OSSEOUS SYSTEM

• What is the skeletal system?

• The skeletal system gives body its shape and holds
organs in place. In the simplest terms, skeletal system
is body’s most important support structure. It’s just
skeleton and bones.
• skeletal system also includes connective tissue that
helps stay supported and safe while you’re moving and
still. It includes muscles that help move and creates
new blood cells that keep healthy. The skeletal system
is also called the musculoskeletal system.
• What are the functions of the skeletal system?
• Giving body shape: skeleton supports the weight of
body. It’s also the anchor for all the tissue that
connects to it.
• Helping to move: joints, connective tissue and
muscles all work together to push and pull parts of
body every time move.
• Protecting organs: skull protects brain, ribs shield
heart and lungs, and the vertebrae in spine keep
spinal cord safe.
• Creating new blood cells: Bone marrow at the center
of some of bones produces new red blood cells and
white blood cells body needs to stay healthy.
• Storing minerals: Bones hold body’s supply of
important minerals like calcium (99%),phosphorus and
vitamin D.
• Skeletal System Is Made Of
• Bones: Bones Are Body’s main form of structural support. Adults
have 206 bones in their bodies.
• Muscles: Muscles are made of tightly woven, stretchy fibers. You
have more than 600 muscles in your body that help you do everything
from walking, running and jumping to breathing and digesting food.
• Cartilage: Cartilage is strong, flexible tissue that acts like a shock
absorber in joints throughout body.
• Ligaments: Ligaments are bands of tissue that connect bones to other
bones.
• Tendons: Tendons are cords that connect muscles to bone.
• Joints: A joint is any place two bones meet. It contains some of (or
all) the pieces listed above.
• Long bones: Long bones are exactly what they sound like — the
longest bones in your body, especially in your arms and legs.
Examples of long bones include the femur (your thigh bone) and the
humerus (your upper arm bone). The two bones in your lower leg —
the tibia (your shin bone) and fibula (your calf bone) — are also long
bones.
• Short bones: Short bones are thinner and weaker than long bones.
The bones in your hands and wrists and the talus bone in your ankle
are all short bones.
• Flat bones: Flat bones are wider and less round than other bones. The
plates that make up your skull, your ribs and the clavicle (your
collarbone) are flat bones.
• Sesamoid bones: Sesamoid bones are rooted in tendons or muscles.
Other bones are connected to other tissues, but sesamoid bones are
embedded directly in them. The patella (your kneecap) and some
metacarpal bones in your hands are sesamoid bones.
• Your axial skeleton is made up of the 80 bones
within the central core of your body. This
includes bones in your skull (cranial and facial
bones), ears, neck, back (vertebrae, sacrum and
tailbone) and ribcage (sternum and ribs). Your
axial skeleton protects your brain, spinal cord,
heart, lungs and other important organs.
• What is the major function of the axial skeleton?
• Your axial skeleton provides support and
cushioning for your brain, spinal cord and organs
in your body. Muscles in your body that move
your head, neck and trunk attach to your axial
skeleton. These muscles help you breathe and
steady parts of your appendicular skeleton.
• What are the five parts of the axial skeleton?
• The five parts of your axial skeleton include the
bones in your skull, ossicles (small bones) of
your middle ear, hyoid bone of your neck,
vertebra (bones of your spine) and thoracic cage
(ribcage).
• Which bones belong to the axial skeleton?
• The axial skeleton includes bones in your skull, ears, neck, back
and ribcage:
• Skull
• Your skull has two sets of bones: Eight cranial bones and 14 facial
bones. The cranial bones make up the top and back of your skull
and support and protect your brain. The eight cranial bones
include:
• Two parietal bones (left and right).
• Two temporal bones (left and right).
• One frontal bone.
• One occipital bone.
• One ethmoid bone.
• One sphenoid bone.
• The facial bones make up the face of your skull and
form an entrance to your body. The 14 facial bones
include:
• Two maxilla bones (left and right).
• Two zygomatic bones (left and right).
• One mandible bone.
• Two nasal bones (left and right).
• Two palatine bones (left and right).
• Two nasal concha bones (left and right).
• Two lacrimal bones (left and right).
• One vomer bone.
• Ears
• The auditory ossicles (small bones) of your middle ear are
the smallest bones in your body. These tiny bones transfer
vibrations from your eardrum to your inner ear. The middle
ear bones include:
• Two malleus bones (one in each ear).
• Two incus bones (one in each ear).
• Two stapes bones (one in each ear).
• Neck
• The hyoid bone is a horseshoe-shaped bone that sits at the
front of your neck. Muscles and ligaments hold it in place
between your jaw bone and thyroid. Your hyoid bone helps
you breathe, speak and swallow.
• Back
• The vertebral column, or spine, includes 24 vertebrae plus your sacrum and
your tailbone (coccyx). The vertebral column extends from the base of your
skull to your pelvis. It’s grouped into five sections:
• Seven cervical vertebrae: These bones form your neck and support your
head.
• 12 thoracic vertebrae: These bones form the rear anchor of your ribcage.
• Five lumbar vertebrae: These bones support most of your body’s weight and
attach to your back muscles.
• Sacrum: The sacrum is a triangular bone that forms the back wall of your
pelvis.
• Coccyx (tailbone): The coccyx sits at the bottom of your spine and connects
to many muscles in your body.
• Ribcage
• The thoracic cage, or ribcage, protects your heart,
lungs and other organs. It attaches to muscles
involved with breathing and arm movement. The
bones in your ribcage include:
• Sternum (breastbone): This is a long, flat bone that
runs down the middle of your chest.
• 24 ribs: Most people have 12 pairs of ribs.
• What is the Appendicular Skeleton
• The appendicular skeleton is one of the two major
groups of bones in the human skeleton. It consists of
the bones of the limbs (or appendages), and the bones
that attach the limbs to the rest of the body.
• It includes a total of 126 bones, including those in the
arms, legs, and shoulder and pelvic girdle bones.
• Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle
• Clavicle (2): The thin bones positioned horizontally
in the shoulder region articulate with the scapula on
one side and the sternum (axial skeleton) on the
other.
• Scapula (2): The flat, triangular bones that can
easily be felt on both sides of our back. The wide
bones support several muscles in the shoulder joint.
The scapula articulates with the clavicle and the
humerus — the upper arm bone.
 Approximately 6 inches (15
Length cm)

Number in the human body 2 ( 1 on either side)

Articulates with Scapula and sternum

• Arm Bones (Upper Limb Bones)
• There are 30 bones on each arm.
• Humerus (2): The longest and only bone in the upper arm,
between the shoulder and elbow. The humerus articulates
with the scapula on its proximal end, and the lower arm
bones, radius, and ulna, on its distal end, connecting the
shoulder to the elbow.
• Radius (2): Relatively thicker of the two lower arm bones,
the radius is the one located on the thumb’s side, between the
elbow and wrist.
• Ulna (2): Longer than the radius, it is located on the side of
the little finger. The radius and ulna connect the elbow to the
wrist, allowing us to rotate the forearm and wrist.
• Carpals (16): The 8 irregular bones lying on the
wrist in each hand. These bones articulate with
each other, as well as to the radius, ulna, and
metacarpals.
• Metacarpals (10): The 5 long bones in each
hand forming the distal part of the palm. These
articulate with the lowermost (proximal) row of
phalanges.
• Phalanges (28): The 14 bones that form the
fingers; each finger has 3 phalanges, except the
thumb, which has 2.
• The humerus is the Latin term for ‘upper arm’ in
English. Located in the upper arm, the humerus is a
long bone. It is one of the longest bones in the human
body, making it more vulnerable to fracture from an
accident.
• The humerus bone is situated in the upper arm,
between the elbow and shoulder joints. The shoulder
joint is a ball and socket joint, also referred to as the
glenohumeral joint. The humeral head serves as the
ball, and the glenoid fossa of the scapula serves as the
socket.
• The Function of Humerus Bone
• The ball-and-socket shoulder joint is partially composed of
the humerus head. This region also supports the insertion
point for muscles comprising the shoulder girdle.
• the humerus bone raises and lowers the upper arm in the
lateral and forward directions (also known as extension and
flexion) and moves the arm in large and small circular
motions (also known as circumduction). Moreover, the
humerus bone rotates the arm outward or inward (also known
as external and internal rotation).
• Where is the radius located?
• Your radius is one of two bones in your forearm. The other is
your ulna. The radius is opposite your ulna, on the lateral
(thumb) side of your forearm. Your radius rotates over your
ulna when you stretch your arm straight out in front of you
with your palms facing down. They’re more parallel to each
other when you hold your arms straight out with your palms
face up.
• Your radius has several important jobs, including:
• Helping your forearm and wrist move, flex and rotate.
• Holding seven muscles in place.
• Stabilizing the rest of your arm, wrist and hand.
• Where is the ulna located?
• The ulna is one of two bones in your forearm.
The other is your radius. The ulna is on the
medial side of your forearm.
• What does the ulna look like?
• The ulna has a notched end where it meets your
humerus (upper arm bone), a long shaft in the
middle that’s slightly curved and a narrow end
that meets your wrist. It’s slightly longer than the
radius.
• Your ulna has several important jobs, including:
• Helping your forearm and wrist move, flex and
rotate.
• Holding more than a dozen muscles in place.
• Stabilizing the rest of your arm, wrist and hand.
• Helping your elbow and wrist move.
• The carpal bones are bones of the wrist that
connect the distal aspects of the radial and ulnar
bones of the forearm to the bases of the five
metacarpal bones of the hand. There are eight
carpal bones, which divide into two rows: a
proximal row and a distal row. The proximal row
of carpal bones (moving from radial to ulnar) are
the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform,
while the distal row of carpal bones (also from
radial to ulnar) comprises the trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate, and hamate.
• Metacarpal bones
• Each of your hands has five metacarpal bones that connect your wrist to
your thumb and fingers. They’re labeled as your first metacarpal
through your fifth metacarpal, starting at your thumb and working
toward your pinkie.
• First metacarpal: The bone that connects your wrist to your thumb.
• Second metacarpal: The bone that connects your wrist to your index
finger.
• Third metacarpal: The bone that connects your wrist to your middle
finger.
• Fourth metacarpal: The bone that connects your wrist to your ring
finger.
• Fifth metacarpal: The bone that connects your wrist to your pinkie
finger.
• Pelvic Girdle
• Hip Bone: It is one large bone formed of three irregular
bones that fuse during puberty and early adulthood.
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• The pelvic girdle is responsible for bearing the body’s
weight, allowing us to stand/sit straight and walk. So, it has
some strong ligaments that attach it to the axial skeleton. The
hip bone articulates with the femur, as well as the sacrum
(through ilium), which is an axial skeleton bone. So, it
connects the legs to the axial skeleton.
Type
Flat bone
How many are there in the
human body
2 (1 on each side)
Articulates with
Sacrum
• What is the Ilium Bone
• Ilium (plural: ilia), also known as the iliac bone, is one
of the three bones that fuse to form the hip bone. The
other two are the ischium and pubis. This largest and
uppermost bone of the hip is an essential part of the
pelvic girdle.
• Where is the Iliac Bone Located
• It is located on the uppermost portion of the hip bone.
If you firmly press on your waists, you can feel the
ilium, particularly the ilium crest.
What is the Ischium
The ischium is one of the three
bones of the hip bone, aside from
the ilium and pubis. It forms the
lower and back parts of the hip
bone.
Where is the Ischium Bone
Located
Ischium is located beneath the
ilium and behind the pubis.
What is the Pubis
The pubis is one of the three
bones that fuse to form the hip
bone, the other two being the
ilium and ischium. It is the front
portion of the hip bone.
Where is the Pubic Bone
Located
The pubic bone is located at the
front of the hip bone, close to
the genitals.
• Lower Limb Bones)
• Femur (2): The heaviest, longest, and strongest bone in the human body, the femur is the
only bone in the upper leg or thigh region. On its proximal end, it articulates with the hip
bone, while its distal end articulates with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.
• Tibia (2): The bigger, and only weight-bearing bone in the lower leg, it articulates with
the femur on one end and the tarsal bones on the other, thus connecting the foot to the
upper leg.
• Fibula (2): The smaller of the two lower leg bones, it is an attachment point for multiple
leg muscles. The fibula articulates with the tibia at both its proximal and distal ends.
• Patella (2): Also known as the kneecap, it is the biggest sesamoid bone in the body,
forming the knee. There is no corresponding bone for the patella in the arm. It stays
embedded in the quadriceps femoris muscle’s tendons.
• Tarsals (14): Similar to the carpals, the tarsals are the small irregular bones forming the
heels and part of the arch. Unlike carpals, there are only 7 tarsal bones in each foot.
• Metatarsals (10): These are the bones corresponding to the metacarpals in hand, and
like them, these articulate with the toe bones, forming the distal part of the foot’s arch.
• Phalanges (28): Often referred to as the phalanges of the foot, these are the bones
forming the toes. Each toe has 3 phalanges, except the big toe, which has 2.
• The femur is the longest, strongest bone in your body. It
plays an important role in how you stand, move and keep
your balance.
• Where is the femur located?
• The femur is the only bone in your thigh. It runs from your
hip to your knee.
• Your femur has several important jobs, including:
• Holding the weight of your body when you stand and move.
• Stabilizing you as you move.
• Connecting muscles, tendons and ligaments in your hips and
knees to the rest of your body.
What is the Tibia
The tibia, also known as the shank or shin
bone, is one of the two long leg bones of
the lower leg. It is a weight-bearing bone.
• As mentioned, the tibia is located in the lower
leg, extending from the knee to the ankle. More
precisely, it is situated on the distal side of the
femur and the proximal side of the talus of the
foot. The tibia is also located medially to the
other bone of the lower leg, called the fibula.
• You can feel the presence of this bone by
touching the front portion of your lower leg, just
below the knee.
• Fibula is one of the two long bones found in the
lower leg. The other bone found in the lower leg
is tibia. The fibula is smaller and thinner than the
tibia. It is commonly known as calf bone,
running parallel to the tibia.
• The name of the bone has a Latin origin, where
fibula means ‘brooch’. According to popular
belief, it is named so because when fibula pairs
with the tibia, it looks like the safety pin of a
brooch.
• Fibula is located on the lateral side of the lower
leg, just below the knee. It runs alongside the
tibia, extending below the femur to the ankle.
• There are 7 tarsal bones in each foot, namely: talus,
calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, and lateral, intermediate,
and medial cuneiforms.
• Functions
• These bones provide mechanical support to the soft
foot tissues, helping the feet withstand the body’s
weight. They form a longitudinal arch, combining with
other foot bones to act as a strong weight-bearing
platform while standing or in motion.
• Home Arm Bones Ulna
• Published on August 25th 2018 by staff
• Definition: What is the Ulna
• Ulna (plural: ulnae; pronunciation: úl-nu) is one of the two primary bones forming the
forearms in humans, the other one being the radius. There is one ulna bone in each
arm. It is a long bone [1] and is vital in forming both the wrist and elbow joints [2].
• Where is the Ulna Bone Located in the Human Body
• It is the medial bone of the forearm, located on the side opposite to the thumb, that is
on the side of the little finger, extending from the region of the wrist to the elbow. In
other words, the ulna can be found between the proximal carpal row and the upper
arm bone humerus, running parallel to the other lower arm bone radius [3, 5].
Functions
•Forms a part of the pelvis, thus protecting the reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and lower part of the digestive tract that lie within it.
•Bear body weight while resting or moving.

Type Flat bone

How many are there in the 2 (1 on each side)

human body
Articulates with Sacrum
• What is the Ilium Bone
• Ilium (plural: ilia), also known as the iliac bone, is one of the three
bones that fuse to form the hip bone. The other two are the ischium
and pubis. This largest and uppermost bone of the hip is an essential
part of the pelvic girdle.
• Where is the Iliac Bone Located
• It is located on the uppermost portion of the hip bone. If you firmly
press on your waists, you can feel the ilium, particularly the ilium
crest.
• What is the Ischium
• The ischium is one of the three bones of the hip bone, aside from the
ilium and pubis. It forms the lower and back parts of the hip bone.
• Where is the Ischium Bone Located
• Ischium is located beneath the ilium and behind the pubis.
•Being a part of the pelvis, it plays a great role in several body movements, such as walking and jogging.
•It is also essential in maintaining balance and an erect posture.

Type Irregular Bone

How many are there in the 2 (1 on each side)

human body
Articulates with Ilium and pubis
• What is the Pubis
• The pubis is one of the three bones that fuse to form the hip bone,
the other two being the ilium and ischium. It is the front portion of
the hip bone.
• Where is the Pubic Bone Located
• The pubic bone is located at the front of the hip bone, close to the
genitals.
Functions
As it is a part of the pelvis, it protects several vital organs in the abdominal cavity, such as the urinary bladder and reproductive organs.

Type Irregular bone

How many are there in the 2 (1 on each side)

human body
Articulates with Ilium and ischium
• What is the Tibia
• The tibia, also known as the shank or shin bone, is one of the two
long leg bones of the lower leg. It is a weight-bearing bone.
• Where is the Tibia Located
• As mentioned, the tibia is located in the lower leg, extending from the
knee to the ankle. More precisely, it is situated on the distal side of
the femur and the proximal side of the talus of the foot. The tibia is
also located medially to the other bone of the lower leg, called the
fibula.
• You can feel the presence of this bone by touching the front portion
of your lower leg, just below the knee.
• Fibula is one of the two long bones found in the lower leg. The other
bone found in the lower leg is tibia. The fibula is smaller and thinner
than the tibia. It is commonly known as calf bone, running parallel to
the tibia.
• The name of the bone has a Latin origin, where fibula means ‘brooch’.
According to popular belief, it is named so because when fibula pairs
with the tibia, it looks like the safety pin of a brooch.
• Where is the Fibula Located
 Type Long bone
In adult males: Approximately 39 cm. In adult females:
Length Approximately 36 cm.
How many are there in the human body 2 (1 in each leg)
Articulates with Tibia and talus
• A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is
the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the
bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity,
which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the diaphysis are composed
of dense and hard compact bone. The wider section at each end of the
bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with spongy
bone. Red marrow fills the spaces in the spongy bone. Each epiphysis meets
the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow area that contains
the epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent)
cartilage in a growing bone. When the bone stops growing in early
adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the cartilage is replaced by osseous
tissue and the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line.
• The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called
the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth,
repair, and remodeling occur. The outer surface of the bone is covered
with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum (peri– = “around” or
“surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments
also attach to bones at the periosteum. The periosteum covers the
entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to
form joints ([link]). In this region, the epiphyses are covered
with articular cartilage, a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction
and acts as a shock absorber.
• The periosteum forms the outer surface of bone, and the endosteum
lines the medullary cavity.
•
Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer
of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of compact
bone ([link]). The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy
bone work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer
of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact
inner layer.
• Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are
undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. When osteoblasts get
trapped within the calcified matrix, their structure and function
changes, and they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from
monocytes and macrophages and differ in appearance from other
bone cells.
• Bone CellsCell typeFunctionLocationOsteogenic cellsDevelop into
osteoblastsDeep layers of the periosteum and the
marrowOsteoblastsBone formationGrowing portions of bone,
including periosteum and endosteumOsteocytesMaintain mineral
concentration of matrixEntrapped in matrixOsteoclastsBone
resorptionBone surfaces and at sites of old, injured, or unneeded
bone
• Bone Cells and Tissue
• Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of
collagen fibers that provide a surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere.
These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
combine to create hydroxyapatite, which incorporates other inorganic salts
like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it crystallizes, or calcifies,
on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness
and strength, while the collagen fibers give them flexibility so that they are
not brittle.
• Although bone cells compose a small amount of the bone volume, they are
crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone
tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts ([link]).
• The differences between compact and spongy bone are best explored via
their histology. Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue,
but their distribution and concentration vary based on the bone’s overall
function. Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive
forces, while spongy (cancellous) bone has open spaces and supports
shifts in weight distribution.
• Compact Bone
• Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue (
[link]). It can be found under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of
long bones, where it provides support and protection.
• Diagram of Compact B
• pongy (Cancellous) Bone
• Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains
osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric
circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a lattice-like
network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular = trabecula) ([link]).
The trabeculae may appear to be a random network, but each trabecula
forms along lines of stress to provide strength to the bone. The spaces of
the trabeculated network provide balance to the dense and heavy compact
bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move them more easily.
In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red marrow,
protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis occurs.
• A long bone has two main regions: the diaphysis and the epiphysis (
Figure 6.3.1). The diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs
between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. Inside the
diaphysis is the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow bone
marrow in an adult. The outer walls of the diaphysis (cortex, cortical
bone) are composed of dense and hard compact bone, a form of
osseous tissue.
• The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled internally
with spongy bone, another type of osseous tissue. Red bone marrow fills the spaces between the spongy bone in
some long bones. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis. During growth, the metaphysis contains
the epiphyseal plate, the site of long bone elongation described later in the chapter. When the bone stops growing
in early adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line seen in the
figure.
• Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer of bone cells called the endosteum (endo-
= “inside”; osteo- = “bone”). These bone cells (described later) cause the bone to grow, repair, and remodel
throughout life. On the outside of bones there is another layer of cells that grow, repair and remodel bone as well.
These cells are part of the outer double layered structure called the periosteum (peri– = “around” or
“surrounding”). The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical bone and is covered by an outer fibrous layer of dense
irregular connective tissue (see Figure 6.3.4a). The periosteum also contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments attach to bones at the periosteum. The periosteum
covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure 6.3.2). In this
region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces friction
and acts as a shock absorber.
• Bone Cells
• Although bone cells compose less than 2% of the bone mass, they are
crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within
bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts
(Figure 6.3.5).
• Compact and Spongy Bone
• Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their
distribution and concentration vary based on the bone’s overall
function. Although compact and spongy bone are made of the same
matrix materials and cells, they are different in how they are
organized. Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive
forces, while spongy bone (also called cancellous bone) has open
spaces and is supportive, but also lightweight and can be readily
remodeled to accommodate changing body needs.
• Compact Bone
• Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of osseous
tissue (Figure 6.3.6). It makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in
immediate contact with the periosteum. In long bones, as you move
from the outer cortical compact bone to the inner medullary cavity, the
bone transitions to spongy bone.
• If you look at compact bone under the microscope, you will observe a highly
organized arrangement of concentric circles that look like tree trunks. Each group
of concentric circles (each “tree”) makes up the microscopic structural unit of
compact bone called an osteon (this is also called a Haversian system). Each ring
of the osteon is made of collagen and calcified matrix and is called
a lamella (plural = lamellae). The collagen fibers of adjacent lamallae run at
perpendicular angles to each other, allowing osteons to resist twisting forces in
multiple directions (see figure 6.34a). Running down the center of each osteon is
the central canal, or Haversian canal, which contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at right angles through
a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s canals, to extend to the
periosteum and endosteum. The endosteum also lines each central canal, allowing
osteons to be removed, remodeled and rebuilt over time.