction progresses. Later on, it gradually
increases the pressure. Figure 4.12 shows the rate of loading as the construction activity
progresses. The expansion and recompression due to excavation and construction upto
ground level is normally neglected. The loading period is considered as effective when the
construction advances above ground level.
From Figure 4.12, it is ,clearthat finishing rate of load increment is considerably
decreased. Hence, effective loading period is to be considered.

E : EXCAVATION PERIOD
E L P: EFFECTIVE LOADING PERIOD
F P : FINISHING PERIOD

I
I
I
I

I I
I I
I
I
I I
I I
GROUND LEVEL I I

I I
I TIME
I-
Y
I
E ;,-
I
- I
I
ELP

Figure 412 :Rate of Loading during Construction

It is assumed that entire load is applied in the middle of effective loading period.

4.15 EMPIRICAL APPROXIMATION FOR Cc & C:

Performing the consolidation test and to obtain compression indices are time consuming
and also expensive. Hence, it is desirable to obtain approximate values by using other soil
indices which can be determined easily. Approximate values are of interest in preliminary
studies. This indicates the order of magnitude for laboratory test since the number of
consolidation tests for a given project are usually limited. Some typical relationships for
C,and C, are given in Table 4.9.
 Table 4.9 : Empirical Equation for C, & C, '

S1. No. Empirical Equation I Remarks

I1
1 I
1
I

1 1
1) (cC=1.15(ea-0.35) For all clays

2) Cc = 0.009 (L.L. - lo) For normally consolidated clays

I 3) 1 d = 0 . 1 5 6 q +0.0107 I For all clays

I
1 4) / C, = 0.75 (ea - 0.5)
I For soils with low plasticity
I
5) Cc = 0.3 (ea - 0.27) Inorganic cohesive soil, silt silty clay, clay.

I 1
6)

7)
8)
C',=0.0115m
Cc = 0.007 (L.L. - 7)

1 Cc = 0.05 Ip.Gs 1
Organic soils, peats, organic silt & clay.

Remolded clay

For all remolded normally consolidated clays.l

m = Natural moisture content,

e = insitu void ratio, and
L.L = liquid limit, IP =Plasticity index and Cis = Specificgravity.
It is suggested that simple equations using only void ratio or unit weight be used
cautiously and only for inorganic clays. It is known that clay structure, stress history and
other factors strongly influence the compression index.
Terzaghi and Peck based on the extensive research in undisturbed clays of low to medium
sensitivity have also confirmed the use of equation proposed by Skempton, V.Z.
Cc = 0.009 (L.L - 10) . . . (4.44)
Equation 4.44 seems to be having a reliability range of - 30%. This equation is being
widely used for initial consolidation estimates, inspite of its poor reliability. However, you
should not use the same for soils which possess sensitivity higher than 4 . The equations
given in Table 4.9 have a serious disadvantage, that these equations do not indicate the
effect of preconsolidation. Use of natural water content may be of consideration on
qualitative basis.

4.16 CREEP SETTLEMENTS

Creep occurs (secondary compression) after consolidation settlements. We defined
consolidation settlement, as that compression during which excess pore pressure exists in
the stratum. It is presumed that excess pore pressure is a measurable quantity. In a
saturated soil it would not be possible to have any reduction in void ratio without
development of excess pore pressure. During creep settlements, the strain rate is so low
that excess pore pressure is taken as non-measurable.

1 Secondary compression is time dependent phenomena. Adjustment of soil skeleton

continues for sometime efter the dissipation of excess pore pressure. Perhaps the time span
may be the order of 100 years.
Secondary compression may be insignificant for Inorganic soils and may be dominant for
highly organic soil deposits.
A typical e vs log t is shown in Figure 4.13. The slope of the secondary compression
branch would be

Hence the secondary compression is given by the following equation

H . C, t2
AH, = -log -
1 + e, tp
Foundation Eogiwering -I where,
C, = secondary compression index.

10.0 100.0
L O G TIME lnlnl

Figure 413 :Method to Obtain Secondary Compression Index Ca(After Bowles ,1979)

Various investigators have indicated a relationship between C, and C,. The general range is

As an approximation, one can use:

Ca
- I0.05 for inorganic soils, and . . . (4.48)
cc
La
- I0.07 to 0.10 for organic soils
cc
It is essential to remember again that we must estimate a value of "At9'in which most of
"creep" will occur. The time vs settlement curve plotted for the sample loaded closest to
anticipated field loading is to be used for calculation of secondary compression index.
SAQ 3
i) Give an expression for settlement of footings on sand.
ii) Give an expression for settlement for footings on clay.
iii) How do you compute the settlement in layered clay strata ?
iv) How do you proportion a footing for a given settlement ?
v) What do you understand by differential settlement ?
vi) Explain the methods of controlling settlement ?
vii) Redo Example 4.1 by making q allowable as 300 kPa and 350 kPa. Draw the
inference.
4.17 CODAL PROVISIONS
According to National Building Code of India (Sp:7 1970), the differential settlement shall
be kept within the limits to which the superstructure can accommodate itself without
harmful distortion, by suitably designing the foundation. Total settlement shall be so
restricted or special arrangements made so that connections to the buildings such as
drainage lines are not damaged. Allowable bearing pressure for footings on sand should be
such that differential settlement does not exceed 1/300. This condition is generally
satisfied if the total settlement is limited to 50 rnrn. For simple spread footings on clayey
soils, the allowable bearing pressure should be such that the differential settlement does
not exceed 1/300. This condition is generally satisfied if the total settlement is limited to
75 mrn.
4.17.1 Permissible Settlement
Any foundation may fail in shear or by excessive settlement. The failure due to shear is
checked by adopting safe value of bearing capacity. The failure due to excessive
settlement can be checked by adopting values of permissible settlement for different
structures which will not cause distress to the structure. The Indian Standard Code
(IS 1904 - 1986, Third revision) suggests that for most of the concrete structures (flats,
factories, offices, library) the angular distortion to be within 11500 normally and 111000
where it is desired to avoid any kind of damage. It also recommends that a maximum total
settlement should be limited to the value given in Table 4.10.
Table 4.10: Permissible Dflerential Senlement

SI.No. Type of Foundation Settlement, mm

Maximum Differential Angular
1) Isolated foundations for steel
structures
a) Sand & Hard clay 50 0.0033 L 11300
b) Plastic clay 50 0.0033 L 11300

2) Isolated foundations for reinforced

concrete structures
a) Sand & Hard clay 50 0.0015 L 11666
b) Plastic clay 75 0.0015 L 11666

3) Raft foundatio~~s
for steel structures
a) Sand &Hard clay
b) Plastic clay 75 0.0033 L 11300
100 0.0033 L 11300
4) Raft for reinforced concrete
structures
a) Sand & Hard clay 75 0.0021 L 11500
b) Plastic clay 100 0.0021 L 11500
L denotes the length of deflected part of walVraft or centre-to centre &stance between columns.
Example 4.1
The data profile as shown in Figure 4.4 is obtained. A best average of N values gave
N,, = 21, column loads including dead and live loads ranged from 500 kN to
950 kN. Determine the allowable pressue if settlement is to be restricted to 25 mm.
Find tentative value of qr
Solution
Using the following

where, q, = allowable bearing pressure, and

F = Factors to be used from the table below.
This equation is discussed in bearing capacity.
I I Foundation Engineering -I

MEDIUM DENSE SAND

Figure A14

F factors as follows:
70
Convert N7,to N,, giving N,,= 21 x -= 26.7
55
use N,, = 26
N55 N70
F, 0.05 0.04
F2 0.08 0.06
F, 0.3 Same
F, 1.2 Same
Using this in above V ,

D
but - < 1.33
B -
-
Prepare the table below for various values of B
Bm 1+ D/B qa(kPa)
1.2 1.33 675
2.0 1.33 572
3.0 '.3 520
The above actual soil pressure for the given range of column loads and for B = 1.5
m is

The range of soil pressure is lower than the soil pressure shown in Table in the
example. Hence, tentatively recommended is 250 kPa.
Check for settlement
pa" = B2 4,
 From table of influence factors
m1
= 10, m=1
I = 0.498 I, = 0.016

For Figure 4.14, D = 1.5 mm,B = 1.65

F values are in SI units

Estimate E, for normally consolidated sand as
E, = 500 (N + 15) = '500 (26 + 15) = 20500 kPa
Tbis value of 20.5 MPa appears to be reasonable from standard values for sand.
Hence

1000 is the converting factor for converting settlement in m to m m

It would appear in the range of B = 1.5 m to 2.5 m, the settlement will be under 25
mm. Differential settlement will be acceptable.
Recommend q, = 250 kPa for A H = under 25 mm.
Example 4.2
A 2 m wide strip footing is to be constructed in a sandy stratum of 2 m thick. The
depth of the footing is 1 m below ground surface. The sand layer is underlain by l m
thick clay stratum. The clay overlies a bed of dense sand. The water table is upto
the top of clay stratum. The submerged unit weight of clay is 8 kN/m3 and bulk unit
weight of clay is 20 kWm3.The footing is expected to carry a load intensity of
230 k ~ / mCompute
~. the ultimate settlement. Assume void ratio at
44 kN/m2 = 1.96 and at 195 kNlm2 as 1.01.
Solution
o, (Middle of clay layer) = 2 x 20 + 0.5 x 8
Pressure at the footing level before excavation = 1 x 20 = 20 k ~ / m ~
Pressure at footing level after construction = 230 kNlm2
Therefore increase in pressure intensity at the footing level = 230 - 20 = 210 kN/m2
From the elastic analysis (Boussinesq theory) the pressure distribution between the
centre of the strip load of width B varies with depth. The values are given below for
ready reference
Depth OZ

Width-ofthe footing =2m

Depth of the footing =lm
Foundation Engineering -I Therefore d/B = 112 = 0.5 or d = 0.5B
hence, a, = 0.817 q
The depth of the bottom level of the clay layer = 2 m, d = B
Hence, a, = 0.550 q
Therefore average pressure increment at middle of the clay layer
= 112 (0.817 + 0.550)q = 0.6835 q
= 0.6835 x 2i0 = 150.4 l c ~ / m ~
Therefore,

Therefore corresponding void ratios are:

e, [at a: = 44 J] = 1.16
e, [at a' = 194.41 = 1.01
--
e, - e
Settlement, A, - H
1+e,

Example 4.3
In the above example, determine the elapsed time in which 10% and 90% of the
ultimate settlement will occur. The coefficient of consolidation
Cv= 4 x 1 cm2/sec.
Solution
From consolidation table (given below) it is h o w n that U,,, (T,),,, : 0.008

- 0'008 502
(TV),, x d2 -
Therefore 40= sec = 13.85 hours
cv 4 x lo4
(Tv)90 X 8 - 0.848 x 502 sec = 61.3 days
'90 =
cv 4 x 104
d = 112 thickness of strata since it is double drainage.
Example 4.4
If q, = 250 kPa, what will be the settlement expected at comer of the footing
mentioned in Example 4.1. Use the following data
E, = 20000 kPa
p = 0.30
B = 1.65 m
Solution
D / B = - - - 0.909
1.65
 Settlement

Hence, I , = 0.431, I2 = 0.031

Using B = B' and substituting in A

Please note that comer settlement = 5.45 mm

Centre settlement = 12.2 mm
Hence, comer settlement is not equal to 114 of centre settlement. Comer settlement
must be computed independently.
Example 4.5
A load of 3000 kN is being taken by a square column footing. Side of the column is
3 m, footing rests on a silty soil with a Poisson's ratio = 0.3. Modulus of elasticity
of the soil was determined by stressing a sample to 300 kPa. The strain noted is
0.6%. Find the settlement at the Centre and at edge of the footing. Assume
influence factor for centre = 1.12 and at edge = 0.56.
Solution
Use the following equation based on theory of elasticity for immediate settlement

Iw = 1.12
333 lM)
Therefore settlement at centre = x (1 - 0.32)~1 x 12
50000

Settlement at comer

= 1.01 c m .
Example 4.6
A mat foundation of 15 m x 15 m and weighing 20000 N1m2 is to be constructed on
the surface of a soil strata. The profile is given in Figure 4.15. The number of
squares enclosed in the plan of the mat in Newmark's diagram is 90. Calculate the
settlement at the centre of the mat. Influence area of each square is 0.005.
Solution
Intensity of vertical stress at a point = Number of influence area x load intensity x
influence factor
= 90 x 20000 N/m2 x 0.005
= 9000 N1m2
Preloading pressure at centre of clay stratum
= 2x15k~/m~+(7-2)x19x5(19-10)+2.5(18-1)
Foundation Engineehg -I

UNIT v t = r 9 ~ N m3
t
5. CLAY UNIT v t .
I

18kNI m' m .
L L . 44%
30%
G a 2-65
L

Figure 415
Substituting in the above

Therefore e = 0.915
c, = 0.009 x (L.L-10)

= 0.0161 cms.
Example 4.7
Time taken for the construction of a building above ground level was from March
82 to August 1983. In August 1983 average settlement was found to be 6 cm.
Estimate the settlement in December, 1987. if it was known that ultimate will be
15 cm.
Solution
Loading period is from March 82 to Aug. 83 i.e.
= 10 + 8 = 18 months
For calculating the settlement time 't' is taken from the middle of the loading period
18
Thus 6 cms settlement occurred in -+ 12 x 3 = 45 months
2
18
It is required to know the settlement which will occur in -+ 12 x 4 + 4 = 61
months
2 I
Let us assume that t = 61 months degree of consolidation will be U I 0.6
Therefore under this condition U = I. 13 T,,
Let S, = Settlement at t,
S, = Settlement at t,
I
 Therefore degree of consolidation U = = 0.466
15
Since U < 0.6, the relationship used is valid.
Example 4.8
The loading period for a new building continued from July 1975 to July 1977.
Estimate the settlement in July 1985 if it was found that average settlement in
July 1980 was 8 cm, ultimate settlement expected is 18 cms.
Given for U = 40% Tv= 0.208

Solution
Loading period = 2 years
Time for settlement calculation is taken from middle of the loading period.
. 2
At t = 3 + - = 4 years settlement is 8 cm.
2
at t, = 9 years, settlement is required
LCt after 9 years U < 0.6
8 4
Therefore - = - = S
S 79
= -
8x3 -
2
12crns.

12
Degree of consolidation = -= 0.66
18
This is more tham0.6. Hence the relationship mentioned above cannot be used.
Let us follow the steps as :
S,=8cmatt=4years
S = 18 cm = Ultimate settlement
For degree of consolidation (at t = 4 years)

From the given value of Tvin the table for U = 40% and U = 50%. value of Tvis
calculated is 44%.
cv t
Therefore Tv = - = 0.242
H~

For t = 9 years
cvx9
Tv=-- - 0.0605 x 9 = 0.5445
H~
Since it is given in problem that
at Tv= 0.55,
U = 0.75
Therefore U = 0.75 after 9 years
Foundation Engineering -1 Therefore settlement in July 1985 i.e. after
9 years = 0.75 x 18 = 13.50 cms.
Example 4.9
The thiclcness of the normally consolidated soft clay layer is 6 m. The natural water
content is 31 percent. The specific gravity of the soil being 2.68 with a liquid limit
of 41 percent. The saturated unit weight of clay being 17.5 kN/m3. The ground
water table is at the surface of the clay. Determine the settlement of the foundation
if the centre of the clay layer is subjected to an increase of vertical stress intensity
of 8 kNlm3.
Solution
Effective initial overburden pressure measured at the centre of the layer
=r/z

Ap = increase in the vertical stress intensity

= 8 kN/mZ
C, = compression index = 0.009 [41 - 101 = 0.279

eo = initial void ratio = mG = 0.31 x 2.68 = 0.8308

Therefore S
cc
-x H. log
((30 + Ao)
C = 1+e0 (Jo

- 0'279 22.77 + 8.0)

x 6 . log
1 + 0.8308 ( 22.77
= 0.0887 m = 88.7 mrn.
Example 4.10
A normally consolidated clay layer settled by 22 mm when the effective stress was
increased from 30 kN. m2 to 60 kN/mZ.What will be its settlement when the
effective stress is increased from 50 kN/m2 to 125 kWm2?
Solution
For a normally consolidated soil the settlement is given by
H (3, - (3
sc = ccx -
1 +eo
total

C, x H
But ------ is the same for both stress increments.
( 1 + eo)
(ScI1 (31
Therefore - = loglO -
(302

(3, 60
- for first situation = - = 2
Go 30

125 - 2.5
and for the second situation : -
50
Hence the settlement for the stress increase from 50 to 125 kN/m2, (S,), is equal to
 ....
Settlement
4.18 SUMMARY
This unit has introduced the concept of settlement and its methodology of evaluation. The
exact method would not likely give correct settlements because of the problems of
determining the realistic values of ESoi, and p.This implies that emptrical methods are to
be considered but cautiously. The critical analysis of settlement equation shows that
settlement is directly related to contact pressure and footing width. The footing width
determines the effective depth of stress influence. It should be evident that with the contact
pressure being the net increase, no settlements will occur if the net increase is zero. This
can be achieved by excavating a quantity of soil equal to the weight of the superstructure
and is called floating the foundation.

4.19 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
i) Sub-section 4.2.1 and 4.2.2
.ii) Section 4.3
iii) Sub-section 4.3.2
iv) Sub-section 4.3.3
v) Eq.4.1
SAQ 2
i) Eq. 4.3
ii) Eq. 4.11
iii) Sub-section 4.4.2
iv) Sub-section 4.4.3
v) Jambu. Bjermm - Kjaemsli method and Lambe method
SAQ 3
i) Eq. 4.21
ii) Eq. 4.22
iii) Section 4.9
iv) Section 4.11
v) Section 4.14

I
vi) Refer Example 4.1
Foundation Endneerinr - 1
FURTHER READING
1) IS: 1892-1979,Code of Practice for Site Investigations for Foundations.
2) IS: 2131-1981, Method for Standard Penetration Tests for Soils.
3) IS: 4968 (Part 11) - 1968,Method for Subsurface Sounding for Soils - Part I :Dynamic
Method using 50 mm Cone without Bentonite Slurry.
4) IS: 4968 (Part 11) - 1968,Method for Subsurface Sounding for Soils - Part 11 :
Dynamic Method using Cone and Bentonite Slurry.
5) IS: 4640 - 1980, Indian Standard Specijication for Split Spoon Samplers.
6) IS: 2132 - 1972, Code of Practice for Thin Walled Tube Sampling for Soils.
7) Bowles, J.E (1982). Physical and Geotechnical Properties of Soils. McGraw - Hill
Book Co., Inc.
8) Hvorslev, M.J (1962). Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils for civil
engineering purposes, waterways experiment station, Vicksburg.
9) Jha J. and Sinha, S.K (1975), Construction and Foundation Engineering, Khannse
Publishers, Delhi.
10) Compendium of Indian Standards on Soil Engineering -Part -2.
11) Ahlvin, R.G. and Ulery, H.R. (1962). Tabulated values for determining the complete
pattern of stresses, strains and deflections beneath a uniform load on a homogeneous
half space. Highway Research Board, Bulletin.
12) Bowles, J.E. (1968), Foundation Analysis and Design, Mc Graw Hill, U.S.A.
13).Bowles, J.E. (1979). Physical and Geotechnical Properties of Soil, McGraw Hill,
U.S.A.
14) Das, B M (1983), Advanced Soil Mechanics, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
15) Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A.S.R. (1991). Basic and applied soil mechanics Wiley
Eastern Ltd.
16) Punmia B .C. (1970). Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Laxmi Publications, New
Delhi.
17) Terzaghi, K. (1943). Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New
York.
18) Terzaghi, K. and Peck R.B. (1948). Soil Mechanics in Practice. John Wiley and Sons
Inc., New York.
19) IS 1904 - 1986 (Third revision).
20) Jha, J. and Sinha, S.K. (1975). Construction and Foundation Engineering, Khaima
Publishers, Delhi.
21) Brarnha, S.P. (1985), Foundation Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill book Publishing Co.
22) Bowles, J.E. (1992). Foundation Analysis and Design, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
23) Craig (1992), Soil Mechanics, 5th Edition, ELBS with Chapman and Hall, London.
24) Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A.S.R. (199 1). Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, Wiley
Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
25) Murthy, V.N.S. (1992),A Textbook of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering, 3rd
Edn., Sri Kripa Technical Consultants, Bangalore.