In 1660, a Dutchman named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek created microscopes using his own lenses.

He presented his findings to the Royal Society in London, where Robert Hooke was making
discoveries with microscopes. Hooke published "Micrographia" in 1665.

In the 1830s, cells and cell theory became the focus of medical and biological research. Between
1838 and 1839, Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed that cells were the building
blocks of animals and plants. Schwann also suggested that understanding cellular behavior was key
to understanding body health. Rudolf Virchow used microtomes to cut very thin slices of tissue.

Parts of a microscope:

Base: Supports the microscope.

Arm: Connects the eyepiece to the base.

Head of Microscope: Contains the eyepiece.

Eyepiece: The ocular lens.

Diopter Adjustment: Changes the focus on one eyepiece to compensate for the difference in vision
between your two eyes.

Nosepiece: Holds the objectives lenses.

Objective lenses: Directly observe the object the microscope user is examining.

Stage with Stage clips: Area where specimens are mounted for viewing.

Stage Controls: Controls the movement of the stage.

Aperture: The hole in the stage through which light passes.

Condenser: Focuses the light on the specimen.

Illuminator: Designed to transmit light through a translucent object for viewing.

Coarse Adjustment Knob: Allows for quick focusing by moving the objective lens.

Fine Adjustment Knob: Used to fine focus the image when viewing at higher magnifications.

Brightness Adjustment: Used to increase or reduce the light intensity.

Light Switch: Turns the light on and off for illumination of the specimen.
Two divisions of skeletal system: (bones, joints, cartilages, and ligaments)

Axial Skeleton: Comprising bones in the head, neck, back, and chest.

Appendicular skeleton: Encompassing bones in the upper and lower shoulder girdles and pelvic
girdle.

Hematopoiesis involves blood cell formation. An adult typically has 206 bones, which are classified
into two basic types of osseous bone tissue:

Compact bone: Dense and homogenous.

Spongy bone: Composed of small needle-like pieces of bone.

The Microscopic Anatomy of Bone includes:

Osteon (Haversian System): A unit of bone.

Central (Haversian canal): An opening in the center of an osteon; carries blood vessels and nerves.

Perforating (Volkman’s canal): A canal perpendicular to the central canal.

Lacunae: Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes).

Lamellae: Rings around the central canal.

Canaliculi: Tiny canals; radiate from the central canal to lacunae.

The Axial Skeleton forms the longitudinal part of the body, consisting of three parts:

Skull: Bones are joined by sutures and divided into two sets: the cranium and facial bones.

Paranasal Sinuses: Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity, which lighten the skull.

Hyoid Bone: The only bone not articulated with other bones, serving as a movable base for the
tongue.

Fetal Skull: An infant's face is small compared to the cranium, and the skull remains unfinished at
birth. Fontanelles are fibrous membranes connecting cranial bones.

Vertebral column: Forms the spine and includes vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs.

Bony Thorax: Forms a protective cage for major organs and consists of three parts: the sternum,
ribs, and thoracic vertebrae.
The Appendicular Skeleton comprises 126 bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle.

The Pectoral Girdle allows the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement and consists of two
bones:

Clavicle (collarbone)

Scapula (shoulder blade)

The Arm is formed by a single bone, while the forearm consists of two bones:

Ulna

Radius

The Hand includes:

Carpals (wrist)

Metacarpals (palm)

Phalanges (fingers)

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle (Hip bones) are three fused bones:

Ilium

Ischium

Pubic Bones

The Pelvic Girdle protects several organs, including reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, and
part of the large intestine.

The Thigh has one bone, the femur (thigh bone), while the leg has two bones:

Tibia

Fibula
The Foot comprises:

Tarsus (ankle)

Metatarsals (sole)

Phalanges (toes)

Bones in the foot are arranged to form three strong arches: two longitudinal and one transverse.

Joints, or articulations of bones, are classified into:

Functional Classification: Synarthroses (immovable joints), Amphiarthroses (slightly movable

joints), Diarthroses (freely movable joints).

Structural Classification: Fibrous joints (generally immovable), Cartilaginous joints (immovable or

slightly movable), Synovial joints (freely movable, with a joint cavity containing articular cartilage).

Structures associated with synovial joints include bursae (flattened fibrous sacs) and tendon
sheaths (elongated bursa wraps around tendons).

Types of Synovial Joints:

Plane joint

Hinge joint

Pivot joint

Condyloid joint

Saddle joint

Ball-and-socket joint.