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5. Magnetism and Matter

The magnet in the form of a rod of small cross-sectional area is called a bar magnet.

Properties of a Magnet

1. A magnet attracts pieces of iron. The regions at the ends of the magnet, where
attraction is maximum, are called the poles.
2. A freely suspended magnet always stays along North-South direction. The end of
the magnet pointing north is called North Pole and the end pointing south is called
South Pole of the magnet. The north and south poles of a magnet are denoted by
‘N’ and ‘S’ respectively.
3. Like poles (two north or two south poles) repel and unlike poles attract.
4. An isolated magnetic pole does not exist; that is magnetic monopoles do not exist.
They always exist in pairs. Each magnet is a dipole.
5. Magnetic induction – When a pole of a powerful magnet is brought near an iron
piece, the opposite magnetism is induced in the iron piece and it is attracted
towards the magnet. This phenomenon is called ‘Magnetic induction’. For
example, if the north pole of a magnet is brought near the iron bar, the nearer end
of bar becomes South Pole and further end as North Pole.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of force

The magnetic field strength at any point in a magnetic field may be defined as a vector
quantity, whose magnitude is equal to number of magnetic lines of force passing per unit
small area around that point and whose direction is along the tangent drawn at that point
on the magnetic line of force.
The magnetic field is stronger where the lines of force are nearer and where the magnetic
lines of force are farther, the magnetic field is weaker.
Magnetic lines of force are an imaginary concept to explain magnetic field strength.

1. As magnetic north and south poles can not be isolated, therefore, the magnetic
lines of force are always in the form of closed curves/ loops. This property of
magnetic lines of force is different from electric lines of force, because electric
poles (charges) can be free and so the electric lines of force may be in the form of
open or closed curves.
2. The magnetic lines of force always originate from the North Pole and following
the curved path outside the magnet enter the South Pole and within the magnet its

direction is from south to North Pole.

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3. Two magnetic lines of force never intersect each other. If they do so, two tangents
may be drawn at the point of intersection, thereby giving two directions of
magnetic field at one point, which is impossible.
4. If the magnetic lines of force are parallel and equidistant, the magnetic field is
said to be uniform.

Magnetic Dipole and Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Bar magnet

The pole strength of the pole of a magnet is denoted by ‘m’. It can cause a magnetic
field, whose value at distance ‘r’ is given by
μo m
B = --------- tesla
4 П r2

The unit of pole strength is Ampere × metre

But isolated magnetic poles do not exist. Two equal and opposite magnetic poles
separated by a finite distance form a magnetic dipole. The distance between the two
poles of a magnet is called the magnetic length. It is denoted by ‘ 2l ’. It is a vector
quantity directed from South Pole (-m) to North Pole (+m). The product of magnitude of
pole strength of one of the poles of the magnet and the magnetic length is called the
magnetic dipole moment. It is denoted by M
i.e. M = m . 2l
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity, whose direction is from South Pole to
North Pole. Its unit is Ampere × metre 2 (A m2) or Joule / Tesla

Magnetic Field Intensity due to a Magnetic Dipole (Bar Magnet)

Consider a magnetic dipole ( or bar magnet) SN of length ‘2l’, having South Pole at ‘S’
and North Pole at ’N’. The pole strength of south and north poles are ‘-m’ and ‘+m’
respectively. Magnetic dipole moment, M = m . 2l , its direction is from S to N.
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1. At Axial (or End on Points)

Consider a point ‘P’ on the axis of magnetic dipole at a distance ‘r’ from mid point ‘O’ of
dipole.

Let B1 and B2 be the magnetic field intensities at point P due to north and south poles
respectively. The direction of magnetic field due to North Pole is away from N-pole and
due to South Pole is towards the S-pole. Therefore,

Clearly, the directions of magnetic field strengths B1 and B2 are along the same line but
opposite to each other and B1 > B2.
Therefore, the resultant magnetic field intensity due to bar magnet has magnitude equal to
the difference of B1 and B2 and direction from N to P.

[ (a-b)2 (a+b)2 = (a2 – b2)]

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If the bar magnet is very short and point ‘l’ is far away from the magnet ( r>>l),
therefore, the above equation takes the form

This is the expression for magnetic field intensity at axial position due to a short bar
magnet.
2. At Equatorial Position (Perpendicular to Axis)
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The resultant magnetic field is found by resolving B1 and B2 into its components and
canceling the equal and opposite components and adding those along the same direction.
The resultant magnetic field is parallel to the direction N to S.
Therefore, the resultant magnetic field intensity at P

If the magnet is very short and point P is far away, we have r >> l , so l 2 may be
neglected as compared to r 2 and so the above equation takes the form

► The magnetic field intensity at axial position is twice that at equatorial position for the
same distance.
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Torque on a magnetic Dipole (Bar magnet) in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Thus, if a magnetic dipole (or a bar magnet) is placed in a uniform magnetic field in
oblique orientation, it experiences no force but experiences a torque. This torque tends to
align the dipole moment along the direction of magnetic field.

►If the magnetic dipole is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field; it experiences a force
and torque both.
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Work Done in rotating the Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field

When a magnetic dipole is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque, which

tends to align the axis of dipole along the direction of magnetic field. Therefore, if the
dipole is to be rotated from the direction of magnetic field, work must be done.
Let the dipole be rotated from the direction of magnetic field through an angle ‘θ’ . Let
the magnetic moment of dipole make an angle ‘α’ with the direction of magnetic field at
any instant, then torque on magnetic dipole , τ = M B sin α

The work done in rotating the magnetic dipole through a small angle ‘dα’ is

dw = Torque × angular displacement

dw = τ dα = M B sin α dα ………….(1)

The work done in rotating the dipole from the direction of magnetic field ( θ1) to the
inclination (θ2) is obtained by integrating expression (1)

i.e., W =  M B sin α dα = M B  sin α dα = M B [ - cos α ]

W = - M B [ cos θ2 – cos θ1 ]

W = M B (cos θ1 - cos θ2 )

Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole

The potential energy of a magnetic dipole is defined as the work done in bringing the
dipole from infinity to its present position in the magnetic field.
The potential energy of an electric dipole of dipole moment P in a uniform electric field
E is U e = - P. E cos θ = - P . E

Similarly the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is given by ( in

analog with the electric dipole in an electric field)

Um = - M. B cos θ = - M . B
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If the magnetic dipole is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, from angle θ1 to θ 2, with the
direction of magnetic field, then the work done is equal to difference of potential energies
in initial and final positions
i.e., W = U2 – U1= - M B cos θ 2 – ( - M B cos θ 1)

W = M B (cos θ 1 - cos θ 2)

Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid (** Derivation not required)

When a current carrying solenoid is suspended freely, it stays along north-south direction.
Also when two current carrying solenoids are brought closer, they either attract or repel.
These two experiments show that a current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet
and possesses north and south poles.

The polarity of ends of current carrying solenoid depends on the direction of current
flowing and is given by clock-rule. When an end of solenoid is seen from the front side
and if the current flowing appears anticlock wise , then this end will be north pole ( N
pole) and the other end will be south pole ( S pole); but if the current is clockwise , then
this end will be south pole and the other end will be north pole.

To confirm the analogy of a solenoid and a bar magnet, we calculate the axial magnetic
field due to a current carrying solenoid at large distance and compare it with the magnetic
field at the same distance due to a bar magnet.

►The magnetic field of a current carrying circular loop with ‘N’ turns along it’s axis at
a distance ‘x’ from the centre of the loop having radius ‘R’ is given by
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μo N I R2
B = -------------------- Tesla
2 ( R2 + x2 ) 3/2

Consider a solenoid of length ‘2l’, radius ‘a’ and carrying a current ‘I’ and having ‘n’
turns per unit length.
Consider a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the centre ‘O’ of the solenoid. Consider an
element of solenoid of length ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’ from its centre. This element is a
circular loop having (ndx) turns. The magnetic field at axial point ‘P’ due to this current
loop is (using the above equation)

B = μo M
-----------
2 П r3
This equation is exactly same as of a bar magnet of magnetic moment ‘M’ at a distance
‘r’ from the centre of dipole along the axis. Thus, a bar magnet and current carrying
solenoid produce similar magnetic field. Thus, we see that, the magnetic behaviour of
current carrying solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.

Magnetism and Gauss’s Law

An isolated magnetic pole does not exist; the smallest source of magnetism is a magnetic
dipole or a current loop. Therefore, the magnetic lines of force are continuous and dorm
closed loops.
If we consider any closed surface ‘S’ in the magnetic field ,then we note that the
magnetic lines of force leaving the surface is same as the number of magnetic lines of
force entering the surface; so that the net magnetic flux ( or the total number of magnetic
lines of force) through a closed surface is always zero. Hence, Gauss’s theorem in
magnetism takes the form
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“ The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero”

i.e., 
S
B . dS = 0

Gauss’s law in magnetism is a consequence of the fact that the isolated magnetic poles
(or monopoles) do not exist. The smallest source of magnetic field is a magnetic dipole or
a current loop.

►If magnetic monopoles had existed, then Gauss’ theorem in magnetism would be
modified to the net magnetic flux through a closed surface is equal to μo times the net
magnetic pole strength within the closed surface.

Neutral Point

In the presence of two or more magnetic fields, it may happen that the resultant magnetic
field at a point may be zero; such a point is called the neutral point.

In the case of a single bar magnet a neutral point is one where the magnetic field due to
the magnet is equal and opposite to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
field; so that the resultant magnetic field is zero.

Intensity of Magnetization, Magnetic Permeability and magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetizing Field ‘H’: The applied magnetic field is often represented by ‘H’ and its
unit is Ampere/meter. The relation between S.I unit tesla and Ampere/meter is
1 tesla = μo Ampere / meter ( B = μo H)

Intensity of magnetization ‘I’: When any substance is placed in an external magnetic

field, then the motion of orbital electrons of atoms of that substance changes; due to this a
magnetic moment is induced in substance. The magnetic moment per unit volume of
substance is called the intensity of magnetization.
If ‘M’ is magnetic moment produced in the substance of volume ‘V’, then Intensity of
magnetization, I = M/V. It’s unit is Ampere/meter

The unit of magnetizing field and intensity of magnetization are the same.

Magnetic Permeability ‘μ’: When a substance is placed in an external magnetizing field

‘H’ some magnetism is induced in the substance. Due to which the resultant magnetic
field within the substance is different. The ratio of the resultant magnetic field ‘B’ and the
magnetizing field ‘H’ is called the permeability of substance and is denoted by ‘ μ’.

μ = B/ H
The resultant magnetic field within the substance is also expressed as
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B = μo ( H + I) tesla

The ratio μ / μo is called the relative permeability i.e. μr = μ / μo

Magnetic susceptibility ‘χ’: It is found experimentally that for small magnetic fields, the
intensity of magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetizing field.
i.e I α H or I = χ H
where ‘χ’ is a constant of proportionality and is called the magnetic susceptibility.

χ=I/H
i.e. the magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization and the
magnetizing field.

Relation between relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility

B = μ H …..(1) and B = μo ( H + I) …………..(2)

Comparing equation (1) and (2)

μ H = μo ( H + I)

Opening the bracket and dividing both sides by ‘μo H’, we get

μ / μo = 1 + I / H

μr = 1 + χ ( suing the above relation) [ ‘χ’ for air/ vacuum is zero]

Classification of magnetic materials

Almost all substances are magnetized when placed in a magnetic field. However the
behavior of different substances is different in an external magnetic field. Accordingly
substances are classified into three classes.

1. Diamagnetic substances
2. Paramagnetic substances
3. Ferromagnetic substances

Diamagnetic Substances

The substances which in a strong magnetic field, acquires a feeble magnetism opposite to
the direction of applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances and their
magnetism is called diamagnetism.
Examples of diamagnetic substances are copper, silver, gold, bismuth, antimony, zinc,
diamond, quartz, water, alcohol, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.
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Characteristics

1. When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, a feeble

magnetism is induced in opposite direction; so the magnetic lines of force within
the substance are less than those outside it. This shows that the magnetic
properties of diamagnetic substance like magnetic moment, intensity of
magnetization and magnetic susceptibility are all negative. Magnetic permeability

has a value less than 1.

2. A diamagnetic substance is repelled by a strong magnet.
3. In a non-uniform magnetic field, the diamagnetic substance is attracted towards
the region of weaker magnetic field. For example, take a diamagnetic liquid in a
glass crucible and put it over two nearby magnetic poles, the liquid is seen to be
depressed in the middle, where the field is strongest. ( Fig.(a)). Now if the
distance between the poles be increased, the liquid is seen to rise in the middle,
because now the field is strongest near the poles. (Fig.(b)).

4. If a rod of diamagnetic substance is suspended freely between two magnetic

poles, the rod rotates such that its length becomes perpendicular to the magnetic
field and the poles produced on the two sides of the rod are similar to the nearer

magnetic poles.
5. If a diamagnetic substance is poured in a U-tube and one arm of the tube is placed
between the poles of a strong magnet, the level of solution in this arm is

depressed.
6. The magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance is independent of
temperature.
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Explanation for Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is found in those substances whose atoms/molecules contain even number

of electrons and these electrons form the pairs of opposite spin; so the magnetic moment
of an atom/molecule of a diamagnetic substance is zero.
When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic force
begins to act on the electron of atoms, thus modifying their motion. One electron of each
pair is slowed down while the other is accelerated, which results in non neutralized
magnetic moments of the electron pair and a magnetic moment is induced in an
atom/molecule in a direction opposite to the applied magnetic field. Hence diamagnetic
substance is magnetized opposite to the external magnetic field.

Paramagnetic substances

The substances which when placed in a strong magnetic field , acquires a feeble
magnetism in the same direction as the applied magnetic field are called paramagnetic
substances and their magnetism is called paramagnetism.
Examples of paramagnetism substances are aluminium, sodium, platinum, manganese,
tungsten, magnesium, titanium, liquid oxygen, air, copper sulphate etc.

Characteristics

1. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a strong magnetic field, a feeble

magnetism is induced in the same direction, so the magnetic lines of force within
the substance are more than those outside it. This shows that magnetic properties
of paramagnetic substance like magnetic moment, intensity of magnetization and
magnetic susceptibility are all positive and small. Relative magnetic permeability

has value slightly greater than 1.

2. A paramagnetic substance is attracted by a strong magnet.
3. In a non-uniform magnetic field, the paramagnetic substance is attracted towards
the region of stronger magnetic field. If we take a paramagnetic liquid in a glass
crucible and put it over two nearby magnetic poles, the liquid is seen to rise in the
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middle, where the field is strongest. ( Fig. a). Now if the distance between the
poles be increased, the liquid is seen to be depressed in the middle and rises near
the edges, because now the field is strongest near the poles and is relatively

weaker in the middle. ( Fig. b).

4. If a rod of paramagnetic substance is suspended freely between two magnetic
poles, the rod rotates such that its length becomes parallel to the magnetic field
and the poles produced on the two sides of the rod are opposite to the nearer

magnetic poles.
5. If a paramagnetic liquid is poured in a U-tube and one arm of the tube is placed
between the poles of a strong magnet, the level of solution in this arm rises.

6. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance decreases with rise of

temperature.

Curie’s law – The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely

proportional to absolute temperature.
χ ά 1 / T or χ = C / T
This is called curie law and the constant is called curie constant.

The magnetization of a paramagnetic substance is directly proportional to the applied

magnetic field and inversely proportional to absolute temperature

i.e M ά B / T
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Explanation of paramagnetism

The property of paramagnetism is found in those substances whose atoms/ molecules

have an excess of electrons spinning in the same direction; hence atoms/molecules of a
paramagnetic substance possess a permanent magnetic moment and behaves like tiny bar
magnets ( i.e. magnetic dipoles). In the absence of magnetic field a paramagnetic
substance is magnetically neutral. The reason is that in the absence of any magnetic field,
the atomic/molecular magnetic dipoles, due to thermal agitation, are randomly oriented in
all possible directions and so the net magnetic moment of the substance as a whole is
zero. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, each atomic
molecular dipole experiences a couple, which tends to orient the magnet in the direction
of magnetic field. As a result, a paramagnetic substance is magnetized in the direction of
the magnetizing field; but due to thermal agitation the magnetism of a paramagnetic
substance is very weak.

Ferromagnetic substances

The substance, which in a magnetic field, acquire a strong magnetism in the direction of
applied field are called ferromagnetic substances and their magnetic property is called the
ferromagnetism.
Examples of ferromagnetic substances are Iron, Nickel, cobalt, steel etc.

Characteristics

Ferromagnetics show all properties of paramagnetics to a much higher degree.

1. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a strong magnetic field, strong

magnetism induced in the same direction, so the magnetic lines of force within the
substance are much more than those outside it. This shows that magnetic
properties of ferromagnetic substances like magnetic moment, intensity of
magnetization and magnetic susceptibility are all positive and quite large.
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Relative magnetic permeability has a value of the order of hundreds and

thousands.
2. The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic substances decrease with rise of
temperature and above a certain temperature called curie temperature, then
ferromagnetic substances changes to paramagnetic.

Explanation of ferromagnetism: Domain theory

The magnetism attained by a ferromagnetic substance in external magnetic field is

intense. Atoms/molecules of ferromagnetic substances are magnetic dipoles, having a
permanent magnetic moment. The atoms/ molecules experience strong mutual interaction
due to which even in the absence of external, the magnetic moments of the nearby atoms/
molecules get aligned in the same direction. As a result in the ferromagnetic substances
innumerable small regions are formed, in which the magnetic moments of magnetic
dipoles are aligned in the same direction. These small regions are called domains. Each
domain consists of 10 17 to 1021 atoms and has maximum linear dimension of about 10-5
meter. Each domain is itself in a state of magnetic saturation. In the absence of any
external magnetic field, different domains are randomly oriented in such a way that the
net magnetic moment of the substance is zero. That is why a piece of ferromagnetic
substance is magnetically neutral. When the substance is placed in an external magnetic
field, the net magnetic moment of substance increases by the alignment of the domains
by the displacement of boundaries of domain (for weak external field) such that domains
having magnetic moments in the direction of field increases in size, while those having
magnetic moments oppositely directed decrease in size or by rotation of domains ( for
strong external field) such that their magnetic moments get aligned in the field direction.

When the external magnetic field is removed, the substance is not completely
demagnetized, but retains some magnetism.

Demagnetization
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If we beat a magnet by a hammer or pass an alternating current or heat it above Curie

temperature, then it looses its magnetism. The reason is that in any above process the
random motion of atoms/molecules of substance increases, therefore the domain having
magnetic moment in the direction of external magnetic field is totally disturbed and the
net magnetic moment of the magnet becomes zero i.e., the substance is demagnetized.

Comparison of the properties of the three types of magnetic materials

‘ε’ is a very small positive quantity.