Topic -

HUMAN SKELETAL
SYSTEM
AND
ITS DISEASES

Name – Souraja Banerjee and Srinivas Sankar Parida

Class – XI Sec – A
Roll no. – 32,34
 Index

Sl. Content Page No.

No.
1. Acknowledgement 3

2. Introduction 4

3. Parts of the Human Skeletal System 4-6

• Appendicular Skeleton System
• Axial Skeleton System
4. Functions of the different parts of the Appendicular 6-9
Skeleton System
5. Functions of the different parts of the Axial Skeleton 9-13
System
6. Functions of the Appendicular Skeleton System 14-15
7. Functions of the Axial Skeleton System 15-16

8. Conditions and Disorders of the Human Skeletal System 17-19

9. Conclusion 20

10. Bibliography 21
 Acknowledgement

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the principal, sir Partha Pradip Panja,my Biology teacher, ma'am
Pratiti for providing me with this fantastic opportunity to work on this project and also for her invaluable
guidance and support throughout the duration of this project. Her insights and feedback have been immensely
helpful and have greatly contributed to the completion of this work.
I am also grateful to my partner, for their assistance and encouragement. Their ideas and perspectives have
added significant value to this project.
Special thanks go to my family, who have provided me with the necessary resources and a conducive
environment to work on this project. Their constant encouragement and belief in my abilities have been a
source of motivation.
I also wish to acknowledge the contributions of various websites, whose resources and information have been
instrumental in the research phase of this project.
Lastly, I thank all those who directly or indirectly contributed to the success of this project. Your support has
been invaluable.
 Human Skeletal System
Introduction
The human skeletal system is an intricate and remarkable framework that provides essential support,
protection, and mobility to the human body. Comprising bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, this system
forms a dynamic structure that adapts and changes throughout an individual's life. With approximately 206
bones in the adult human body, the skeletal system is a cornerstone of human anatomy, influencing various
physiological processes and contributing to overall health.
Bones, the primary components of the skeletal system, come in various
shapes and sizes, each serving specific functions. Long bones, such as the
femur and humerus, provide support and function as levers for movement.
Short bones, found in the wrists and ankles, contribute to stability, while
flat bones, including the skull and ribs, offer protection to vital organs.
Irregular bones, like the vertebrae, highlight the system's adaptability,
adapting to the body's complex needs.
The skeletal system is not solely a static framework; it actively
participates in vital bodily functions. Bone marrow, found within certain
bones, produces red and white blood cells, playing a crucial role in the
circulatory and immune systems. Additionally, the system acts as a
reservoir for essential minerals like calcium and phosphorus, releasing
them into the bloodstream as needed for various physiological processes.

Parts of the Human Skeletal System

The human skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage, ligaments,
and tendons. It provides support, protection, movement, and mineral
storage for the body. The skeletal system can be divided into two main parts: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
The Axial skeleton contains the skull, vertebral column (spine), ribs and sternum, whereas the appendicular
skeleton contains the upper limbs and the lower limbs. The upper limbs consist of the shoulder girdle, arm,
forearm, and hand. The lower limbs consist of the pelvic, thigh, leg and foot. The human skeletal system also
consists of the joints, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
The skeletal system works in conjunction with the muscular system to enable movement and provides a
framework for the body. Additionally, bone marrow within certain bones is essential for blood cell production.

Appendicular Skeleton System

The appendicular skeleton is one of the two main divisions of the human skeleton, alongside the axial skeleton.
It consists of the bones and structures that form the limbs and the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton. The appendicular skeleton plays a crucial role in movement and mobility. Here are the main
components of the appendicular skeleton:
1. Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle:
• Clavicle (Collarbone): A slender bone that connects the sternum to the scapula.
• Scapula (Shoulder Blade): A flat, triangular bond that forms the back part of the shoulder girdle.
2. Upper Limbs:
• Humerus: The bone of the upper arm, connecting the shoulder to the elbow.
• Radius and Ulna: The two bones of the forearm. The radius is on the thumb side, and the ulna is on the
Pinky side.
• Carpals: The bones of the wrist, arranged in two rows.
• Metacarpals: Bones of the palm of the hand.
• Phalanges: The finger bones, including the proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.

3. Pelvic (Hip)Girdle:
• Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis: The three fused bones
that form each half of the pelvis.
• Sacrum: A triangular bone at the base of the spine,
formed by the fusion of five vertebrae.
• Coccyx (Tailbone): The small, triangular bone at
the base of the spine, formed by the fusion of four
vertebrae.

4. Lower Limbs:
• Femur: The thigh bone, connecting the hip to the
knee.
• Patella (Kneecap): A small, flat bone located in
front of the knee joint.
• Tibia and Fibula: The two bones of the lower leg. The tibia is larger and weight-bearing, while the
fibula is slender and non-weight-bearing.
• Tarsals: The bones of the ankle, including the calcaneus (heel bone).
• Metatarsals: Bones of the sole of the foot.
• Phalanges: The toe bones, similar to those in the fingers, including proximal, middle, and distal
phalanges.

The appendicular skeleton provides the necessary structure and support for movement, allowing for activities
such as walking, running, and manipulation of objects with the hands. It also plays a role in maintaining
balance and stability.

Axial Skeleton System

The axial skeleton is one of the two main divisions of the human skeleton, the other being the appendicular
skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes the bones that provide support and
protection for the vital organs. Here are the main components of the axial skeleton:
1. Skull:
• Cranium (Braincase): The portion of the skull that encloses and protects the brain.
• Mandible (Lower Jaw): The movable bone of the lower jaw.
2. Hyoid Bone:
• A small U-shaped bone located in the neck that supports the tongue and provides attachment points for
muscles involved in swallowing.
3. Vertebral Column (Spine):
• Cervical Vertebrae (C1-C7): The seven vertebrae of the neck.
• Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12): The twelve vertebrae of the upper and mid-back, to which the ribs are
attached.
• Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5): The five vertebrae of the lower back.
• Sacrum: A triangular bone formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.
• Coccyx (Tailbone): Composed of four small, fused coccygeal vertebrae at the base of the spine.

4. Ribs and Sternum (Ribcage):

• Ribs (1-12): Twelve pairs of curved bones that
articulate with the thoracic vertebrae and protect
the organs in the chest cavity.
• Sternum (Breastbone): A flat bone located in the
centre of the chest that articulates with the ribs.

5. Atlas and Axis:

• Atlas (C1): The first cervical vertebra that supports
the skull and allows nodding.
• Axis (C2): The second cervical vertebra that
allows rotation of the head.

The axial skeleton provides crucial support and protection

for the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
the organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. It also
serves as the central framework for the body, contributing
to posture and stability. The joints and intervertebral discs between the vertebrae allow for flexibility and
movement of the spine.

Functions of the appendicular skeleton system:

Functions of the pectoral girdle:
The pectoral girdle, also known as the shoulder girdle, is a bony structure that connects the upper limb (arm)
to the axial skeleton. It consists of the clavicle (collarbone) and the scapula (shoulder blade) on each side of
the body. The pectoral girdle serves several important functions:
1. Supporting the upper limb:
The pectoral girdle provides a framework for the attachment of the upper limb to the axial skeleton. It supports
the weight of the arm and facilitates its movements.
2. Allowing range of motion:
The pectoral girdle, along with associated muscles and joints, allows a wide range of motion for the arm. This
mobility is essential for activities such as reaching, lifting, and manipulating objects.
3. Transmitting Forces:
It serves as a point of attachment for muscles that move the arm. The muscles attached to the pectoral girdle
and the upper limb generate forces that are transmitted through the girdle, allowing for various movements.
4. Protecting Neurovascular Structures:
The clavicle acts as a protective structure for important neurovascular structures, such as the subclavian vessels
and brachial plexus, which pass beneath it. The presence of the clavicle helps shield these structures from
external forces.
5. Stabilizing the Shoulder joint:
The scapula, which is part of the pectoral girdle, contributes to the stability of the shoulder joint. It provides a
stable base for the movement of the humerus (upper arm bone) and participates in the coordination of shoulder
movements.

Functions of the Upper limbs:

The upper limbs, or arms, play a crucial role in
various activities and functions. Here are the key
functions of the upper limbs:
1. Grasping and manipulation:
The hands and fingers have a high degree of
dexterity, allowing for precise grasping and
manipulation of objects. This is essential for
activities such as writing, picking up small items, and
using tools.
2. Lifting and Carrying:
The upper limbs provide the strength and
coordination needed for lifting and carrying objects
of varying weights and sizes. This function is
important in daily tasks and physical activities.
3. Reaching and Extending:
The shoulder joint, along with the flexibility of the
upper limb, allows for reaching and extending
movements. This function is crucial for reaching
objects at different heights and distances.
4. Pushing and Pulling:
Muscles in the upper limbs contribute to pushing and pulling actions, providing the force required for activities
such as opening doors, pushing carts, or pulling objects toward the body.
5. Throwing and catching:
The upper limbs, particularly the shoulder and arm muscles, are essential for activities involving throwing and
catching objects. This function is important in sports, games, and recreational activities.
Functions of the Pelvic Girdle:
The pelvic girdle is a bony structure that connects the spine to the lower limbs. It consists of the two hip bones,
each composed of the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvic girdle serves several important functions:
1. Supporting the viscera:
The pelvic girdle forms a basin-like structure that supports and cradles the organs in the pelvic cavity,
including the reproductive organs, bladder, and part of the digestive tract.
2. Transmitting Body weight:
The weight of the upper body is transmitted
through the spine to the pelvic girdle and then
to the lower limbs during activities such as
standing and walking.
3. Maintaining Upright posture:
The pelvic girdle, along with the spine and
lower limbs, contributes to the maintenance of
an upright posture. It helps distribute the
body's weight and provides a stable base.
4. Protecting Reproductive Organs:
The pelvic girdle protects and houses the
reproductive organs, including the uterus,
ovaries, and part of the vagina in females, and
the testes and part of the urethra in males.
5. Supporting Pelvic Floor Muscles:
The pelvic girdle provides attachment points for muscles that make up the pelvic floor. These muscles play a
role in supporting pelvic organs, controlling bowel and bladder function, and contributing to sexual function.

Functions of Lower Limbs:

The lower limbs, including the hips, thighs, legs, and feet, have several important functions that contribute to
the overall mobility, stability, and support of the human body. Here are the key functions of the lower limbs:
1. Supporting Body weight:
The lower limbs bear the majority of the body's weight, providing support during standing, walking, running,
and other weight-bearing activities.
2. Facilitating Locomotion:
The lower limbs are crucial for walking, running, jumping, and other forms of locomotion. The coordinated
movements of the hip, knee, and ankle joints, along with muscle contractions, enable efficient and purposeful
movement.
3. Maintaining Balance and Stability:
The lower limbs contribute to balance and stability, especially during activities that involve changes in body
position, such as standing on one leg or navigating uneven surfaces.
 4. Providing Flexibility and Range of Motion:
The lower limbs have a wide range of motion at the hip, knee, and
ankle joints, allowing for flexibility in movements and
adaptability to different activities.
5. Participating in Gait Cycle:
The lower limbs play a key role in the gait cycle, which involves
the alternating movements of walking. This includes the swing
phase (lifting the foot and moving it forward) and the stance phase
(supporting body weight and propelling forward).
6. Supporting Posture:
The lower limbs contribute to the maintenance of an upright
posture, providing a stable base for the body.

Functions of the Axial Skeleton System

Functions of the Skull:
The skull is a complex structure that houses and protects the brain and sensory organs, including the eyes and
ears. It serves several important functions:
1. Brain protection:
The primary function of the skull is to encase and protect the brain, shielding it from external forces and
potential injuries.
2. Support and Structure:
The skull provides a rigid framework that gives shape and structure to the head and face. It supports the soft
tissues, muscles, and other structures of the head.
3. Facial Protection:
The facial bones of the skull protect delicate
structures, such as the eyes, nose, and mouth, from
injury.
4. Eye Socket Protection:
The orbits (eye sockets) in the skull protect and
support the eyes, keeping them in position and
providing a secure environment.
5. Nasal Cavity Protection:
The skull forms the bony structure of the nasal cavity,
protecting the nasal passages and supporting the nose.
6. Ear Protection:
The temporal bones of the skull house and protect the
structures of the inner and middle ear, including the
delicate bones involved in hearing (ossicles) and the structures of the vestibular system.
Functions of the hyoid bone:
The hyoid bone is a U-shaped bone located in the neck, just above the larynx (voice box) and beneath the
mandible (lower jaw). Unlike other bones in the human body, the hyoid bone does not articulate directly with
other bones. Instead, it is suspended in the neck by ligaments and muscles. The hyoid bone serves several
important functions:
1. Supporting the Tongue:
The hyoid bone provides structural support for the tongue. Various muscles, including those responsible for
tongue movement and swallowing, attach to the hyoid bone.
2. Facilitating Swallowing:
The hyoid bone plays a crucial role in the swallowing process. It serves as an anchor point for the muscles
involved in moving the larynx upward during swallowing, helping to close off the trachea and prevent food
or liquids from entering the airway.
3. Contributing to Speech:
Muscles attached to the hyoid bone are
involved in controlling the position of the
larynx during speech production. The hyoid
bone indirectly influences the modulation of
voice and sound production.
4. Providing Attachment for Muscles:
Several important muscles are attached to the
hyoid bone, including those involved in
tongue movement, swallowing, and the
control of the larynx.
5. Maintaining Airway Patency:
The hyoid bone, through its role in swallowing and laryngeal movement, helps maintain the patency of the
airway by preventing the inhalation of food or other substances.

Functions of the Vertebral column:

The vertebral column, also known as the spine or backbone, is a bony structure composed of individual
vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs. It extends from the skull to the pelvis and serves several crucial
functions in the human body:
1. Support and structure:
The vertebral column provides the primary structural support for the body, maintaining an upright posture. It
serves as a central axis, supporting the head and trunk and distributing body weight.
2. Protection of the Spinal Cord:
The vertebral column surrounds and protects the spinal cord, which is a vital component of the central nervous
system. The vertebral arches and vertebral bodies create a protective canal for the spinal cord.
3. Flexibility and Range of Motion:
The individual vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs and connected by joints, allowing for flexibility
and a range of motion in different directions. This flexibility is essential for various activities, including
bending, twisting, and turning.

4. Shock Absorption:
The intervertebral discs, located between the vertebrae, act as
shock absorbers. They absorb and distribute forces that result
from movements, reducing impact and protecting the vertebral
column from excessive stress.
5. Attachment for Muscles and Ligaments:
The vertebral column provides attachment points for muscles
and ligaments, contributing to the stability of the spine and
facilitating movements. Muscles attached to the spine play a
crucial role in maintaining posture and allowing for controlled
movements.
6. Segmentation of Movement:
The vertebral column is divided into different regions, each
with its unique range of motion. The cervical (neck), thoracic
(upper back), lumbar (lower back), sacral, and coccygeal
regions allow for specific movements tailored to their
anatomical characteristics.

Functions of the Ribs and Sternum:

The ribs and sternum are integral components of the thoracic cage, forming the bony framework that protects
vital organs in the chest cavity. Here are the main functions of the ribs and sternum:
1. Protection of vital organs:
The primary function of the ribs and sternum is to protect vital
organs within the thoracic cavity, including the heart, lungs, and
major blood vessels. The ribs create a protective cage around these
organs, shielding them from external impact.
2. Support for the Thoracic Wall:
The ribs provide structural support for the thoracic wall, helping
to maintain the shape and stability of the chest cavity. The
sternum, located at the front of the chest, serves as a central anchor
point for the ribs.
3. Attachment for Muscles:
Muscles that facilitate breathing, such as the intercostal muscles
between the ribs and the diaphragm, attach to the ribs and sternum.
These muscles play a crucial role in respiratory movements,
expanding and contracting the chest during breathing.
4. Facilitation of Breathing:
The movement of the ribs during breathing, particularly the expansion and contraction of the chest, is essential
for the inhalation and exhalation of air. The coordinated action of the ribs and sternum contributes to the
mechanics of breathing.
5. Attachment for Sternum Components:
The sternum consists of three parts: the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process. Various muscles and
ligaments attach to these components, contributing to the stability and function of the chest.
6. Formation of the Ribcage:
The ribs, in conjunction with the sternum and costal cartilages, form the ribcage, providing a protective
enclosure for the thoracic organs while allowing for the necessary flexibility for breathing.

Functions of Atlas:
The atlas is the first cervical vertebra (C1) in the vertebral column, situated just below the skull. It has unique
features and functions that distinguish it from the other vertebrae, and its primary functions include:
1. Supporting the skull:
The atlas serves as the foundation for supporting the skull. It forms the articulation with the occipital bone of
the skull, allowing for the nodding or "yes" motion of the head.
2. Facilitating Flexion and Extension:
The atlas is involved in flexion (forward
bending) and extension (backward
extension) movements of the neck. It
contributes to the range of motion in these
directions, allowing for flexibility in neck
movements.
3. Lacking a Vertebral Body:
Unlike most other vertebrae, the atlas does
not have a typical vertebral body. Instead, it
consists of an anterior arch, a posterior arch,
and a space between them. This unique
structure allows for greater mobility in the
cervical spine.
4. Enabling Head Rotation:
The atlas has a ring-like structure that allows the head to rotate around the odontoid process (dens) of the axis,
which is the second cervical vertebra. This rotation enables the "no" motion of the head.
5. Providing Passage for Nerves and Blood Vessels:
The vertebral foramen of the atlas provides a passage for the spinal cord. It is relatively larger than the vertebral
foramina in the other cervical vertebrae. The vertebral arteries, which supply blood to the brain, also pass
through the transverse foramina of the atlas.
Functions of Axis:
The axis is the second cervical vertebra (C2) in the vertebral column, located just below the atlas. It possesses
unique characteristics, with its most distinctive feature being the dens or odontoid process. The axis has several
important functions, including:
1. Articulating with the Atlas:
The axis forms a specialized joint with the atlas (C1), allowing for unique rotational movements in the cervical
spine. The articulation between the dens of the axis and the atlas enables the head to rotate around its axis,
contributing to the "no" motion.
2. Allowing Rotation of the Head:
The odontoid process, also known as the dens,
projects upward from the body of the axis and serves
as a pivot for rotational movement. This allows for the
rotation of the head, particularly in the transverse
plane, which is crucial for activities like turning the
head from side to side.
3. Contributing to Flexion and Extension:
While the primary function of the atlas is to facilitate
flexion and extension in the cervical spine, the axis
also contributes to these movements. It provides
additional support and stability during forward and
backward bending of the neck.
4. Stabilizing the Atlas:
The den of the axis acts as a stabilizing peg that helps
prevent excessive anterior movement of the atlas. This stabilization is essential for maintaining the integrity
and proper alignment of the cervical spine.
5. Protecting the Spinal Cord:
Like other vertebrae, the axis helps protect the spinal cord as it passes through the vertebral foramen. It
contributes to the overall structural support and safety of the central nervous system.
6. Supporting the weight of the skull:
The axis, along with the atlas and other cervical vertebrae, supports the weight of the skull and helps distribute
it along the vertebral column.
7. Facilitating Nodding Movements:
The axis contributes to the nodding or "yes" motion of the head, working in conjunction with the atlas to allow
for flexion and extension in the cervical spine.
8. Adapting to changes in Head Position:
The axis adapts to changes in head position and plays a role in maintaining balance and stability during various
activities, including movements that involve changes in head orientation.
Functions of the Axial Skeleton System:

The axial skeleton system includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. It plays a central role in
supporting and protecting vital organs, facilitating movements, and contributing to the overall stability and
functionality of the human body. Here are the key functions of the axial skeleton:
1. Supporting the body:
The axial skeleton provides the structural framework and support for the entire body. It bears the weight of
the head, neck, and trunk and helps maintain an upright posture.
2. Protecting Vital Organs:
The skull protects the brain, one of the most
vital organs, from external trauma. The rib
cage shields the heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels, providing a protective enclosure for
these essential structures.
3. Encasing and protecting the spinal cord:
The vertebral column surrounds and protects
the spinal cord, which is a crucial part of the
central nervous system. The vertebral arches
and discs act as a protective canal for the
spinal cord, preventing damage from external
forces.
4. Facilitating Movement:
The axial skeleton, particularly the vertebral
column, allows for a range of movements,
including flexion, extension, lateral bending,
and rotation. These movements contribute to
activities such as walking, bending, and
turning the head.
5. Supporting and Protecting the Skull:
The skull provides support for the brain and
protects sensory organs, including the eyes
and ears. It also houses structures essential for
breathing and eating.
6. Providing Attachment Points for Muscles:
Various muscles responsible for movements of the head, neck, and trunk attach to the axial skeleton. These
muscles play a crucial role in posture, locomotion, and other activities.
7. Supporting the Thoracic Cage:
The rib cage, which is part of the axial skeleton, supports the thoracic wall and provides protection for the
organs in the chest cavity. It also assists in the mechanics of breathing.
8. Facilitating Respiration:
The rib cage, through its movement during respiration, contributes to the expansion and contraction of the
thoracic cavity, aiding in the process of breathing.
9. Assisting in Digestion:
The axial skeleton supports and protects the structures of the digestive system, including the organs of the oral
cavity, pharynx, and upper part of the digestive tract.
10. Serving as Attachment for Postural Muscles:
The axial skeleton provides attachment points for muscles that contribute to maintaining an upright posture.
These muscles help stabilize the spine and support the body against the force of gravity.
11. Participating in Balance and Coordination:
The axial skeleton, by providing a stable central axis, contributes to balance and coordination during various
activities, including walking and standing.
In summary, the axial skeleton system is essential for providing support, protection, and mobility to the body.
Its various components work together to maintain the structural integrity of the human form and facilitate a
wide range of physiological functions.

Functions of the Appendicular Skeleton System:

The appendicular skeleton system consists of the bones of the limbs (arms and legs) and the girdles that
connect the limbs to the axial skeleton. This system plays a crucial role in body movement, support, and
interaction with the environment. Here are the key functions of the appendicular skeleton:
1. Support and Movement:
The appendicular skeleton provides structural support for the limbs, allowing for a wide range of movements.
The bones of the upper and lower limbs, along with the associated joints, enable activities such as walking,
running, reaching, and grasping.
2. Facilitating Locomotion:
The bones of the lower limbs, including the femur (thigh bone), tibia, fibula, and the bones of the foot, are
essential for walking, running, and other forms of locomotion. The upper limbs contribute to balance and
coordination during movement.
3. Supporting Body Weight:
The lower limbs, in particular, bear the majority of the body's weight during activities like standing and
walking. The hip joint and the bones of the leg provide a stable support base.
4. Enabling Grasping and Manipulation:
The bones and joints of the hands (carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges) allow for precise grasping and
manipulation of objects. This function is crucial for activities such as writing, tool use, and various tasks of
daily living.

5. Participating in Weight-Bearing Activities:

The lower limbs, through the bones of the pelvis, hips, and legs, contribute to weight-bearing activities,
providing stability and support during standing and various physical tasks.
6. Contributing to Posture:
The appendicular skeleton, in conjunction with the axial
skeleton, plays a role in maintaining an upright posture.
Proper alignment and coordination between the limbs
and the axial skeleton contribute to overall body posture.
7. Absorbing and Transmitting Forces:
Bones of the lower limbs, such as the femur and tibia,
absorb and transmit forces generated during activities
like walking, running, and jumping. This helps protect
the joints and surrounding structures.
8. Participating in Sports and Physical Activities:
The appendicular skeleton is crucial for engaging in
sports and physical activities. Different bones and joints
are involved in activities such as swimming, playing
sports, dancing, and other recreational pursuits.
9. Providing Attachment for Muscles:
Muscles of the limbs attach to the bones of the
appendicular skeleton. These muscles play a key role in
generating movement and providing the force necessary
for various activities.
10. Allowing Exploration and Interaction:
The hands and upper limbs enable individuals to explore
and interact with the environment. This includes
activities such as reaching for objects, using tools, and
engaging in manual tasks.
11. Supporting Reproductive Functions:
The pelvis, part of the appendicular skeleton, plays a role in supporting and protecting reproductive organs in
both males and females.
12. Enhancing Mobility and Adaptability:
The appendicular skeleton provides the body with mobility and adaptability, allowing individuals to move
efficiently in different environments and perform a wide range of tasks.

In summary, the appendicular skeleton system is essential for body movement, support, and interaction with
the surrounding environment. Its components enable diverse activities, ranging from basic daily tasks to
complex physical endeavours.
Conditions and Disorders of the Human Skeletal System: -
The human skeletal system can be affected by various disorders, which can range from congenital conditions
to acquired diseases. Here are some disorders that can impact the human skeleton system:
1. Osteoporosis:
Osteoporosis causes bones to become weak and brittle
— so brittle that a fall or even mild stresses such as
bending over, or coughing can cause a break.
Osteoporosis-related breaks most commonly occur in
the hip, wrist or spine. Bone is living tissue that is
constantly being broken down and replaced.
Osteoporosis occurs when the creation of new bone
doesn't keep up with the loss of old bone. Osteoporosis
affects men and women of all races. But white and
Asian women, especially older women who are past
menopause, are at highest risk. Medicines, healthy diet
and weight-bearing exercise can help prevent bone loss
or strengthen already weak bones. There are not
typically any symptoms of osteoporosis in the early
stages of bone loss. Some of the symptoms which can
be observed over a period of time are back pain, loss of
height over time, a stooped posture and a bone breaking
much more easily than expected. bones are in a constant state of renewal — new bone is made, and old bone
is broken down. After the early 20s this process slows, and most people reach their peak bone mass by age 30.
As people age, bone mass is lost faster than it's created.

2. Rheumatoid Arthritis:
Rheumatoid arthritis, or RA, is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease, which means that your immune
system attacks healthy cells in your body by
mistake, causing inflammation (painful swelling)
in the affected parts of the body. A mainly attacks
the joints, usually many joints at once. RA
commonly affects joints in the hands, wrists, and
knees. In a joint with RA, the lining of the joint
becomes inflamed, causing damage to joint tissue.
This tissue damage can cause long-lasting or
chronic pain, unsteadiness (lack of balance), and
deformity (misshapenness).RA can also affect
other tissues throughout the body and cause
problems in organs such as the lungs, heart, and
eyes. With RA, there are times when symptoms
get worse, known as flares, and times when
symptoms get better, known as remission. The
signs and symptoms of the Rheumatoid Arthritis
are as follows: Pain or aching in more than one
joint, stiffness in more than one joint, tenderness
and swelling in more than one joint etc.
3. Osteoarthritis:
Osteoarthritis is the most common type of arthritis (a condition that affects your joints). Healthcare providers
sometimes refer to it as degenerative joint disease or OA. It happens when the cartilage that lines your joints
is worn down over time and your bones rub against each other when you use your affected joints. Usually, the
ends of bones in your joints are capped in a layer
of tough, smooth cartilage. Cartilage is like a two-
in-one shock absorber and lubricant — it helps the
bones in your joints move past each other
smoothly and safely. If you have osteoarthritis, the
cartilage in your affected joints wears away over
time. Eventually, your bones rub against each
other when you move your joints. Osteoarthritis
can affect any of the joints but most commonly in
hands, knees, hips, neck and lower back. There are
two types of Osteoarthritis which are as follows
primary osteoarthritis and secondary
osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is very common.
Experts estimate that more than 80% of adults
older than 55 have osteoarthritis, even if some of
them never experience symptoms. Around 60% of
people with osteoarthritis have symptoms they can
notice or feel.
4. Scoliosis:
Scoliosis is a sideways curvature of the spine that most often is diagnosed in adolescents. While scoliosis can
occur in people with conditions such as cerebral palsy and
muscular dystrophy, the cause of most childhood scoliosis is
not known. Most cases of scoliosis are mild, but some curves
worsen as children grow. Severe scoliosis can be disabling.
An especially serious spinal curve can reduce the amount of
space within the chest, making it difficult for the lungs to
function properly. Children who have mild scoliosis are
monitored closely, usually with X-rays, to see if the curve is
getting worse. In many cases, no treatment is necessary.
Some children may need to wear a brace to stop the curve
from worsening. Others may need surgery to straighten
more serious curves. The symptoms of scoliosis are uneven
shoulders, uneven waist, uneven hip, uneven ribcage and a
prominence on one side of the back when bending forward.
With most scoliosis cases, the spine will rotate or twist in
addition to curving side to side. This causes the ribs or
muscles on one side of the body to stick out farther than
those on the other side. There are different types of scoliosis like idiopathic scoliosis, congenital scoliosis,
neuromuscular scoliosis and degenerative scoliosis.
5. Kyphosis:
Kyphosis is an exaggerated, forward rounding of
the upper back. In older people, kyphosis is often
due to weakness in the spinal bones that causes
them to compress or crack. Other types of
kyphosis can appear in infants or teens due to
malformation of the spine or wedging of the spinal
bones over time. Mild kyphosis causes few
problems. Severe kyphosis can cause pain and be
disfiguring. Treatment for kyphosis depends on
your age, and the cause and effects of the
curvature. Mild kyphosis may produce no
noticeable signs or symptoms. In fact, the upper
back naturally has a little kyphosis. People who
have excessive curvature may experience back
pain and stiffness. The bones (vertebrae) that make
up a healthy spine look like cylinders stacked in a
column. Kyphosis occurs when the vertebrae in
the back become more wedge shaped. The shape of vertebrae can be changed by fractures, osteoporosis, disk
degeneration and Scheuermann’s disease. Less than 8% of school-aged children in the United States
experience Scheuermann’s kyphosis. Hyperkyphosis (severe kyphosis) affects an estimated 20% to 40% of
adults over age 60. On average, the forward angle of your upper spine increases about 3 degrees each decade
(10 years).
 Conclusion
The human skeletal system is a remarkable and intricate framework that provides essential support, protection,
and mobility for the body. Comprising the axial and appendicular skeletons, this system plays a fundamental
role in maintaining the structural integrity of the human form. Here are key points in conclusion:

1. Support and structure:

The skeletal system provides the foundational support for the body, maintaining an upright posture and serving
as a structural framework for other tissues and organs.

2. Protection of Vital Organs:

Bones of the skull protect the brain, while the rib cage shields the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. The
vertebral column encases and safeguards the spinal cord.

3. Facilitation of Movement:
Joints and bones of the appendicular skeleton allow for a wide range of movements, enabling activities such
as walking, running, grasping, and interacting with the environment.

4. Blood Cell Production:

Certain bones, especially in the axial skeleton, contribute to haematopoiesis, the process of blood cell
formation, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
5. Integration of Muscles and Ligaments:
Muscles attached to the skeleton provide the force for movement, while ligaments connect bones and
contribute to joint stability. This integration is crucial for coordinated and controlled motion.
6. Sensory and Nervous System Support:
The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, and bones of the skull house and safeguard sensory organs,
such as the eyes, ears, and nose. Nerves from the spinal cord exit between vertebrae to facilitate sensory and
motor functions.
7. Adaptability and Growth:
The skeletal system adapts to changes in body weight, posture, and external forces. During growth, bones
undergo development, remodelling, and repair.
8. Common Disorders:
Various conditions and disorders, ranging from congenital anomalies to degenerative diseases and injuries,
can impact the skeletal system. Examples include osteoporosis, arthritis, scoliosis, and fractures.
9. Interplay with Other Body Systems:
The skeletal system collaborates with other systems, such as the muscular, nervous, circulatory, and immune
systems, to maintain overall health and function.
10. Lifelong Maintenance:
Throughout life, the skeletal system undergoes continuous remodelling and adaptation. Nutrition, exercise,
and lifestyle choices influence bone health and longevity.
Understanding the functions and components of the human skeletal system is crucial for appreciating the
body's complexity and maintaining overall well-being. Regular physical activity, a balanced diet rich in
essential nutrients, and preventive healthcare measures contribute to optimal skeletal health throughout the
lifespan.
 Bibliography

For the completion of this project, I have taken help from various resources which have helped me pave the
project in the best way.
• chat.openai.com
• https://www.britannica.com/science/human-skeleton
• https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21048-skeletal-system
• https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/skeleton/overview-of-skeleton
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skeleton

————— Thank You —————