Architecture in The Scandinavian Countries

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Architecture in the Scandinavian Countries
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In d ex
Åbom, Johan Fredrik, 278 Alvastra, Östergötland, abbey, 46, 55

Åkra, Hardanger, sawmill, 226 Anderberg, Axel, 2 7 1
Ål, Hallingdal, church, 7 1 Arndt, J. C , 182
Ålborg, Jutland, Jens Bangs House, I 10, 244 Arneberg, Arnstein, 321
Ålesund, Romsdal, apartment blocks, 247 Aspaas, Sven, 174
Aalto, Aino, 318, 331 Asplund, Gunnar, 305-307, 315, 335
Aalto, Alvar, 311, 314-315, 318, 322, 327, 330-331, Austråt, Sør-Trøndelag, 124, 142
333, 338 Asplund, Gunnar, 305-306, 315, 335
Åmlid, Valle, stue, 222, 224 Austråt, Sør-Trøndelag, 124, 142
Århus, Jutland
Cathedral, 58, 300, 330 Backer, Herman Major, 260
University, 320-321 Backer, Lars, 3 11
Absalon, Bishop, 41,5 1 , 54-55, 58, 75-76, 283-284 Backström, Sven, 327
Adam von Düren, 66, 8 1 Bang, Ove, 318
Adelcrantz, Carl Fredrik, 173-174, 179-181, 251, Bankeryd, Småland, 229
271 Barkaer, Jutland, 5
Agger, Jutland, fisherman’s cottage, 214 Bassi, Carlo Francesco, 201
Aggersborg, Jutland, Viking camp, 26 Baumann, Povl, 3 15
Ahlberg, Hakon, 315 Bentsen, Ivar, 303-304
Akerselva, Akershus, textile factories, 278 Berg, Claus, 59
Albertus Pictor, 7 1 Bergen
Alexander I (czar), 245 Bryggen, 310
Alexander II (czar), 301 Bryggen Museum, 333
Almunge, Uppland, church, 7 1 Cathedral, 44
Aitona, Holstein Damsgård, 173
Baur House, 193, 242 Håkon’s Hall, 78-79, 81, 96
Hansen House, 190 National Theater, 273-274

Index
Rosencrantz Tower, 96-97 Bull, Georg Andreas, 260

St. John’s Church, 260, 3 10 Bull, Henrik, 271-272
St. Mary’s Church, 44, 68, 79, 333 Bussert, Morten, 88, 90
Torvalmenningen Square, 310
Wall House, 97 Campen, Jacob van, 135
Bergström, Lennart, 339 Cerceau, Jacques Androuet du, 106
Berner, Finn, 310 Chambers, Sir William, 173
Bernini, Gian-Lorenzo, 138 Charles IX, 90
Binck, Jakob, 88 Charles X, 128, 134
Bindesbøll, Michael Gottlieb, 196, 253, 258 Charles XI, 128, 137
Birger Jarl, 76, 178 Charles XII, 128, 137
Birgitta, Saint, 68, 70 Charles XIII, 203
Bissen, Hermann Wilhelm, 194 Charlotte Amalie, 135, 150
Bjerknes, Kristian, 37 chateauneuf, Alexis de, 151, 256-257
Bjernede, Zealand, church, 51-52 Christian I, 252
Bjørnebergstølen, Hemsedal, stue, 224 Christian II, 85
Blaesingh, Carl A., 133 Christian III, 57, 85, 90, 99, 140
Blakstad, Gudolf, 308, 336 Christian IV, 55, 59, 99, 100-102, 106-110, I 14
Blasius, Leonhard, 109, 116 116, I 18-119, 127-128, 132, 158, 252, 257
Blindern, University of Oslo, 314, 330 Christian V, 127, 137, 139-140, 149-150
Blom, Fredrik, 209 Christian VI, 153-154, 156, 158-159, 162, 166, 174
Blume, Hindrich, 120, 124 Christiansfeld, Jutland, 181-182
Bodø, Sør-Hålogoland, church, 336 Christie, Christian, 66
Boegardt, Caspar, 103 Christina (queen of Sweden), 119, 128, 138
Børve, Haldor Larsen, 278 Cicignon, Johan Caspar, 13 1
Bonneuil, Etienne de, 64 Clason, Gustav, 278, 289
Borch, Christopher, 256 Clausholm, Jutland, manor house, 144-145, 190
Borch, Martin, 262-263 Cöllen, Heinrich von, 90, 93
Borgund, Sogn, church, 34 Collett, Christian, 204
Borremose, Jutland, settlement, 15 Coning, Jacob de, 115
Borromini, Francesco, 150 Copenhagen
Botkyrka, Södermanland, church, 38 Amalienborg, 160-162, 169, 193
Boucher, François, 162 Arsenal, 102, 119
Boullée, Etienne-Louis, 307 Asiatic Company Office, 16 5 - 166
Boy, William, 96 Bakkehusene, 303
Brahe, Tycho, 10 0 - 10 1 Bellahøj, housing, 325-326
Brandenburgen Ernst, 139, 145 Bergentin Mansion, 161
Brarup Master, 70 Bernstorff Mansion, 16 1
Brattalid, Greenland, church, 39 Bourse, 108-109, 119, 165, 296
Brockam, Heinrich, 150 Carlsberg Bottling Works, 341
Brosse, Salomon de, 120 Castle, 75-76, 80, 102, 119, 140, 142, 153-154,
Brottveit, Valle, loft, 222 156, 158
Bruun, J. J., 169 Central Railway Station, 282
Bryn, Finn, 314 Chancellery, 155
Bulgerin, Joachim, 90 Charlottenborg, 135, 162

3 95 .
Christiansborg I, 76, 139, 148, 153-158, 162, 165, University, 252-253, 259, 264, 292
193 University Library, 257-259, 268
Christiansborg II, 193-195, 201, 204, 252, 304 Vor Frelsers Church, 149-150
Christiansborg III, 75-76, 252, 284-286 Vor Frue Church, 58, 158, 196, 207, 252, 258, 31 I
Christiansborg Chapel, 195 Cortona, Domenico da, 100
Christiansborg Theater, 179, 186 Coucheron, Wyllem, 131
Danish National Bank I, 268 Cronstedt, Carl Johan, 173
Danish National Bank II, 338-339
Dehn Mansion, 161 Dahl, Johan Christian, 36-37, 78, 224, 226, 229
Eremitage, 162 Dahlberg, Erik, 128
Frederik’s Church, 160, 169, 174, 176, 190, 251, Dahlerup, Vilhelm, 268, 338
268 Dalen, Telemark, hotel, 278, 337
Frederik’s Hospital, 161 Damsholte, Møn, church, 166, 240
Frederiksstad, 160-162, 168-169, 180-181 Desprez, Louis Jean, 186-187, 193
Grundtvig’s Church, 300 -3 0 1, 333 Dietrichson, Lorenz, 37
Harsdorff House, 170, 173 Dissing, Hans, 338
Holmens Church, I 16 Döteber, Christian Julius, 120
Holy Trinity Church, 116, 118, 124, 252, 258 Donatus, 41
Jacobsen Brewery, 280 Drottningholm
Kastellet, 128, 137, 160 Chinese Pavilion, 173-174, 268
Kastrup Airport, 322 Palace, 134-135, 142
Lassen House, 318 Theater, 179, 186, 251
Library of Frederik III, 148
Marstrands Maltmølle, 280 Eckersberg, Christoffer W., 99, 190, 214, 224, 256
Mathias Hansen House, I 10 Edelsvärd, Adolf Wilhelm, 259
Moltke’s Palace, 162, 169 Egeskov, Funen, manor house, 88-90, 98
Nyboder, 109-110, 116, 119, 303 Ehbisch, Johan Friedrich, 142, 159
Pantomime Theater, 268 Ehrenström, Johan Albert, 198, 201
plan (1662-1664), 128 Ehrensvärd, Augustin, 167
Police Headquarters, 304 Eigtved, Niels, 140, 156, 159-162, 169, 174, 176,
Prince’s Palace, 157, 268 268
Råd-og-domhus, 193, 202, 253, 281, 304 Ellefsen, Johan, 314
Reformed Church, 150, 156, 166 Ellemose, Zealand, Iron Age road, 15
Rosenborg Palace, 10 6 - 107, 109, 119, 142 Elmelunde, Møn, church, 166
Round Tower, 118-119, 252 Engel, Carl Ludwig, 198-203, 245, 307
Royal Theater I, 161, 268, 292 Eric Bloodaxe, 25
Royal Theater II, 268 Eric Ejegod, 4 1, 46
St. Andrew’s Church, 262-263 Ericson, Nils, 259
SAS-Royal Hotel, 337-338 Erik, Saint, 64
Sophie Amalienborg, 135, 137, 155, 158, 160 Erik XIV, 92
Storgården, 315 Erik of Pomerania, 90, 99
Thorvaldsen Museum, 196-198, 284 Erik the Red, 22-23, 38
Town Hall I, 107-108 Erixson, Sven, 307
Town Hall II, 165, 167, 193 Ernst, Johan Conrad, 139-140, 155, 165
Town Hall III, 252, 281-284, 288, 296, 321 Erskine, Ralph, 325

Index
Ervi, Aarne, 326 Grense-Jacobselv, Finnmark, King Oscar’s

Eugen, Prince (of Sweden), 2 7 1, 288 Chapel, 260
Exner, Inger, 336 Gripsholm Castle, 90, 98, 186
Exner, Johannes, 336 Grøntoft, Jutland, village, 12, 14
Grosch, Christian H., 207-208, 254, 278
Fåborg, museum, 303-304 Gustavus II Adolf, 119, 128, 181
Fagervik, Uusimaa, 182 Gustavus III, 180, 185-186, 188, 271
Falun, Dalarna, 244 Gustavus Vasa, 85-86, 90-96, 98, 198
Fanefjord, Møn, church, 166
Finström, Åland, St. Michael’s Church, 72, 302 Håkon IV, 30
Fischer von Erlach, Johan, 307 Håkon V, 115
Fisker, Kay, 315, 320, 338 Håkon Håkonsson, 68, 78
Förster, Hans, 124 Hårleman, Carl, 96, 134, 168, 180, 186
Fredensborg Palace, 140, 142, 155, 159, 166 Haas, Meno, 181
Frederik I, 85 Hämeenlinna, Häme
Frederik II, 59, 96-97, 98-100, 169 church, 187
Frederikin, 127-128, 135, 148 fortress, 76
Frederik IV, 127, 137, 139-140, 153 Härnösand, Västernorrland, Gymnasium, 188
Frederik V, 159, 162, 176 Häusser, Elias David, 154, 156
Frederik VI, 196, 203 Haga, Uppland, 187
Frederiksberg, 139, 154 Hagmansson, Per, 188
Frederiksen, Anton, 304 Halden, Østfold, church, 207
Frederikshamn, 133 Hamina, Kymi
Fredrikstad, 97, 131 church, 201
Friedrich Wilhelm IV (king of Prussia), 37 fortress, 133
Frosterus, Sigurd, 291 Hanno, Andreas von, 257
Frostviken, Jämtland, Lapp huts, 233 Hansen, Christian Frederik, 190-196, 198, 201-202,
Fyrkat, Jutland, Viking camp, 26 204, 252-253, 281, 304
Hansen, Constantin, 253
Gallén-Kallela, Akseli, 289 Hansen, Knud, 315
Gamla Uppsala, Uppland, church, 64 Harald Blue-Tooth, 26, 30
Gardar, Greenland Harald Hardrada, 114
church, 39, 4 1, 68 Harsdorff, Caspar Frderik, 140, 150, 170, 173, 176,
settlement, 23 190, 193
Gerlach von Köln, 66 Haugesund, Rogaland, Town Hall, 208, 3 14, 336
Gesellius, Herman, 288, 291 Haven, Lambert von, 135, 150, 155
Gibbs, James, 159 Hazelius, Artur, 212, 222, 278
Glavendrup, Funen, ship setting, 26 Hedeby, 24-25, 29
Glimmingehus, Skåne, manor house, 8 1, 86 Hedwig Eleanora, 134
Godfred (king of Denmark), 46 Heidritter, Ludwig, 109
Gol, Hallingdal, church, 34, 213 Heikel, Axel Olai, 213
Gothenburg, Västergötland, Railway Station, 259 Hellefoss near Modum, Buskerud, sawmill, 226
Goti, Master, 38 Helsingør, Zealand
Granhult, Småland, church, 229 Kingohusene housing estate, 325
Grasbakken, Finnmark, village, 5 Kronborg Castle, 99-100, 102, 106, 115

397.
Marienlyst, manor house, 169-170 Irming, Mogens, 325

Helsinki Ismantorp, Öland, settlement, 16
Cathedral, 201-202, 262
Finnish Mortgage Society, 296 Jacobsen, Arne, 337-339
Kallio Church, 294 Jacobsen, Holger, 304
Mikael Agricola Church, 294, 303, 333 Jaegerspris, Zealand, Julianehøj, 7
National Museum, 298-299 Janssen, Evert, 135
National Theater, 292, 296 Jardin, Nicolas-Henri, 169-170, 176, 179, 251, 268
Old Church, 201 Jarlshof, Shetland, 18-20, 22
Parliament, 3 10 - 3 11 Jefferson, Thomas, 314, 321
Railway Station, 291, 296 Jelling, Jutland, 30
Senate House, 198, 201 Jensen-Klint, Peder Vilhelm, 300, 338
Seurasaari, 213, 228-229 Jørgensen, Thorvald, 284
Stock Exchange, 296, 299 Johan III, 92-93, 96
Sveaborg, 167-168, 198 Juliana Maria, 179
Tapiola housing estate, 326
Telephone Building, 294, 296 Kalmar, Småland
University, 201, 207-209, 264 Castle, 92-93
University Library, 202-203, 307 Cathedral, 148-149
Hemse, Gotland, church, 34 Kalundborg, Zealand
Henningsen, Thorkild, 303 Castle, 75-76
Herholdt, Johan Daniel, 258, 268, 282 church, 51-53, 75-76
Hesselagergård, Funen, manor house, 88, 90 Kampmann, Christian, 304
Hetsch, Gustav Friedrich, 255, 338 Kampmann, Hack, 304
Hildebrandt, Lucas von, 165 Kampmann, Hans Jørgen, 304
Hillerød, Zealand Karl XIV Johan, 203-204, 209
Badstuen, 98 Karlebotn, Finnmark, settlement, 5
Frederiksborg, 102, 106-107, 115, 124, 142 Karlshamn, Blekinge, defenses, 128
Sparepenge, 102 Karlskrona, Blekinge
Hillerødsholm, Zealand, 97-98 Fredriks Church, 128
Hjerl Hede, Jutland, village, 5 Holy Trinity Church, 128
Hjorth, Ingvar M. O., 2 7 1 plan, 128
Hørsholm, Zealand, palace, 150, 162, 195 Town Hall, 128
Holmegård, Zealand, huts, 2 Karuna, Finland Proper, church, 229
Holme-Olstrup, Zealand, glassworks, 2 80-281, 341 Keldby, Møn, church, 166
Holtålen, Trøndelag, church, 30, 34 Keyser, Hendrik de, 106
Hovig, Inge, 336 Kirkerup, Andreas, 174, 179, 307
Hulebak, Kristian, 224 Kirkjubøur, Faroes, Cathedral, 67-68
Hvalsey, Greenland, church, 68 Kittilä, Lapland, Kortaniemi estate, 226
Hvitträsk, studio-dwelling, 288-289 Kjelleberg, Setesdal, stue, 222, 224
Hyllestad, Jutland, church, 7 0 -7 1 Knud the Great, 30
Knud the Holy, 41, 56
Imatra, Kymi, Valtion Hotel, 274 Knud Lavard, Saint, 47
Ingstad, Anne Stine, 22 Knutsen, Knut, 322
Ingstad, Helge, 22 Køge, Zealand, houses, 244

Index
Kolomepczina, settlement, 16 Liselund, Møn, manor house, 174, 179, 307

Konginkangas, Central Finland, Niemelä farm, 226, Løgumkloster, Jutland, abbey, 55-58
228 Lønnestak, Jutland, farmstead, 240
Kongsberg, Numedal, church, 174 Løwen, Axel, 133
Kotka, Kymi Lovisa Ulrika, 179
Sunila Cellulose Factory, 322 Lund, Skåne
Sunila housing estate, 315, 318 Cathedral, 41-42, 44
Kråkerøy, Østfold, houses, 5 S. Maria Minor, 30
Krieger, Johan Cornelius, 140, 142, 154, 158-159, Lundager, Funen, farmstead, 214, 220, 240
165, 169, 196, 252 Lund bye, Johan Thomas, 7
Kristensen, Svenn Eske, 341
Kristianstad, Skåne Mäkiniemi, Elissa, 331
Holy Trinity Church, I 15-1 16, 118, 149, 262 Mailing, Peder, 252
plan, NO, 114, 124 Malmö, Skåne
Kristler, Hans Jacob, 120 Malmöhus, 90
Kvívík, Streymoy, Viking house, 20 St. Peter’s Church, 59, 61, 300
Mandelgren, Nils Månsson, 229, 231
Labrouste, Henri, 258 Margaret I, 8 1
Lambertz, Geraert, 106 Mariehamn, Åland, church, 301-303
Landskrona, Skåne, defenses, 128 Marselis, Christopher, 140
Lange, Bertel, 106 Masreliez, Adrien, 174
Lange, Philip de, 165-166 Masreliez, Jean Baptiste, 174, 181
Langlet, Emil Victor, 260 Masreliez, Louis, 187, 193
Langley, Batty, 259 Mathiesen, Albertus, 135, 148
L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 22-23 Maurseth, Oivind, 333
L’Archevéque, Pierre Hubert, 181 Meldahl, Ferdinand, 268, 271
Larsen, Knud Erik, 336 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 3 1 I
Larsson, Carl, 265 Milles, Carl, 273
Lassen, Mogens, 318 Møgeltønder, Jutland, 131, 303
Lauritzen, Vilhelm, 322 Møller, Christian Friedrich, 320
La Vallée, Jean de, 120, 122, 144 Mora, Dalarna, Zorn Museum, 222
La Vallée, Simon de, 120, 122, 132 farmstead, 222, 228
Le Clerc, Louis-Augustin, 156 Mule, Bordø, splashmill, 235
Le Corbusier, 311,315,318 Munthe, Holm, 278
Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas, 307 Munthe-Kaas, Herman, 308, 336
Ledreborg, Zealand, manor house, 169 Muurame, Keski-Suomi, church, 311
Lejre, Zealand, village, 215
Lerche, Vincent, 158 Naeser, Fredrik, 247
Lesjöfors, Värmland, rope yard, 339, 341 Naestved, Zealand, Town Hall, 4 1
Lewerentz, Sigurd, 305 Naver, Kim, 339
Liljekvist, Johan Fredrik, 273 Nebelong, Johan Henrik, 255-256, 338
Lindgren, Armas, 288, 291 Nerger, Christian, 150
Lindholm Høje, Jutland, Viking site, 23-24, 26, 307 Nielsen, Tage, 325
Linköping, Östergötland, Cathedral, 66 Nonnebakken, Funen, Viking camp, 26
Linstow, Hans D. F., 204-207, 255, 271 Noormarkku, Vaasa, Villa Mairea, 318-320

399 .
Norden, Jacob Wilhelm, 260 Paatelainen, Raili, 337

Notke, Bernt, 58, 65 Paeschen, Hans von, 97, 99
Nymindegab, Jutland, fishermen’s huts, 233 Pahr, Domenicus, 92
Nyrop, Martin, 282-284, 289 Pahr, Franciscus, 93
Nyström, Usko, 274 Paimio, Uusimaa, Sanatorium, 311,314
Palmstedt, Erik, 179, 186
Odense, Funen Perdol, Holstein, manor, 190
Cathedral of St. Knud, 56, 59, 300 Petäjävesi, Keski-Suomi, church, 231, 233
St. Alban’s Church, 56 Petersen, Carl, 303-304
Östberg, Ragnar, 96, 286-288 Petersen, Ove, 268
Østerlars, Bornholm, church, 50-51, 300 Pietilä, Reima, 337
Oktorp, Halland, farmstead, 220-221 Piper, Fredrik Magnus, 174
Olav, Saint, 46 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, 186
Olav Kyrre, 30, 46 Platen, Wilhelm von, 139
Olav Slotküning, 30 Porvoo, Uusimaa
Olav Tryggvason, 46 Cathedral, 245, 247
Olsen, Bernhard, 212 houses, 245, 247
Opbergen, Antonius van, 99 Post, Pieter, 166
Oscar I, 255 Poulsson, Magnus, 321
Oscar II, 34, 213, 260, 271 Precht, Burchardt, 65
Ose, Setesdal, loft, 222
Oslo Råsted, Jutland, church, 37
Akershus, 70-80, 97, 114-115, 204 Rafn, Aage, 304
Bazaar, 254 Randers, Jutland, St. Clement’s Church, 335-337
canvas factory, 278, 2 8 1 Rauland, Numedal, stue, 224
Cathedral, 151, 254, 256, 260 Ravlunda, Skåne, farmstead, 2 15, 220
City Hall, 321-322 Rehn, Jean Eric, 173
Dunker Villa, 274 Reinius, Leif, 327
Ekeberg Restaurant, 3 11 Rennebu, Nord-Trøndelag, church, 151
Exchange, 207, 296 Reykjavik
Frognerseteren Restaurant, 278 Árbaer Folk Museum, 2 13, 240
National Gallery, 271-272 Cathedral, 179, 239
National Theater, 271-272 Hallgrimskirkja, 333
Norwegian Folk Museum, 2 12 - 2 13, 224 Parliament, 271
Oscarshall, 255-256 Ribe, Jutland, Cathedral, 6, 42-44
Parliament, 260 Richardson, Henry Hobson, 292
plan (1624), 114-1 15 Ringsjö, Skåne, settlement, 2
plan (1835), 207 Ringsted, Zealand, St. Bendt’s Church, 47, 50, 55, 58
Royal Palace, 204, 260 Rocca, Pietro della, 92
Trinity Church, 256-257 Roed, Jørgen, 42, 44
University, 207-208, 264, 314, 330 Rømø, Jutland, Kommandørgården, 240
Villa Ditlev-Simonsen, 3 18 Røros, Sør-Trøndelag
Otaniemi, Uusimaa church, 174
chapel, 333, 335 houses, 244
Technical University, 330-331, 333 Rosendal, Hordaland, manor house, 142

Index
Roskilde, Zealand Stavanger, Rogaland

Cathedral, 54-56, 58-59, 115 Cathedral, 44-46, 66
first church, 37-38, 41 houses, 247
Viking Ship Museum, 333 Steensgård, Langeland, manor house, 255
Rüse, Henrik, 128 Steenwinckel, Hans van I, 100-101, 106
Rygård, Funen, manor house, 86, 255 Steenwinckel, Hans van II, 100, 108-109, I 15-1 16,124
Steenwinckel, Lorenz van, 106, 108, 115, 124
Saarinen, Eliel, 288, 291 Stegmann, Povl, 321
Säynätsalo, Keski-Suomi, Civic Center, 327, Stengade, Langeland, settlement, 2
330-331 Stilling, Harald Conrad, 108, 280
Saksun, Streymoy, Duvugarthur, 235 Stockholm
Saly, Jacques-François-Joseph, 162, 165, 169, 176 Adolf Fredrik’s Church, 174, 262
Samúelsson, Gudjón, 333 Bern’s Restaurant, 274, 278
Sandvik, Vestfold, railway station, 260 Castle, 78, 96, 122, 132-133
Satemin, village, 16 Central Library, 307
Savonlinna, Mikkeli, Olavlinna, 80-81, 289 Chapel of the Holy Cross, 307
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 198, 204, 208, 265 Engelbrekt Church, 263-264, 333
Schirmer, Adolf, 271-272 Exchange, 179, 296
Schirmer, Heinrich Ernst, 272-274 Exhibition (1930), 315
Scholander, Fredrik Wilhelm, 265 Hjorthagen housing estate, 3 15
Schou, Einar Oscar, 273-274 Makalös, 120, 122
Seglora, Västergötland, church, 2 3 1 National Museum, 264-265, 268
Semp, Johan, 114 Nordic Museum, 278
Sergei, Johan Tobias, 174, 185 Norwegian Embassy, 322
Serlio, Sebastiano, 88 Observatory, 179
Sigtuna, Uppland Opera House (1775-1782), 180-181, 271
St. Peter’s Church, 64 Petersén House, 120, 242
Town Hall, 167, 180 plan (1697), 132, 161
Silfrastadir, Iceland, church, 240 Riddarhus, 120, 122, 124
Siren, Heikki, 333, 335 Royal Dramatic Theater, 273
Sirén, Johan Sigfred, 3 11 Royal Opera, 271
Siren, Kaija, 333, 335 Royal Palace, 96, 132-133, 137-139, 142, 145,
Skalholt, Cathedral, 179 158, 168, 174, 180-181, 264-265
Skokloster, Uppland, manor house, 142, 144 St. Jacob’s Church, 124
Slangerup, Zealand, church, 10 1 Skansen, 212, 222, 224, 231
Snare, Bishop Esbjorn, 51, 75 Skeppsholm Church, 209
Sørensen, Carl Theodore, 320 Storkyrkan, 64-65
Sørensen, Erik Christian, 333 Tessin House, 145
Sonck, Lars, 72, 293-299, 301-303 Town Hall, 252, 286-288, 321
Sonne, Jørgen, 198 Vällingby housing estate, 327
Sophie Amalie, 135 Woodland Cemetery, 305-307
Sophie Magdalene, 154, 158, 194 Woodland Chapel, 307, 335
Sorgenfri, Zealand, Frilandsmuseet, 212, 221, 240 Stöng, Iceland house, 22, 235
Sorø, Zealand, abbey, 50, 55 Strengell, Gustav, 291
Stamhult, Halland, farmstead, 213, 221 Stuckenbrock, Joachim Andreas, 174

401 .
Stüler, Friedrich August, 265 Ulefoss, Telemark, manor house, 204

Suojärvi, Karelia, Moiseinvaara farmhouse, 228-229 Ulkestrup, Zealand, huts, 2, 341
Svartsjö, Uppland, manor house, 168 Ullandhaug, Rogaland, dwelling, 15
Svend Estridsen, 37, 41 Ulrica Eleanora, 137
Svend Normand, 41, 54 Uppsala
Svinninge, Zealand, electric works, 304, 322 Botanicum, 186
Castle, 93, 96, 186
Tampere Cathedral, 61, 64, 262
Cathedral, 293-295, 302 Urnes, Sogn, church, 34, 37
Kaleva Church, 337 Utzon, Jørn, 325
Tarjanne, Onni, 292
Tempelman, Olof, 186-188 Vadgård, Jutland, settlement, 10
Tessin, Nicodemus I, 65, 120, 128, 132, 134, 137 Vadstena, Östergötland
138, 144, 148-149 Abbey, 70
Tessin, Nicodemus II, 96, 131-133, 145, 150, 155, Castle, 90, 92
158, 181 Vä, Skåne, church, 42
Thingvellir, Iceland, church, 239-240 Valdemar I, 46-47, 76
Thorsager, Jutland, church, 5 1 Vallhager, Gotland, settlement, 14
Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 196 Valløby, Zealand, church, 101
Thurah, Lauritz de, 139-140, 150, 156, 158, 162, Vang, Valdres, church, 36-37, 78
165, 176, 194 Varhaug, Rogaland, village, 16
Tidemand, Adolph, 256 Vastveit, Telemark, loft, 224
Tidö, Västmanland, 120, 124, 142 Vauban, Sebastian de, 167
Tingelstad, Hadeland, church, 38 Vegetius, 26
Tingstäde, Gotland, church, 66 Velde, Henry van de, 2 9 1
Torpo, Hallingdal, church, 7 1 Ven, Uraniborg, 100-101
Torup, Skåne, manor house, 89 Venge, Jutland, abbey, 46
Tott, Erik Axelsen, 80 Viborg, Jutland, Cathedral, 6, 262
Trelleborg, Zealand, Viking camp, 26 Vinckeboons, Justus, 122
Troldbjerg, Langeland, dwelling, 5 Visby, Gotland
Troldkirken, Zealand, dolmen, 6, 307 Cathedral, 65-66
Tromsdalen, Nord-Hålogaland, church, 336-337 walls, 75
Trondheim Vitruvius, 26, 97, 307
Cathedral, 46, 66, 68, 131, 262 Volsted, Jutland, church, 38
plan (1681), 129, 131 Vrå, Södermanland, huts, 5
Stiftsgården, 173 Vries, Adriaen de, 103
Turku
Castle, 79 Wahlman, Lars Israel, 263-264
Cathedral, 61 Walgenstein, Thomas, 148
Luostarinmäki, 245 Weitling, Otto, 338
St. Michael’s Church, 293-294, 302 Wergmann, Peter C. F., 204, 208
Tuscher, Marcus, 161 Wiggers, Jørgen de, 151
Tveje Merløse, Zealand, church, 41 Wolff, Henning, 280
Tyresö, Södermanland, 124, 174 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 311, 322
York, 24-25

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I Prehistoric Scandinavia
The Stone Age
Long before the present national states of Den

mark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden be
gan to take form, glacial ice lay deep over the
lands of these modern countries. Three times
in the Paleolithic period the ice descended here
and three times retreated, doing much to shape
these territories, which in their turn formed
the settings that would have much to do with
the nature of buildings upon them for over
10,000 years (figure l . l ) . 1
Flaked tools from c. 250,000-200,000 BC
during the next-to-last interglacial period show
that hunters were active in Denmark in this
warm interlude, but nothing has yet been found
of their dwellings. Remains of shelters from
later continental European sites suggest huts of
poles or even bones set in the ground and
lashed together to make a framework for skin
coverings, and a hut so constructed might shel
ter one or two hearths.2 In the last interglacial
period, c. 50,000 BC, people are known to
have been hunting on the present Jutland penin
sula, but it was not until the ice began to re
treat for the last time that a more regular
hunting culture could develop.

Prehistoric Scandinavia
opening of the English Channel and the Danish

sounds.
Two major concentrations of people from
this era have been observed. The earlier, or
Maglemose, period, c. 7500-6000 BC, saw
hunters and fishers settling at lakeside sites,
such as Ulkestrup and Holmegård on Zealand
and Ringsjö in Skåne.3 The Danish examples
yielded traces of huts, about 15 by 20 feet,
with hearths about 5 feet in diameter in the
centers. The walls were made of posts set in
the ground and probably covered with rushes
or reeds woven into mats, without clay daub
ing. Birch and pine bark were spread as floor
covering (figure 1.2).
The later, or Kitchen Midden, period,
c. 6000-4200 BC, saw the growth of the huge
rubbish mounds that now give so much infor
mation about the diet and implements in these
settlements. A few traces of hearths remain,
and the shelters were probably seasonal.
With the coming of agriculture and stock
keeping, c. 4200 BC, the picture changed dra
From c. 14,000 BC there was a landscape matically. Hunting and fishing were not discon
of tundra over which reindeer grazed and tinued, but food could now be produced at
which could support a modest initial human will, comparatively speaking. Forests were
population. By c. 8400 BC the climate had be cleared to allow for more fields, which could
come much warmer, with forests of birch and be abandoned when the soil was exhausted.
pine starting to develop. Settlement sites were People began to settle together in villages for
still not permanent but seasonal, and again no mutual protection and to share the work of
traces of shelters have yet been found. food production, and some traces of their
The retreat of the glaciers did not leave a dwellings have been discovered (figure 1.3).
fixed geological situation. As the lands were re From the foundations of these dwellings,
lieved of the weight of ice and the seas re c. 3900-3600 BC, at Stengade on Langeland in
ceived water from melting ice, exchanges were Denmark, two proposals have been made as to
made between land and water for several how the stones might have been used (figure
hundred years. In this Mesolithic period, before I A ) 4 Both suppose the houses without side
the introduction of agriculture, Denmark was walls, the rafters sloping to the ground and
connected to England and south Sweden by covered with some kind of thatching material.
land masses until c. 6000 BC. The Baltic Sea In the one case two internal rows of posts set
meanwhile was in turn an ice lake, a bay of the in stones are indicated, while in the other the
Atlantic Ocean, and a fresh water lake until the rafters are shown as set in dry walls of stone.

2
I. I Map of last glaciation.

(After Stenberger, Swe
den, figure 3.)
1.2 Ulkestrup, Zealand.
Maglemosian hut foun
dations. c. 7500—6000
BC. (Knut Andersen et
al., “Maglemose hyt
terne,” figure 6, p. 87.)
1.3 Stengade, Langeland.
[IMAGE REDACTED]
Neolithic house founda
tions. c. 3900-3600 BC.
(Knut Andersen et al.,
”Maglemose hytterne,”
figure 6, p. 87. Courtesy
Langelands Museum,
Rudkøping.) 3

1.4 Stengade, Langeland. 1.5 Hjerl Hede, Jutland.

Proposals for recon Conjectural replica of a
struction of Neolithic Neolithic house.
house by Jørgen Skaa- 1.6 Pitkäjärvi, Finland.
rup (left) and Peter Neolithic hut. Conjec
Brogaard (right). (Bro- tural drawing of frame,
gaard, Lund, and c. 3000 BC. (Helsinki,
Nørregård-Nielsen, National Museum of
D anm arks A rk ite k tu r. Finland.)
Landbrugets huse, p. 16.
Courtesy Gyldendal
Publishers.)

5 .
Remains of a more substantial kind of

dwelling were found at Troldbjerg, also on
Langeland.5 Here there was a long multifamily
house, the roof carried on posts set in stones.
The walls were made of wattle, thin withies
woven between slender uprights, and daubed
with clay. The reconstruction of a Stone Age
longhouse at the Hjerl Hede open air museum
on Jutland suggests the appearance of such a
building (figure 1.5).
The people of these Danish settlements 6
are associated with megalithic burials, to which
we shall return. There are, however, other
house types from the Neolithic period. At Vrå Other dwellings in Finland were conical tents
in Södermanland, foundations of short rectangu made with poles leaning against a horizontal
lar buildings, about 12 by 15 feet, have been frame, then covered with brush, bark, or skins
found from the Funnel Beaker culture, c. 4000 (figure 1.6).10
BC. These have stone floors but no trace of Up to this point we have been concerned
hearths, and whether they were used as houses with houses for the living. Although the traces
has been questioned.6 are meager and the houses at best very simple,
In Norway a group of three houses was clearly the people who ventured north into the
found at Kråkerøy on the east shore of the Scandinavian territories in the wake of the gla
Oslo Fjord.7 One was a large rectangular struc ciers soon found a variety of solutions to their
ture with stone foundations and walls of wattle fundamental problems of shelter. But what of
and daub between posts. Two smaller oval houses for the dead? The double row of foun
houses were also paved with stone, and posts dations found at Barkaer on Jutland from
supported the roofs of all three. This site is c. 3500 BC were long thought to be the re
associated with the Pitted Ware people, mains of row houses, but recent opinion is
c. 3300 BC. more in favor of their having been successive
Farther north, Stone Age cultures per burials." This discussion will be confined to the
sisted much longer than in southern Scandina megalithic graves known as dolmens and pas
via, and at Karlebotn on the Varanger Fjord an sage graves that dot the landscape in Denmark
orderly village of 250 houses was established.8 and are also found in smaller numbers in south
These had walls of earth with openings toward ern Sweden. Up to c. 3500 BC the dead had
the land side, and most had hearths within. been buried individually in the ground, some
From c. 1250 BC, showing the long persistence times in graves lined with stone. These cus
of this hunting culture by the Varanger Fjord, toms, which include the use of grave goods,
comes the site of Grasbakken. This was also a seem to belong more to the realm of anthro
village of oval and rectangular houses, many of pology and will not be elaborated upon here.
the latter with two long hearths.9 The rectan Dolmens and passage graves are another
gular houses, apparently of a newer type, were matter.
half below level, entered by a sloping ramp.

The hundreds of dolmens that are an inte

gral part of the landscape in Denmark and to a
lesser extent in Sweden bear witness to the
importance of the cult of the dead in this early
population. A dolmen is built as if a house for
the dead, characteristically consisting of large
flat boulders set upright and covered with an
other block, forming a chamber over the burial
itself.12 This is then surrounded by a curb of
boulders and if mounded over with earth
would rise to about 6 feet high (figure 1.7).
The burial became a memorial and a sacred
place for worship and sacrifice. The glaciers had
left abundant material, the heavy stones proba
bly being brought to the site and maneuvered
into place with the aid of tree-trunk rollers.
This type of tomb is found over the large area
extending from the Mediterranean lands to the
British Isles and was brought to Denmark by
migration and trade.
Even more numerous than the round dol
mens are the long dolmens, extending in one
case to over 500 feet.13 More frequently they
range from 20 to 100 feet and are 6 to 8 feet
wide, often including more than one chamber
within a rectangular curb (figure 1.8).
From Saxo Grammaticus to the designer
of the Danish 50-kroner note, the dolmens
have excited awe and admiration. In his Dane-
sage of c. 1200 Saxo wrote: “In the far-distant
past there lived giants, an ancient people to
whose existence the massive roof-stones over
dolmens and burial chambers bear ample wit
ness. Should anyone doubt that these are the
work of giants, let him say who else could have
maneuvered such enormous blocks of stone
into position.”14 An interesting revelation, in
deed, of the outlook of a learned man whose
contemporaries were using heavy masonry for
such churches as Ribe and Viborg cathedrals. In
post-Renaissance time growing antiquarianism
and romantic tastes led to the adaptation of

7 .
the dolm en form for a m onum ent at Jaegerspris 1.7 St. Elme, Zealand. Dol
on Z ealand, the Julianehøj o f 1775 (figure 1.9), men. c. 3500 BC.
and m any representations in draw ing and paint 1.8 Troldkirken, Zealand.
ing by early nineteenth-century artists such as Long dolmen. Plan. c.
Johann Thom as Lundbye (figure 1. 10). 3500 BC. (After Glob,
A second great period o f m egalithic build Danish P reh isto ric Mon
ing began c. 3000 BC, w hen the passage graves

um ents, figure 17, p.
w ere intro d uced.15 These are also built o f

60.)
1.9 Jaegerspris, Zealand.
enorm ous upright stones and capstones, set to
Julianehøj. 1776. Print
form cham bers about 15 to 18 feet long, 6 feet
by Wandel, 1783. (Co
w ide, and 6 feet high, entered by narrow er and
penhagen, National
low er passages (figure l . l I). Som e o f these are
Museum.)
made double and som e have additional cham
bers. In contrast to dolm ens the passage graves
w ere usually co m pletely m ounded over, w ith
the entrance on the east or southeast side and
upright stones placed before the entrance or
even all around the mound. The interiors w ere
intended for m ultiple and successive burials and

10
1. 10 Refsnaes, Zealand.
Painting by J. T. Lund-
bye, 1844. (Copen
hagen, State Museum
of Art.)
1. 11 Raevehøj, Zealand.
Passage grave, c. 3000
BC. Plan. (After Glob,
Danish P reh isto ric
M onuments, figure 25,
p. 81.)

9 .
are even more impressive than the exteriors

(figure 1.12). Although much less numerous
than the dolmens, only about six hundred being
known in Denmark and a little over three
hundred in Sweden, the passage graves indicate
a further development of the cult of the dead,
expressed by massive communal undertakings.
One reason to conclude that the emo
tional energy of these Neolithic people went
into reverence for their immediate ancestors
and provision for the dead is the scarcity of
other ceremonial sites from this period. It is
scarcity, however, not absence, because a small
number of “temple” buildings have been identi
fied by their contents of pits and vessels for
sacrifice. In one instance the foundations are in
a horseshoe arrangement with an opening to
the northeast and a pit in the middle (figure
1.13).16 This has been interpreted as the house
of a god or goddess.
The perishability of materials for house
construction makes it unlikely that we shall
learn to what extent the Neolithic builders at
tempted refinements of construction or even
ornament on their dwellings. The elegant pot
tery vessels and finely worked tools and weap
ons that have survived from this period suggest
that already these northern people wished to
surround themselves with objects that were
13
pleasing to the eye. While the full architectural
aesthetic of Stone Age Scandinavia may remain
unknown, we can at least observe that the
1.12 Raevehøj, Zealand.
builders of this period had developed several
Passage grave. Inte
distinctive types of housing and had also been
rior. (Copenhagen, Na
purposeful and skillful enough to construct
tional Museum.)
some of the most impressive mortuary struc
1.13 Tustrup, Jutland. Cere
tures of northern Europe.
monial site. c. 3000 BC.
(Højberg, Moesgård
Prehistoric Museum.)

The Bronze Age
The Passage Grave culture did not last. It was

overtaken by the Battle Axe people c. 2000
BC, herdsmen who invaded through the Jutland
peninsula, with their ultimate origins in Central
Asia. Instead of building the megalithic graves
just described, they buried their dead in single
or mass stone graves. Some of the earliest re
sembled the dolmens and passage graves in the
use of large stones for cists that were then
mounded over.
By this time trade with central Europe had
already introduced the new materials of copper
and bronze into the North, bringing another
change in technology and culture as dramatic as
that of the introduction of agriculture. Yet
while the Bronze Age people of Scandinavia
produced tools, weapons, and articles of per
sonal adornment of astonishing brilliance, their
structural accomplishments did not, for the
most part, equal those of their Neolithic
predecessors.
Of dwellings in the Bronze Age little is
known. Excavations at Vadgård on the Limfjord
in Denmark revealed postholes and stone foun
dations of several houses.17 For more enlighten-

11.
ment on houses and settlements we would

probably have to consult the evidence from
continental Europe of the same period, and
then only with caution. Differences in the kinds
of timbers available and differences in the kinds
of climatic stress to which structures built of
them would be subjected could well bring
about differences in details of construction,
however close the similarities in plan may have
been.
For now some note should be made of the
most obviously impressive structures of Bronze
Age Scandinavia, the large barrows (figure
1.14) . 18 As with the dolmens and passage
graves, these must have been the work of an
organized society. Containing one or more bur
ials, the barrows loom imposingly in the land 14
scape, as they were undoubtedly intended to
do. They are found not only in the Scandinavian
lands but also in Germany, and taken together
they are visible reminders of the extensive
north European Bronze Age cultural area.
Their survival in such abundance owes much to
the careful method of their construction, not
random, but of grass turfs built up with internal
layers of stone supports. From the oak coffin
burials in some of these mounds have come the
remarkable garments and accessories that shed
so much light on Bronze Age technology and
culture. 15
Another kind of prominent landmark ap
peared on the coasts of Sweden during the late
Bronze Age, the “ship setting” burials (figure
1.15) .19 They were especially popular on the is
land of Gotland, as might be expected from its 1.14 Bakkeberg, Zealand.
seafaring people. The graves are in stone enclo Bronze Age barrows,
sures from 18 to 60 feet long, planned in the c. 1500-800 BC.
outlines of ships. Whether intended for burials 1.15 Boge, Gotland. Ship
or in some cases simply as memorials, they ful setting, c. 1500 BC.
fill the latter function admirably, calling atten (Stockholm, Antikvar-
tion to the importance of the ship in a visible isk-topografiska ar
manner, unlike the later actual ship burials in kivet. Photo: Mårten
which the ships were concealed under mounds. Stenberger.)

The Iron Age
If our efforts to understand the dwellings of

the Bronze Age are frustrated by the lack of
extensive archaeological materials, such is not
the case when we come to the Iron Age. This
1.16 Grøntoft, Jutland. Iron
period of thirteen hundred years is usually re
Age village, c. SOO BC.
Plan. (Becker, “To garded as having three major divisions, the
landsbyer,” figure I, Celtic, Roman, and Germanic or Migration, ac

p. 2 11. Courtesy the cording to the peoples who successively domi
author.) nated continental Europe from c. 500 BC to
1.17 Lejre, Zealand. Iron c. AD 800.
Age house. From the early or Celtic period, up to the
Reconstruction. beginning of the Christian era, the finds of set
tlements are scanty in Sweden and Norway but
are sufficient in Denmark to furnish considera
ble information about how houses were built
and farms and villages organized. At Grøntoft in
Jutland a village lasted about three hundred
years by moving itself about from time to time.
In one stage it consisted of houses 35 to 90
feet long, several with room for up to eighteen
cattle, the group enclosed with a palisade (fig
ure 1. 16).20 With the longhouses, including
byres, an important farmhouse type was estab
lished that was to persist into postmedieval
times, being adapted over the years with

13 .
17

changes of material and refinements of con

struction until as late as the seventeenth cen
tury. The houses were built on stone
foundations, with threshold stones for doors on
one side and perhaps some stone paving within.
Doors on the south sides would admit a maxi
mum of light. The walls were of turf, as much
as 3 feet thick. Two rows of posts, about 3
feet from the walls, supported the roofs, which
were probably covered with reeds or heather.
Hearths were located on the clay floor toward
one end of the houses, with holes in the roofs
to let smoke escape. Posts and stone curbs
marked stalls for animals in the other portions.
Thus people and their animals lived under one
roof, sharing each other’s warmth and protec
tion (figure 1.17). Foundations of such houses
were also found in the extensive excavations at
Vallhager on Gotland between 1945 and
1950,21 and this kind of dwelling was character
istic of northern Germany and the Netherlands
as well.22

15 .
Villages were not characteristic of Iron tion of the dilemmas involved in attempting re
Age Norway, where the individual farm was constructions of this kind. The longest building
more often the rule. When a tract of land had yielded pottery fragments that suggest that this
been cleared for grazing and cultivation, often was the principal dwelling and byre (figure
by burning, it was usually enclosed with low 1.18). Two small buildings, probably for stor
stone walls. Houses about 25 to 27 feet wide age, and a long building possibly for guest quar
and from about 65 to as much 300 feet long ters and additional byre space completed the
might accommodate more than one family; they original group.
had one or more hearths, no chimneys, and Some of the villages appear to have been
rows of posts supporting the roofs. Such a farm partly fortified, either against flooding or
dating from c. 350-500 in the late Roman pe against marauders. The village remains from
riod was excavated at Ullandhaug near Stavan c. 100 BC at Borremose in Jutland are notable
ger in Rogaland in 1967-1969, and here three for the road built across the bog to a slightly
of the four buildings have been rebuilt.23 The elevated site, which has an irregular surround
height of the walls has been estimated from ing ditch and walls (figure 1.19).24 The road it
portions remaining after the entire complex self is well constructed on a stone foundation,
was destroyed by fire in the late sixth century. with borders of large stones and paving of small
Roofing materials and the interior vertical stones, similar to a Roman-period Iron Age
planking are likewise conjectural. The posts road at Ellemose on Zealand (figure 1.20). The
supporting the roofs and the rafters are fash houses at Borremose were of the type found
ioned and joined in different ways from one at Ullandhaug, oriented east-west, with the
building to another, providing a good illustra dwelling portions in the west ends.
1.18 Ullandhaug, Rogaland.

Iron Age house.
c. 350-550.
Reconstruction.
1.19 Borremose, Jutland.
Iron Age village, c. 100
BC. (Copenhagen, Na
tional Museum.)
19

A later and much more strongly fortified

site is at Ismantorp on Öland, dating probably
from the Swedish Migration period in the fifth
century (figure 1.21).25 Measuring about 350
feet in diameter, it has limestone walls rising as
high as 15 feet. More than eighty rectangular
foundations have been discovered, arranged ra
dially and divided into four quarters by streets
like the spokes of a wheel. Little evidence of
prolonged habitation has been found here, and,
like certain Viking sites to come, Ismantorp
may have been intended to be more defensive
than residential.
A third group of buildings shows still an
other approach, this time in a Norwegian vil
20
lage at Varhaug in Rogaland, c. 100 (figure
1.22).26 Of a type apparently unique to this
area, this consists of about twenty longhouses,
radially arranged but here around the perime
ter of the site with a central open space. Lack
of provision for cattle suggests that, like Isman
torp, its purpose was probably defensive. Sev
eral of these camps, if they may be so
designated, are known in Rogaland and north
ern Norway and may have been established to
1.20 Ellemose, Zealand.
protect the lively trade routes to Denmark and
Iron Age road. c. 200
the Continent. We might be reminded of the
BC.
Neolithic Tripolye villages such as Kolomys-
1.2 1 Ismantorp, Öland. Iron
czine in Russia and the medieval Wendish vil
Age village. 5th cen
lages such as Satemin in Germany.27
tury. Plan. (After Sten
berger, “Öland,” p.
236.)
1.22 Varhaug, Rogaland.
Iron Age village, c. 100.
(Stavanger, Archaeo
logical Museum.)

77.
21
22

The Viking Age
The last two centuries of the first millennium

of the Christian era were ones of profound
change for inhabitants of the Scandinavian terri
tories. While still not yet writing their own his
tory, and therefore technically prehistoric,
these people made such an impact in so many
directions that their exploits were recorded by
1.23 Jarlshof, Shetland. their history-writing contemporaries, especially

Viking house founda in France, Germany, and England.28
tions. 9th century. The famous remark in the Anglo-Saxon
1.24 jarlshof, Shetland. Chronicle, referring to one of the earliest Viking
Viking settlement. episodes, that “the harrying of the heathen mis
Conjectural drawing. erably destroyed God’s church in Lindisfarne by
(Hamilton, Ja rlsh o f, rapine and slaughter,” surely reflects the senti
figure 51. British ments of many victims of Viking raids. Yet pir
Crown Copyright, De acy was not all. Search for new agricultural
partment of the lands and extensive peaceful commerce led to
Environment.) the growth of strong trading centers and set
tlements far from home. From the remains of
both much can be learned about the houses
and towns from which the Vikings came.
Remains of dwellings have been found in
several places where the Vikings settled as they
pushed their activities westward. One of the
best known early settlement sites is at Jarlshof

19 .
23
24

on the main Shetland island, which had already curved, and stone-lined hearths in the centers.
been inhabited since the late Stone Age. For Here also wood was used to line the interiors.
the Vikings, arriving from Norway probably The climate of Iceland was enough warmer
c. 800, the natural harbor and adjacent fields then to allow for the growth of some birch
made it as attractive as it had been to their and willow, and perhaps this was then possible
Bronze and Iron Age predecessors.29 Unlike the on the Faroes as well. Otherwise timber for
latter, however, their first dwelling, while cer the interior posts and paneling would have to
tainly comparatively long (extending to 70 be imported or salvaged from driftwood. As at
feet), had no byre but consisted simply of a Jarlshof, the byre at Kvívík was a separate
long living room and short kitchen (figure structure.
1.23). The walls were slightly curved, with the Nearly three hundred miles northwest of
house 18 feet wide toward the middle and 12 the Faroes is Iceland, where Ingólfur Arnarson
feet wide at the ends. from Norway was the first to settle, at Reykja
The method of walling would be used vík in 874.31 By the late ninth century settle
much later: inner and outer layers of stone ment had begun in the Thjórsárdalur valley of
with an earth core. Whatever the advantages southern Iceland, which had developed to a
of the site may have been, no one who has substantial settlement a century later. The di
experienced a gale at Jarlshof will wonder why sastrous eruption of Mount Hekla in 1104 left
the north wall was made especially secure with about twenty houses covered with ash. Modern
alternate courses of stone and turf. The roof excavations have made possible not only a clear
was supported by two rows of posts, set about
2 feet from the walls. Together with buildings
that have been interpreted as a bathhouse, or
possibly a family shrine, a smithy, a byre, and
another small building with a hearth, the main
dwelling made up the first farmstead at Jarlshof
(figure 1.24).
Two hundred miles to the north and west
of the Shetlands the Faroe Islands rise,
shrouded in rain and fog, where thousand-foot
cliffs plunge from treeless slopes and the sheep,
for whom the islands are named, outnumber
the humans. Many problems arise in the inter
pretation of the early Icelandic histories of the
Faroes, but it seems clear that Irish hermits
were taking up their lonely abode there c. 700,
to be followed by Viking settlers c. 860.30 One
of their dwellings was found at Kvívík on Strey-
moy, the largest island, in 1942 (figure 1.25).
Several others have been excavated, revealing
houses similar to that at Jarlshof, with thick
stone and turf or gravel walls, the walls slightly

21 .
1.25 Kvívík, Streymoy.

Viking house
foundations.
1.26 Stöng, Iceland. House.
9th century. Plan.
(Stenberger, ed., Forn
tida gårdar, figure 37,
p. 78. Courtesy Munks-
gaard Publishers.)
1.27 Stöng, Iceland. House
reconstruction. (Reyk
javik, National Mu
seum. Photo: Gísli
25
Gestsson.)
27

idea of how the Vikings built their houses in Then by the beginning of the eleventh cen
Iceland but also some clarification of houses de tury the Vikings had carried their attempts at
scribed in the later sagas. The house at Stöng is settlements to their westernmost limits. Erik
one of the best examples (figure 1.26). Thanks the Red’s famous arrival in Greenland in 982
to the studies of Hörthur Ágústsson, a recon led to the establishment of farms and churches
struction based on certain principles of the in the Eastern and Western Settlements.32 The
later Icelandic turf houses was undertaken near houses were similar to those in Iceland, long
the excavations (figure 1.27). The original halls built of stone and turf, sometimes with in
building differed somewhat from the Viking terior paneling. In response to the climate they
house at Jarlshof. The walls were over 4 feet later became more complicated, multiroomed
thick, built of turfs laid on a stone foundation. to be compact and give easy indoor access
The principal room was a long hall, running ap from one part to another. As at Stöng, the
proximately east-west, entered near the south byre might be separate and thickly insulated
east corner. The walls were lined with wood with turf. The storehouses, on the other hand,
paneling, and there was a long hearth in the were built of dry stone walling for ventilation,
center. At the west end there was a smaller much like the diets of the Scottish islands
chamber with central hearth, while on the today.
north there were two narrow projecting From Greenland, partly by accident, the
rooms, one evidently a dairy and the other var Vikings made their way to the shore of North
iously identified as a bathhouse or a household America. The first examination in 1960 of low
shrine. Separate byre, storage, and smithy mounds of earth on a terrace at L’Anse aux
buildings completed the farmstead group. Meadows off L'Épaves Bay in Newfoundland
suggested a Viking settlement there.33 Helge
and Anne Stine Ingstad soon found structural
1.28 L’Anse aux Meadows, remains and artifacts that are now generally ac
Newfoundland. House cepted as evidence of a Viking occupation. Sub
reconstruction. sequent excavations from 1973 to 1976
confirmed these findings, up to now the only
reliable evidence for Viking settlement in
North America.
Three dwellings of Norse turf-walled con
struction had been built in a curving line now
well back from the shore. Each consisted of a
long hall with central hearth and one or more
small rooms attached. A reconstruction has
been attempted nearby (figure 1.28). Evidence
for interior posts and paneling in the original
buildings is, however, lacking, and it has been
suggested that these were temporary shel
ters.34 Five other small structures were found,
one of which was a smithy, the sure evidence
that this was not an Eskimo settlement. Bog

23 .
iron may still be found in the marsh here. Even early Christian churches of the homelands.
a brief encounter with the bleak landscape We may also note that while these first
shows that promise for long-term forage and settlements in Greenland were the result of
agriculture was limited. Although the climate organized expeditions, buildings specifically for
was probably milder then, the lines back to the public assembly were not erected. The Thing,
homelands were long and the natives increas the assembly for consultation and settlement of
ingly unfriendly; the project was soon aban disputes, met on open ground first at Brattalid
doned. It would be just over six hundred years and then at Gardar after the first bishopric was
before Scandinavian settlers attempted once established there in I 126. For festive social oc
more to build in North America. casions, however, the long halls of the wealth
By the time of the settlement at L’Anse ier farmsteads could accommodate large
aux Meadows, the first Christian church had crowds of people, as the later sagas so elo
been built at Brattalid, Erik the Red’s settle quently attest.
ment in Greenland. No such structures have Another kind of Viking building was the
been found in Newfoundland, and we can only hut built over a sunken floor, such as those at
speculate whether the new faith was carried Lindholm Høje in Jutland.35 These were 9 to 15
that far. This brings us, however, to another feet long and had posts in the middle of each
important aspect of the Viking period, that of short end to support the ridge poles. Here
the gradual appearance of Christianity. Since there were no walls, the roofs sloping directly
the remains of early churches in Greenland to the ground. This sunken dwelling, or Gru-
come from the later or medieval period of set benhaus, was common on the Continent, in
tlement, these will be considered with the England, and in the Nordic countries. Different

patterns of postholes in the excavated remains thatched roofs. Some later smaller houses were
of these buildings indicate more than one possi hardly more than huts, 10 to 12 feet wide and
bility for superstructures, which is a matter for 12 to 15 feet long, the floors sunken, walling of
some debate.36 The presence of spindle whorls wattle and daub, and hearths in the corners.
and loom weights in the Lindholm Høje hut in Some of the finds included evidence of produc
dicates that this was a weaver’s hut. In other tion of bronze, iron, cloth, and other goods,
places such huts were for potteries, smithies, and a conjectural restoration shows a busy port
bakehouses, and the like, usually in connection (figure 1.29).
with a larger rectangular dwelling. The trading house types survived into
A structure apparently unique to Lindholm modern times, the rows of gables being a famil
Høje was a nearly square courtyard house, sim iar sight in Netherlandish, German, and Danish
ilar at least in plan to the type of farmstead port cities today. The little houses with corner
that was to become popular in southern Scan fireplaces were prophetic of the “Swedish
dinavia in later years. The use of the several house” type that was transported to America
parts remains unknown. It is tempting to think with the early Swedish settlers. Jasper Danck-
that it was built not so much as a farmstead but aerts, the Dutch traveler and diarist, described
as a “villa,” possibly in imitation of one that its Swedish houses in New Jersey in 1679, saying
owner had seen in England or on the that “the chimney stands in the corner.”39 The
Continent. persistence of this arrangement in America is
The dwellings grouped into various kinds attested by the report of the Swedish scientist
of settlements in the Bronze and Iron Ages Peter Kalm, who saw Swedish houses with the
were built by members of a primarily agricul fireplaces “built in one corner” in his travels in
tural society. When the trading enterprises al America in I7 4 8 -I7 5 I.40 This is an especially
ready in operation in these years blossomed forceful example of the strength of vernacular
into the vigorous and far-flung commercial ven tradition over hundreds of years and through
tures of the Vikings, more extensive merchant profound cultural and political changes.
towns accordingly developed.37 One of the While Hedeby was a home base town for
largest about which it has been possible to the Vikings, other urban sites have been discov
learn a considerable amount was Hedeby, or ered farther afield. Some of these have been
Haithabu, on an inlet of the Schlei Fjord, near more difficult to interpret, since, unlike Hed
the modern town of Schleswig.38 A fort had eby, they lie below modern cities. To the east,
been built to the north, but the town was also Viking remains in such places as Staraja Ladoga
defended by a semicircular rampart enclosing and Novgorod have aroused much speculation
about sixty acres. Fresh water was obtainable and considerable controversy as to whether
from a brook running through the enclosure. some Russian cities had actually been founded
A number of houses have been found in as Viking towns.41 Stronger evidence of Viking
the excavations of the center of the town, urban settlement abroad has come from some
some fairly large, about 18 to 45 feet, placed western sites, particularly Dublin and York,
with the gable ends toward the street. Some where excavations over the last twenty years
were walled with wattle and daub, others with have revealed much of the life of these towns.
halved tree trunks set upright in palisade fash The Vikings began raids on Ireland at the
ion. Most had central hearths and probably end of the eighth century and appear to have

25 .
made two settlements at what is now Dublin,

one in 8 4 1 and a second c. 9 14 - 9 17.42 Excava
tions in 1962-1963 and again in 1967-1980
yielded an enormous quantity of artifacts,
showing the vigor of the town until the early
twelfth century.43 As at Hedeby, many of the
houses found proved to be those of wood
workers, metalsmiths, leatherworkers, and the
like. The larger ones, about 6 by 10 meters,
had walls of wattle and daub, with four internal
posts to support the roof, benches on either
side, and a stone-lined hearth in the center.
There were also some smaller, nearly square
buildings, storage pits, and one small sunken
building, walled with vertical planks.
Similar excavations at Coppergate in York
from 1976 to 1981 revealed not only the Vi
king but the Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman
predecessors of the modern city as well.44
From their seizure of York in 866 through de
velopment in the tenth century until the depar
ture of Erik Bloodaxe in 954, the Vikings plied
their trades, crafts, and industries much as they
were also doing at Hedeby and Dublin. A dis
tinctive, though not unique, feature of York’s
history was the establishing of tenement
boundaries, marked by wattled fences. In the
early tenth century the buildings that housed
the various workshops were walled with wat
30
tle, but late in the century some of these were
rebuilt with sunken floors and walling of hori
zontal oak planks.45 It is apparent that the
sunken floor type of small building was in use in
the trading towns as it already was in the more 1.29 Hedeby, Schleswig. Vi
agricultural villages in northern Europe. Cer king settlement. 9th
tainly these buildings were traditional in century. Conjectural
England.46 drawing. (Århus, Flem
Again a comparison can be made to similar ming Bau.)
constructions in more recent times. In 1650 1.30 Trelleborg, Zealand.
Cornelius van Tienhoven wrote that the Dutch Viking camp. I0 th cen
settlers in New Amsterdam “dig a square pit in tury. (Copenhagen, Na
the ground, cellar fashion, six or seven feet tional Museum.)

deep, as long and as broad as they think What is provocative about these “barrack”
proper; case the earth all round the wall with buildings is the regularity of their construction
timber, with the bark of trees or something and placement. Harald Blue-Tooth has been de
else to prevent the caving in of the earth; floor scribed as having a sweeping vision for his reign
this cellar with plank, and wainscot it overhead and the energy to realize much of it.51 Had he
for a ceiling; raise a roof of spars clear up, and found what today would be called a military
cover the spars with bark or green sod.”47 engineer who knew something of the precepts
The most spectacular and enigmatic kind of of Vitruvius and Vegetius, whose writings were
construction remaining from the Viking Age is known and used in the early Middle Ages?52
the “fortified camp.” Whether built to house These Viking sites are distinctive, and perhaps
troops in readiness for raids, as has long been they represent a conflation, so to speak, of the
thought, or to consolidate the power of Harald Vitruvian town plan, recommended to be
Blue-Tooth, as is more recently held, each round, and the Vegetian army camp, which
camp that remains is a striking feature in the could also be round.53 At Fyrkat the buildings
landscape (figure I.30).48 Four are known, one have been discovered to have housed work
of them, Nonnebakken, now overgrown by the shops and storehouses as well as dwellings, sug
city of Odense on Funen. The other three, A g gesting other than purely military use. The
gersborg and Fyrkat in Jutland and Trelleborg precision, however, suggests a trained
on Zealand, share several characteristics of plan, theoretician.
though they are not all the same size. Each Finally, although much is known about the
consists of a circular rampart enclosing groups Viking pantheon, little is known of actual places
of boat-shaped buildings arranged in squares. of worship. Structural evidence for one aspect
The camps are divided approximately north- of Viking belief is, however, abundant. From
south and east-west by “streets” paved with the Norwegian ship burials have come the dra
timber, leading to four gates. Trelleborg has matic finds of the vessels themselves. These
been recently dated to 9 8 0 -9 8 1 and Fyrkat were not meant to be seen except as mounds,
close to 976.49 They were laid out geometri as in earlier times. In Denmark, on the other
cally, with evidently some precise knowledge of hand, ship settings were again built, from single
surveying. examples such as the one at Glavendrup on Fu
The buildings, which may have been bar nen to the great cemetery at Lindholm Høje
racks, are long structures with curved walls, (figures 1.31 and 1.32). Whether they were
comprising a central hall with hearth and a erected in conscious imitation of the Bronze
smaller room at each end. A reconstruction at Age monuments on the coasts of Sweden in
tempted at Trelleborg in 1942 has been shown order to invest their builders with the author
to be faulty, with the exterior postholes now ity of tradition or simply to display the vital
interpreted as evidence for buttresses rather importance of the ship we shall probably never
than an exterior gallery.50 The walls were of know. To the modern viewer they are strong
vertical planks and the roof of trussed rafters, reminders of the vigorous people within whose
supported by the buttresses, making these ranks rose those who led the Scandinavians into
houses similar to the other medieval hall types the beginning of their historical period.
in northern Europe.

27.
1.3 1 Glavendrup, Funen.

Ship setting. 9th
century.
1.32 Lindholm Høje, Jut
land. Ship settings.
9th century.
31

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

2 The Middle Ages
The Romanesque Period c. 1050-1250 ,

From the raid on Lindisfarne in 793 to the bat
tles of Stamford Bridge and Hastings in 1066,
the Norsemen spread their adventures to
western Europe and across the Atlantic, leaving
buildings in those places where they were able
to settle. These first attempts led to perma
nent settlement in Iceland, whereas in Green
land the Norse colonies were abandoned by
the end of the fifteenth century. We have seen
how short-lived was the little outpost in New
foundland. But during the Viking Age the Scan
dinavian countries were being invaded in their
turn by Christian missionaries. These deter
mined churchmen gradually won converts, and
as the national states of Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway were beginning to form, the Church
became established as well.
None of this took place overnight. In 827,
early in the Viking period, St. Ansgar of Bre
men founded churches in the commercial towns
of Hedeby, Ribe, and Birka. No traces of Chris
tian structures remain from this time, but a sig
nificant beginning had been made. More than a
century elapsed, however, before dioceses
were established at Hedeby, Ribe, and Århus in

The Middle Ages
As a result of these conversions the north

ern countries put on a “robe of churches” like
that which cloaked continental Europe after the
year 1000, but the northern robe was at first
probably more brown with wood than white
with stone. From the hundreds of churches
that remain from the Romanesque period, only
a modest number can be presented here to il
lustrate the variety possible among the parish
churches of wood, stone, or brick, the larger
town churches, the abbeys, and the centralized
churches. The early eleventh century began a
period of intense building activity in the smaller
towns, and by the late twelfth century more
ambitious programs were being undertaken in
948, under the Archbishop of Bremen. The the larger towns and cities.
baptism of King Harald Blue-Tooth at Jelling, In the preceding chapter it was shown
c. 965, brought the secular authority in Den that, largely as the result of excavation, a con
mark into the Christian orbit, as the proud siderable amount has been learned about hous
boast on the Jelling Stone asserts that Harald ing in the Scandinavian countries in the pre
“made the Danes Christian.” King Olav Slöt- Christian eras. In spite of the literary traditions
kuning of Sweden was baptized at Uppsala in concerning the Nordic gods, however, little is
1000, the year in which Iceland allowed Chris known of buildings for worship in pagan times.
tianity to be adopted along with the worship of The new faith brought a new building need.
the pagan gods. Shortly thereafter another The first chapels built by the missionaries have
Christian king of Denmark, Knud the Great, disappeared, but were probably single cells, fur
became king of England in 1014. The wheel had nished with simple altars. The next step would
come full circle. In the late eleventh century be to differentiate the nave, or place of assem
the Church was established in Norway under bly, from a smaller chancel, or sanctuary, con
King Olav Kyrre, with dioceses at Bergen, taining the altar, following the axial
Oslo, and Trondheim, also under the Arch arrangement characteristic of western Euro
bishop of Bremen. Yet it was not until the mid pean church planning. The remains of S. Maria
dle of the twelfth century that the Swedes Minor in Lund show this type of plan, with
took the Church to the Finns, nor did the walls of vertical halved logs and inner rows of
Church become dominant in Iceland until that posts around nave and chancel (figure 2 .1).2
republic came under the Norwegian King Built c. 1000-1020, this little church is one of
Håkon IV in 1262-1264. By the end of the the earliest examples of one kind of “stave”
eleventh century the ecclesiastical system of church construction, the uprights set directly
sees and parishes was in place in Denmark, into the ground palisade fashion, the posts
Sweden, and Norway, resulting in the system of carrying the roof. The little church from
tithes and the obligation of the parishes to Holtålen in Trøndelag, built in the twelfth cen
build churches.1 tury (now in the museum at Sverresborg,

31 .
2 .1 Lund. S. Maria Minor. c.

1000-1020. Plan. (After
Ekhoff, Svenska sta v-
k y rko r, figure 123, p. I SO.)
2.2 Holtåien, Trøndelag.
Church, c. 1050. (Now in
museum at Sverresberg,
Trondheim.)
2.3 Hemse, Gotland.
Church, c. 1100. Conjec
tural drawing. (Ekhoff,
Svenska sta vkyrko r,
figure 103, p. 125.)

The Middle Ages
2.4 Urnes, Sogn. Church.

I 125—I 140. Drawing by
J. C. Dahl, 1844. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
2.5 Urnes, Sogn. Church.
Plan. (After Ekhoff,
Svenska sta vkyrko r,
figure 7, p. 50.)
2.6 Gol, Hallingdal. Church.
Early 13th century.
(Now in Norwegian Folk
Museum at Bygdøy,
Oslo.)

33 .

The Middle Ages
The church at Urnes in Sogn is considered

to be one of the earliest remaining of this kind
(figures 2.4 and 2.5).7 The present building,
c. I 130, appears to be the third on the site. It
is a small structure, about 28 by 21 feet, rest
ing modestly at the foot of a sheltering hill.
The basis for its construction is a “raft” of four
timbers, two lengthwise and two crosswise,
laid on a bed of stones and crossed with their
ends projecting about 4 1/2 feet from the
points of crossing. The major upright posts or
staves, sometimes called “masts,” are tenoned
into this raft and joined at the top with horizon
tal plates. Cross and quadrant braces are used
to strengthen the posts. The roof is con
structed of rafters and purlins, strengthened by
scissors braces and collar beams. Sills for the
outer walls are fitted into the projecting ends
of the raft to form the basis for an ambulatory.
The walls are of vertical planks set into the
sills, with a pent roof abutting lower beams be
Trondheim), has heavy posts set on a sill at the tween the posts. A short clerestory wall rises
corners of the nave and chancel, with the above this roof, and the whole assemblage re
planks of the palisade wall also grooved into sults in the familiar stepped pyramidal appear
the sill. The sill rests on a stone foundation, ance of the stave or “mast” church.8
which helped to protect the timbers from rot To this formula could be added surround
and hence gave the church a better chance for ing open porches and turrets or belfries. Two
survival (figure 2.2).3 Fragments from the of the grander examples date from the years
church at Hemse, Gotland (now in the Histori 1200-1250. The church at Gol was moved
cal Museum, Stockholm), show how such tim from its original location in Hallingdal to King
bers might be carved with patterns carried Oscar ll’s collection of Norwegian antiquities at
over from Viking times (figure 2.3).4 Bygdøy near Oslo in 1884.9 It is now a major
Most of the more than seven hundred attraction of the Norwegian Folk Museum (fig
wooden churches built in Norway in this pe ure 2.6). The Borgund church remains in its
riod are now gone, about thirty remaining. original location in Sogn (figures 2.7 and 2.8).10
They were mostly of the type just described, as Without artificial illumination these churches
were the wooden churches of Romanesque are dark, having only the smallest of clerestory
Denmark and Sweden.5 Another kind is the and chancel openings. The naves rise cavelike,
“mast” type of stave church. This is a particu and the orientation remains toward the altars.
larly interesting phenomenon in Norwegian ar The few that are left demonstrate the sound
chitecture, the significance of which has been a ness of well-seasoned timber and the ingenuity
subject of controversy for nearly a century.6 of the system with which they were built.

35 .
2.7 Borgund, Sogn. Church.

Early 13th century. In
terior. (Oslo, Riksan
tikvaren.)
2.8 Borgund, Sogn. Church.
Plan. (After Dietrich-
son, N orske sta vkirk er,
figure 2, p. 8.)
2.9 Råsted, Jutland. Church.
Early 12th century.

The Middle Ages
Probably more would have survived had they

not been razed to make way for larger
buildings.
After 1814a wave of enthusiasm for Nor
way’s cultural heritage arose, otherwise the
stave churches remaining then might not have
survived at all. Our knowledge of them would
have been limited to representations in painting
or other arts, which would have been enig
matic at best. Much of the credit belongs to
the painter Johan Christian Dahl (1788-1857),
who in addition to painting the Norwegian
landscape took great interest in the preserva
tion of Norwegian architecture. In order to
save the stave church at Vang in Valdres, Dahl
10
2 .10 Råsted, Jutland.

Church. Interior.
2 .11 Volsted, Jutland.
Church. 12th century.

37.
persuaded King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia built of calcareous tufa, which is abundant on
to buy it, and it was dismantled and recon Zealand and widely used for these early stone
structed at Bruckenberg in Silesia (now Bier- churches in Denmark. Seventeen to eighteen
tonice in Poland) in 18 4 2 -1844.11 In 1836 Dahl hundred had been built in Denmark alone by
had written an essay on the wooden architec c. 1250, many of which still exist, mostly in the
ture of Norway, and the widespread interest smaller communities.
now being aroused led to the founding of the One notable example in Denmark is the
Society for the Preservation of Ancient Monu little church at Råsted on Jutland, which still has
ments in Norway in 1844. Dahl’s view of Urnes much of its original character. It was probably
has been chosen to illustrate this church as it built sometime before 1150 as a simple nave
was in the 1840s. and chancel church of limestone, to which the
Since the “mast” type of stave church is so south porch and west tower were added in the
different from the more familiar nave and chan Gothic period (figure 2.9).14 The entrance to
cel type that is found also in stone and brick, the parish church in Denmark and Sweden was
questions have arisen as to the origins of their normally on the south side, for this side got the
design. Opinions range from Lorenz Dietrich- most sun and shelter from the wind. The porch
son’s theory that they are conversions from gave additional protection by keeping the wind,
stone Romanesque basilicas to Kristian rain, and snow from entering the nave directly.
Bjerknes’s theory that they perpetuated a now- It is called the våbenhus or “weapon-house” in
vanished type of pagan temple, and the matter Denmark, because weapons were to be left
is not yet resolved.12 here before their owners entered the church.
As for ornament for embellishment or di If a second door was added, it would be on the
dactic purposes, a few fine examples of carved north side, since the women sat on the north
portals have survived from the stave churches, and the men on the south. The tower was a
some now in museum collections. Those now landmark in the countryside and could serve as
seen at Urnes were saved from the previous a watchtower and a stronghold for church or
building and incorporated in the present town valuables.
church. These are of the so-called “Urnes” At Råsted the nave and chancel are still
style, the last of the great Viking ornamental covered with flat wooden ceilings, as were so
styles. The mingling of pagan and Christian mo many of the Romanesque parish churches origi
tifs on these portals shows that the adoption of nally. On the east wall of the nave, the arched
Christianity in the North was by no means im entrance to the chancel, and the chancel walls
mediate and automatic and that the incoming there has survived one of the finest remaining
clergy were wise enough to respect and make cycles of Romanesque wall paintings (figure
use of local traditions. 2 .10).15 Such paintings, as we shall see, flour
In Denmark and Sweden the church build ished in Denmark, Sweden, and Finland for
ers turned soon to stone and in the twelfth nearly five hundred years, giving a colorful Bib
century to brick. Perhaps the earliest stone lia Pauperum painted al secco with mineral
church in these countries was that built by King pigments.
Svend Estridsen at Roskilde on Zealand, We have already noted the carvings on the
c. 1030.13 Extant foundations indicate that it Norwegian stave churches, with their combina
was a simple nave and chancel structure. It was tion of pagan and Christian symbolism. The

The Middle Ages
portals of stone churches might also receive

such carvings, usually in granite. A particularly
vigorous tradition developed on the Jutland
peninsula, where some of the individual carvers
can be identified. One of these was Master
Goti, who did the portals for the church at
Volsted, built early in the twelfth century (fig
ure 2.11).16 This is another typical small parish
church, set apart from the center of the village
in a walled churchyard. Until 1873 the carvings
were on the original south portal. Then the
våbenhus was built and the carvings moved to it
(figure 2 .12). These are in the typical low re
lief, depicting an episode from the Creation
cycle and here an unusual portrayal of a bishop.
Volsted is a simple nave and chancel church, the
nave covered still with a timber roof and the
chancel now covered with a Gothic half-vault.
A similar parish church in Sweden is Botkyrka
in Södermanland (figure 2.13).17
Although wood predominated for early
churches in Norway, some parish churches
12
there were built of stone. The church at Tin
gelstad in Hadeland as now restored may re
2.12 Volsted, Jutland. semble the first little stone church at Roskilde
Church. Portal. (figure 2 .14 ).18 Here is a simple stone building,
2 .13 Botkyrka, Söderman with nave and rectangular chancel, round
land. Church. 1176. headed doors and windows, covered with a
2 .14 Tingelstad, Hadeland. steep wooden roof, which is crowned by an
Church, c. 1100. (Oslo, octagonal turret. The east gable is filled with
Riksantikvaren.) masonry, the west gable with timber.
From this detail of the church at Tingel
stad we may turn to a brief mention of the
early medieval churches of Iceland and Green
land. Settlement of both places was primarily
by the Norse, and it is thought that the earliest
churches built in Iceland were probably of
wood, similar to the nave and chancel type of
stave church.19 These have disappeared, and the
wooden churches and very few turf churches
that we see today were built much later. Then
in Greenland in the late Viking period Erik the

39 .
Red’s wife Thjodhilde became converted to

Christianity and built a little church near the
farmstead at Brattalid.20 No trace of this re
mains, but traces of several parish churches
have been found in the Eastern and Western
Settlements. By c. I I 00 Christianity was more
firmly established in Greenland, the first bishop
being appointed in I 126. His residence was
fixed at Gardar, where the house and the out
buildings of a major estate were built, including
a large festival hall.21 The cathedral church was
more elaborate than the parish churches, having
north and south chapels. Like other Norse
churches in Greenland, it had a timbered west
gable. Most of the parish churches that spread
over these territories in the twelfth century
were, like their contemporaries in Iceland,

The Middle Ages
2 .15 Tveje Merløse, Zea

land. Church, c. 1125.
2 .16 Lund. Cathedral. Early
12th century. East end.
(Copenhagen, National
Museum.)
2 .17 Lund. Cathedral. Plan.
(After Anker and
Aron Andersson, A r t
o f Scandinavia, volume
2, figure 13, p. 38.)

41 .
hardly more than private chapels by individual chitectus, magister operis hujus obiit,” and it is
farms. thought that he was an Italian, possibly brought
The more ambitious cathedral at Gardar to Lund via Speyer. The original plan of the ca
was characteristic of the trend to more splen thedral consisted of a four-bay nave, separated
did churches as the bishops and their royal and from the aisles by an alternating system of
noble patrons reinforced their claims and piers, a transept with projecting chapels and
strengthened the position of the Church in the stair towers, choir, and apse, the east end of
Nordic lands. By the last quarter of the elev the building corresponding in part to the pred
enth century Bishop Svend Normand saw King ecessor over which it was built. The western
Svend Estridsen’s little church at Roskilde as in tower complex was not part of the original
adequate and on its foundations built a larger conception but was added under Archbishop
three-aisled church of limestone, which is Absalon early in the thirteenth century. The
thought to have had western towers, a tran aisles were groin-vaulted from the beginning,
sept, choir, and perhaps apses.22 It probably but the nave had a wooden roof to start, as did
looked very much like the present church at probably the transept, and the choir and apse
Tveje Merløse, begun c. 1125, which is about were vaulted. The present vaults were first
30 kilometers west of Roskilde on the main built over the nave after a fire in 1234 and
road to the medieval town of Kalundborg (fig were rebuilt during restorations in the nine
ure 2 .15).23 Across the Sound in Skåne a new teenth century. So much restoration has been
bishopric had been founded at Lund by King done, in fact, that little of the original surface
Svend Estridsen, who died in 1074, and under of the stone is visible.
one of his sons, King Knud the Holy, a small The exterior of the east end of Lund is
cathedral was built in the 1080s.24 It consisted justly famous, for apparently here the rich
of nave and aisles, transept, choir, and apse, Rheno-Lorn bardic vocabulary of ornament was
with its remains now forming the crypt of the introduced into Scandinavia. As extensively re
present building. stored in the nineteenth century, it has a mas
Then in 1104 King Erik Ejegod was able to sive base with round-headed windows opening
get Lund elevated to an archbishopric, which into the crypt, a story of blind arcades with
was intended to serve all of Scandinavia. Al double arches rising from consoles, a second
though by this event the Church in the Nordic story of alternating blind panels and round
countries was no longer under direct German headed windows, framed by applied colonnettes
control, the artistic ties between Denmark and carrying arches, and a shorter third story of a
Germany remained strong throughout the Mid blind gallery formed by a dwarf arcade. A
dle Ages and indeed beyond. We shall see that strong Italian-derived spirit is evident in the
in Norway, on the other hand, strong artistic portals, with their series of recessed columns
impulses came from England. and in part classically derived carvings.26
To celebrate the new status of Lund a Such a magnificent project, unprecedented
great cathedral was begun, for which the con and the prime ecclesiastical building in Scandina
secration of the several altars was not com via until the establishment of an archbishopric
pleted until I 145 (figures 2.16 and 2.I7).25 An in Trondheim in I 152, could hardly fail to have
entry in the cathedral death rolls for the period its imitators. The Rheno-Lombardic systems in
between 1130 and 1140 refers to “Donatus ar volving applied colonnettes or pilasters, arched

The Middle Ages
18
corbel tables, blind galleries, and the interplay For the western Danish diocese a new ca
of these elements applied in contrasting scales thedral was begun at Ribe on Jutland c. 1130
are to be found on many succeeding Roman (figures 2.19 and 2.20).28 As planned originally
esque parish churches. One notable example is it consisted of nave, aisles, transept, and apse.
the church at Vä in Skåne, begun c. 1140, per There is no choir, and the transept chapels of
haps under royal patronage, and taken over as a Lund are reduced to niches in the east walls.
Premonstratensian abbey c. 1160 (figure The brick northwest tower was added c. 1250
2 .18).27 It was begun with a flat east end, but and rebuilt c. 1620, while the aisles are Gothic
this was changed to a semicircular apse, finished and were probably added early in the fifteenth
with an arched corbel table and pilaster strips century. The southeast, or Maria, tower was
separating the window bays. By 1160 the apse rebuilt in 1896. The Jørgen Roed painting
and chancel had been vaulted, and the fine Ro shows how the building once loomed up in the
manesque paintings on these vaults have now crowded town. It also shows it in a differ
survived. ent stage of color, with the Rheno-Lombardic

43 .
19
2 .18 Vä, Skåne. Church. Be

gun c. 1140.
2 .19 Ribe, Jutland. Cathe
dral. Begun c. 1130.
Painting by J. Roed,
1836. (Copenhagen,
State Museum of Art.)
2.20 Ribe, Jutland. Cathe
dral. Interior. Painting
by J. Roed, 1836. (Co
penhagen, State Mu
seum of Art.)
20

The Middle Ages
arcading emphasized by white-washing of the nave. The nave and aisles are separated by cru
flat walls behind. Today the brown-gray stone ciform piers, and there is a bifora motif in the
is seen throughout the exterior, contrasting triforium that recalls the trifora of Ribe. Also
with the brick additions. as at Ribe, there is a shallow apse within the
Roed’s painting of the interior (actually a wall at the end of the north aisle. The church is
study for a painting now in the Hirschsprung vaulted throughout, with groin vaults over the
Collection, Copenhagen) shows the triforium nave. These may have been constructed after a
above the aisles, which was omitted at Lund. fire in I 198, since they obstruct the clerestory
The German-inspired domed-up vaults, added windows of the south wall. The choir was orig
after a fire in 1242, were then white-washed, inally only one bay deep, and it was probably
and Roed was evidently fascinated by the ef lengthened during the rebuilding after another
fects of light upon them. Today more patterns fire in 1248. The builders of St. Mary’s may
have been painted on the transverse arches and have been brought from Lund or Ribe, but the
ribs. The pulpit of 1597 has been moved from spiral colonnettes and geometrical patterns on
its more central location on the north side of the archivolts suggest that the designers of the
the nave to a position nearer the transept on south portal may have come from England.
the south. The altarpiece of 1597 seen in A closer link with English Romanesque ar
Roed’s painting has been removed to make way chitecture can be seen at the cathedral of St.
for the tabernacle and altar installed during res Swithun in Stavanger (figure 2.23).30 Built under
torations in 1884-1904. While there is abun Bishop Reinald, who was brought to Stavanger
dant documentation and some visual evidence from Winchester c. 1125, it was damaged in a
for the changes that these Romanesque build fire of 1272, after which the present Gothic
ings have undergone, these paintings give us an choir was constructed. The original western
especially effective set of exterior and interior
views by an artist who saw the building over
one hundred fifty years ago.
In the early large Norwegian stone
churches, we can see some of the same Ger
man-derived features as those of the Danish
churches just described, and also some more
clearly coming from England. St. Mary’s Church
in Bergen, begun c. 11 30, is still much as it was
originally built (figures 2.21 and 2.22).29 Bergen
was one of Norway’s first cathedral cities, and
in the twelfth century it was in effect the capi
tal of Norway. The cathedral church in the cen
ter of town is Christ Church, also begun in the
twelfth century, and St. Mary’s appears to have
been built to serve the community around the
castle at the mouth of the bay. It is a basilical
church, with two towers rising on the west,
the west door opening into the first bay of the
21

45 .
2.21 Bergen. St. Mary. Be

gun c. 11 30. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
2.22 Bergen. St. Mary.
Portal.
2.23 Stavanger, Rogaland.
Cathedral. Nave. c.
1130. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)

The Middle Ages
tower was also pulled down and replaced by a English Benedictines built the abbey church at
broad vestibule. The nave, however, remains Venge near Skanderborg on Jutland (figure
separated from the aisles by five sets of cylind 2.26).32 It is a small building, with a single nave,
rical piers carrying a broad arcade. There is no transepts with eastern apses, choir, and apse.
triforium, and the clerestory consists of simple The semicircular apses are characteristically Ben
round-headed windows. The cushion capitals edictine, and the narrow openings into the
with sharply projecting abacus blocks are close transepts and choir are in the Anglo-Norman
to those remaining in the north transept of tradition. The church is built of sandstone and
Winchester Cathedral, 10 7 9 -1093. originally had wooden roofs over nave and
By far the most impressive undertaking in choir. The exterior decoration of the apse is
twelfth-century Norway was the transforma also in the Anglo-Norman manner.
tion of the old church at Trondheim, then At Venge the rest of the monastic build
called Nidaros, upon the founding of the arch ings are gone, but from a reconstruction based
bishopric there in I I52.31 The town and its on foundations remaining at Alvastra in Öster
church grew from the residence established götland we can see the program of the typical
there by King Olav Tryggvasson in 997. After monastic establishment (figure 2.27).33 On the
the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 St. Olav was south side of the church there was built a cov
buried at the second church, which he had be ered passage surrounding a square courtyard.
gun c. 1016. This was rebuilt as a cathedral Opening off this on the east side was the
church under King Olav Kyrre and called Christ meeting room or chapter house, with the dor
Church. Under the first archbishop, Eystein Er- mitory built above. Kitchen and refectory were
landson, this building was pulled down and the on the south side, with barns, warehouses, and
present one begun, preserving the shrine of St. storage on the west. Alvastra was founded in
Olav (figure 2.24). Only the transept was com 1143 by Cistercian rather than Benedictine
pleted during the Romanesque period, but the monks, one of the expressions of this reformed
lower portions that remain are eloquent of the order being the flat east walls of the eastern
Norman style, with massive walls decorated chapels, as had been established at the original
with wall arcades, rich use of colonnettes with church of the Order at Clairvaux.34
cubical capitals, and zigzag and billet moldings While these developments were taking
(figure 2.25). Throughout the Viking period place in stone, a new building material was in
Norsemen had carried their culture to England, troduced in the Scandinavian countries, one
and now English ideas were being received in that was to have a leading role in the architec
Norway. ture of the next several centuries. Earlier, un
In addition to the parish churches and ca der King Godfred, c. 808, a fortification had
thedrals there were of course the abbeys, and been dug across the south end of the Jutland
as the different orders established houses in the peninsula to protect the Danes from the armies
Scandinavian countries they built their churches of Charlemagne. In the reign of King Valdemar
according to their own particular traditions. I (I 157-1 182) this was further strengthened by
Early in the twelfth century English Benedictine a facing of brick, a new manufactured material
monks were invited to Odense by King Erik for which the technology was imported from
Ejegod, but they did not at first build their own Lombardy.
churches. Soon after, however, c. 1125, other

47.
2.24 Trondheim. Cathedral. The Benedictines had built an abbey of tufa

Begun 1152. Plan. at Ringsted in Sorø County on Zealand c. 1080.
(After Lundberg, Bygg Here St. Knud Lavard was buried after he was
nadskonsten, p. 200.) murdered in I 13 1. A new brick church was be
2.25 Trondheim. Cathedral. gun c. 1160 over the remains of the old, and
South transept chapel. the nave was nearing completion by the death
(Oslo, Riksantikvaren.)
of Valdemar in 1I82.35 The church has under
gone fires and restorations, the fire of 1241 re
sulting in the Gothic vaulting. In plan it
resembles Cluny III, begun 1088, with its broad
transept carrying four eastern chapels in addi
tion to the choir and apse (figure 2.28). Al
though the exterior walls have little surface
decoration apart from the arched corbel tables,
the plan resulted in a rich complex of masses at
the east end. We may well suspect that the
builders thought that the application of pilas
ters, blind arcades, etc., would have created an
undesirably busy surface. The interior has
breadth of effect, the wide round-headed
arches of the nave rising from rectangular piers.
There is no triforium gallery, and the nave wall
is now punctuated by the corbeled supports for
the vaulting ribs.

The Middle Ages

49 .
2.26 Venge, Jutland. Church,

c. 1125. (Copenhagen,
National Museum.)
2.27 Alvastra, Östergöt
land. Abbey. 1143.
Plan. (After Anker and
Aron Andersson, A r t
of Scandinavia, volume
2, figure 87, p. 177.)
2.28 Ringsted, Zealand. St.
Bendt. Begun 1160.

The Middle Ages
At nearby Sorø a new Cistercian abbey

was founded in 1162 as a private church for the
powerful Hvide family.36 In some respects the
plan resembles that of Ringsted in having nave
and aisles, transept, chapels, and apse (figure
2.29). In the nave, however, the bays are
square rather than rectangular, and the bays of
the side aisles are also square, the whole sys
tem based on the Roman rather than the
Greek foot used at Ringsted. The transept
chapels and apse have flat east walls in the Cis
tercian manner. The nave was originally cov
ered with a wooden roof, and the vaults were
constructed after a fire in 1247. At both
Ringsted and Sorø the colonnettes, capitals, and
moldings for the ornaments of door and win
dow openings were executed in specially
molded brick rather than stone (figure 2.30).
The parish churches, cathedrals, and abbey
churches that we have been considering were
all planned longitudinally, whether simply with
nave and chancel or with the full basilical com
plex. While this was the most widely adopted
plan in Romanesque Scandinavia, another ap
proach was also occasionally used. This was to
construct a church around a central vertical
axis, using the circle or the Greek cross as the
basic plan. A dozen or so were built in Den
mark and Sweden, evidently as defensive struc
tures. The southern and eastern shores were
menaced by attacks from across the Baltic, and
some of the round churches were fortified
after the manner of Continental towers.37
The most interesting group is that of the
four round churches on Bornholm, Østerlars
being the most dramatic (figure 2.3 1).38 It is a
massive building, three stories high, with the
roof resting on thick outer walls and also sup
ported by a central pillar. This pillar is actually
hollow, a round room formed by six heavy
posts that are the inner supports for the annu
lar vault of the surrounding aisle. This room is

51 .
used as a baptistry, and the choir and apse, also

circular, project off the main building. The stair
case to the upper levels rises through the wall
of the choir. The heavy buttresses that make
the exterior so picturesque were added in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Hoardings
and machicolations provided the defenses of
these churches. Lines drawn on a map of Born
holm will show these churches zigzagging up
the island toward the stronghold of Hammers
hus on the north. The churches are no more
than nine miles apart, and signal flares could
send quick warning of impending invasion right
across the island.
The round churches of Bornholm are all
31
built with a central pier, and there is no con
ventional nave, only a surrounding corridor.
Another approach was to support the vaults of
a round church with four central piers, which
left comparatively more assembly space at the
ground level. The piers rise to five four-part
vaults in a Greek cross plan, with triangular
vaults to fill out the circle. This system was
adopted at Bjernede on Zealand c. 1160 and 2.29 Sorø, Zealand. Abbey
also at Thorsager on Jutland c. 1200.39 At Church. Begun 1165.
Bjernede the church was begun in granite and Plan. (After Herman-
finished in brick (figure 2.32). The upper por sen and Nørlund, Dsn-
tion underwent some changes, and the present m arks K irk en Sorø
pyramidal roof and also the apse date from re A m t, volume I , figure
constructions in 1890-1892. 4, p. 24.)
The most spectacular and intriguing of the 2.30 Ringsted, Zealand. St.
Romanesque centralized churches is at Kalund Bendt. Portal.
borg on Zealand (figure 2.33).40 It was begun 2.31 Østerlars, Bornholm.
c. I 170 on a Greek cross plan, with an octago Church, c. 1150.
nal tower at the end of each arm and a square
tower over the crossing. This central tower fell
in 1827 and was rebuilt in 18 7 1.41 The church
was probably built by Bishop Esbjørn Snare,
brother of the great Bishop Absalon. The mas
sive brick walls and the fortresslike character of
the stairs to the towers are appropriate signs
of Kalundborg’s site on the fjord coming off the

The Middle Ages
Great Belt. Modern commercial buildings now

dominate the view from the water, but in the
twelfth century the great church must have
been an impressive landmark. Although the plan
appears to be centralized in outline, the inte
rior is arranged with the altar on the east wall,
opposite the west entrance, creating the effect
of a short basilica with chapels projecting on
north and south. The piers as rebuilt after a
fire in 1314 are more slender than the original,
and the first appearance of the interior (figure
2.34) must have been much like that of
Bjernede, which was built by Bishop Absalon.
With Kalundborg the great age of Roman
esque building in Scandinavia was drawing to a
close. A new style was already developing in
France, and with the next major building proj
ect in the North, Roskilde Cathedral, the
Gothic would overtake the earlier style.
32
33

S3 .
2.32 Bjernede, Zealand.

Church, c. 1160-1180.
2.33 Kalundborg, Zealand.
Church. Begun 1170.
2.34 Kalundborg, Zealand.
Church. Interior. (Co
penhagen, National
Museum.)
34

The Middle Ages
,
The Gothic Period c. 1250-1530 35
By the turn of the thirteenth century the

Gothic style in architecture was approaching its
maturity in France and England. In the Scandina
vian countries the new style was sometimes
adopted for new construction and sometimes
for alteration to existing buildings. Influences
came from Germany as well as from France and
England. No clear-cut division into regional or
national groups is entirely appropriate, but cer
tain tendencies can be observed. In Denmark
and southern Sweden brick was especially pop
ular and also to some extent in Finland, with
strong relations to German building. Stone was
used more in central Sweden and on the island
of Gotland, in a mixture of French, English, and
German ideas. In Norway and the Atlantic is
lands building in stone with strong preferences
for English details seems to have predominated.
Before turning to some examples of
churches from these groups, we should note
the transitional character of one of Denmark’s
most important churches, the cathedral at Ros
kilde. A campaign to replace Svend Normand’s
church with something grander was begun by
Bishop Absalon c. 1170.42 He planned it to be a

55 .
three-aisled basilica of granite, as some frag

ments in the present church indicate. The work
was begun at the east end in the Romanesque
style, but fashion changed the plans. Almost at 2.35 Roskilde, Zealand. Ca
once the examples of the churches at Ringsted thedral. Begun 1190.
and Sorø caused a change from stone to brick. Plan. (After Moltke
Then when Bishop Absalon was succeeded by and Elna Holler, Dan
m a rks K irk e r. Køben
Bishop Peder Sunesøn in 1193 the work was
havns A m t, volume 3,
continued in the Gothic style which the bishop
figure 26b, p. 1327.)
had encountered in travels in France and the
2.36 Roskilde, Zealand. Ca
Low Countries. By 1300 the nave was finished
thedral. (Copenhagen,
as far as the west wall, and from then until
National Museum.)
1924 no less than eleven additions were made
to the basic plan (figure 2.35). After the court
of Denmark moved from Roskilde to Copen
hagen in 1416, Roskilde Cathedral continued to
be the royal burial place, which accounts for its
many chapels. The earlier Romanesque portions
are visible at the east end, and in the clerestory
the windows are still round-headed. The twin
towers that rise at the west end did not re
ceive their slender spires until 1635 (figure
2.36). The Gothic work becomes apparent in
the interior, where the nave is separated from
the aisles by compound brick piers that rise 78
feet to the domical vaults (figure 2.37). Gothic
vaults also cover the aisles and choir. The major
furnishings are sumptuous and include the oak
gallery or pew of Christian IV (1610), the sand
stone and alabaster pulpit ( 1609), the gilt wood
altar (c. 1580), and the organ ( 1550 and 1654,
rebuilt 1957). These fortunately survived the
fire that broke out during repairs to the east
ern roof in 1968.
We should also note one other great tran
sitional church in Denmark, the Cistercian ab
bey church of Løgumkloster on Jutland,43 built
on the so-called “Bernardine” plan like that of
Alvastra. Only the chancel and eastern chapels
were promptly ready for use after the building
was begun c. 1200. The remainder of the
church was not completed until c. 1350, which 36

The Middle Ages
accounts for the appearance of pointed arches

in the upper portions and the differences in
vaulting from one end to the other. According
to Cistercian rule a western tower complex
like that of Roskilde was omitted. By the time
of its completion, however, some of the auster
ity of the Order was relaxing, and the gable
ends were evidently inspired by north German
or Netherlandish fashion with their groups of
window panels and stepped edges. In contrast
the interior is characterized by plain surfaces,
with no ribs on the piers and no articulation of
the nave wall (figure 2.38). Upon the Reforma
tion in Denmark in 1536 the monastic buildings
were largely destroyed and the church itself
seldom used until it became a parish church in
1739. Therefore the present altar, pulpit, and
font, which the red brick sets off so effectively,
are not the original furnishings.
The gables of Løgumkloster bring us to
those buildings that may be viewed as belong
ing to a larger regional group that transcends
national boundaries: the “Baltic brick Gothic,”
which includes the Netherlands, north Ger
many, and the eastern Baltic countries as well
as Denmark and south Sweden.44 Two cathe
drals and two city churches can be noted to 37
demonstrate the vigor of this style in south
Scandinavia.
Odense on Funen was the seat of one of 2.37 Roskilde, Zealand. Ca
the oldest bishoprics in Denmark, founded in thedral. Interior. (Co
988. In 1086 King Knud the Holy was killed in penhagen, National
the small wooden church of St. Alban near the Museum.)
cathedral. He had already begun a new granite 2.38 Løgumkloster, Jutland.
cathedral, to which his remains were trans Abbey Church. Begun
ferred in 1095 and which was renamed in his c. 1200. Interior. (Co
honor after his canonization in I101. This penhagen, National
church burned in 1247, some parts now re Museum.)
maining as a crypt, and the present building was
begun in the new brick Gothic style 45 The first
five bays of the nave were completed by 1300,
then the chancel bays were added, then c. 1450

57.
38
the two parts were connected without a con

ventional transept. The west front was given its
single tower under Christian III in 1558, and
the building was restored in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. Unlike the unpainted
walls at Løgumkloster, the brick interior has
been whitewashed (figure 2.39). The compound
piers of the nave carry an arcade with continu
ous moldings, and these are echoed in the
moldings of the triforium and clerestory open
ings. Vaulting shafts are carried up across the
nave wall to the springing of the vaults. The
more steeply pointed arches give a stronger

The Middle Ages
vertical emphasis than at Roskilde and

Løgumkloster. The whitened brick of the nave
provides a setting for the pulpit of 1751-1754
and the royal pew of 1894. The organ in the
west end retains its case of 1752, but the most
striking furnishing is the great altar by Claus
Berg, c. 1520, originally carved for the Gray
Friars’ Church, and now dominating the raised
chancel.
The exterior of St. Knud is comparatively
modest, with the plain walls of nave and aisles,
simple clerestory windows, and plain salient
buttresses. A much grander effect was achieved
on the cathedral at Å rhus on Jutland (figure
2.40).46 Begun c. 1197, it is the longest church
in Denmark, measuring over 300 feet. It
started as a late Romanesque church with nave,
aisles, a projecting transept with eastern chap
els, choir, and apse, similar to Ringsted. The
plan as it is now reflects a change at the west
front in the fifteenth century, when it was de
cided to build two chapels flanking a central
tower instead of the two towers originally
planned. This was followed by raising the nave
and changing the vaulting system from three
bays to six. The transept was then heightened
and the choir rebuilt as a hall church by
39 c. 1482. These changes brought the high
stepped gables that give the cathedral its rich
exterior. Alterations in the transept included
provisions for the religious dramas that were
enacted in the cathedral, and the new choir
2.39 Odense, Funen. St. was a fitting stage for the permanent drama of
Knud. c. 1247-1301. Bernt Notke’s great altarpiece of 1498. The
Interior. building underwent restorations in 1867-1882
2.40 Århus, Jutland. Cathe and again in 1921-1927.
dral. Begun c. 1197. Copenhagen’s old brick Gothic Vor Frue
(Copenhagen, National Kirke, or the Church of Our Lady, no longer
Museum.) exists. Under Bishop Absalon a church had
been built in Copenhagen c. 1200, probably of
limestone.47 This burned in 1316; a new church
was built in brick with granite details 48 It was a

59 .
three-aisled basilica with eight bays in the nave, times called the “Hanseatic” style (figure
no projecting transept, and five chapels sur 2.43).49 It is basilical in plan, with five chapels
rounding the apse. In plan therefore it resem ringing the apse and additional chapels on north
bled Roskilde Cathedral, of which it was then a and south. While the transept does not appear
collegiate dependency. Representations of two as an independent element on the plan, the ex
coronations give us some idea of the interior. terior view shows it rising to the height of the
In a print of 1593 commemorating the corona nave. The original west front with its tower
tion of Frederik II in 1558, the church was collapsed in 1420, its successor in 1442, and yet
shown in a cutaway view that includes the altar another burned in 1560. The present tower
of 1559 and indicates salient buttresses, tracer- and spire were built in 1890, and the gables on
ied windows, cylindrical piers, and pilasters on the transept and chapels were probably rebuilt
the aisle walls rising to domical vaults (figure at the same time, repeating the medieval fea
2.41). For the coronation of Christian IV in tures of brick paneling and stepped gables. As
1596 the church was shown without the aisle at Odense, the brick of the interior is white
windows and pilasters and with a new altar of washed. The piers are without capitals, in the
1569, plus the little “swallow’s-nest” organ late Gothic manner, and the vaulting shafts are
now installed in the southeast corner of the corbeled, beginning at the springing of the nave
choir (figure 2.42). arcade. The white interior is generously lit by
Across the Sound in Malmö, Skåne, St. the large windows of the nave and choir, so
Peter’s Church has survived as a fine example that there is a fine setting for the richly carved
of the now fully developed brick Gothic, some pulpit of 1599 and the altar of 1611. While

The Middle Ages
2.41 Copenhagen. Vor Frue

Kirke. 1316. Print by
Gaspar Ens, I 593.
(Copenhagen, Royal
Library.)
Kirke. Print, 1596.
Museum.)
2.43 Malmö, Skåne. St. Pe
ter. 1313—1319.
41
42

61.
nearly all the paintings that once decorated the

church were lost in nineteenth-century restora
tions, those of the present baptistry (originally
the Merchants’ Chapel) have survived and show
the delicacy of the late medieval style of c.
1520.
For a major building in the northern ex
tension of this brick Gothic style we can turn
to Turku (the Swedish Åbo) in Finland. The
bishop’s seat was established here in 1229 and
a cathedral begun that was not completed until
c. 1290. Not long after, in 13 18, it was largely
destroyed by the Russians and rebuilt in brick
as a hall church. Chapels were added on the
north side beginning in the fourteenth century.
The nave was heightened and the vaults com
pleted c. 1460. The west tower was damaged
by fires in 1681 and 1827, after which it was
rebuilt in the neo-Gothic fashion (figure 2.44).50
After the repairs of 1976-1977 we can now
see some of the thirteenth-century stonework
in the lower parts, particularly in the base of
the tower. The later brickwork has the charac
teristically Finnish whitened decorative panels.
The cathedral’s growth by addition is evident
from the irregularities of the plan (figure 2.45).
When the nave was heightened, it was covered 43
by the then popular “star” vaults, springing
from corbels in the otherwise plain nave walls
(figure 2.46). Corbels for the earlier vaults re
main at the springing of the nave arcade. The
light and spacious interior created by the re
building has also a sharp intellectual quality, fit
ting perhaps for the cathedral of Mikael
Agricola (1508-1557), who brought the Refor
mation to Finland and made the first Finnish
translation of the Bible.
A more varied response to the Gothic
styles is visible at the cathedral church of Sts.
Lawrence, Erik, and Olav at Uppsala in Sweden,
begun c. 1271 (figure 2.47).51 This is the third
cathedral of the archiepiscopal diocese, the first

The Middle Ages
2.44 Turku. Cathedral. Be

gun mid-13th century.
(Helsinki, National Mu
seum of Finland.)
2.45 Turku. Cathedral.
Plan. (After Rinne,
Å bo D om kyrka, figure
2 ,p . 13.)
2.46 Turku. Cathedral. Inte
rior. (Helsinki, Mu
seum of Finnish
Architecture. (Photo:
Havas.)
2.47 Uppsala. Cathedral.
Begun 1273. (Uppsala,
Upplands Museum.
Photo: Tommy
44 Arvidson.)
Plan. (After Boëthius
and Romdahl, Uppsala
D om kyrka, figure 250,
p. 203.)

63 .
46
47

The Middle Ages
having been St. Peter at Sigtuna c. I 100 and

the second St. Lawrence at Gamla Uppsala,
consecrated I 156. The latter was chosen for
the burial place of St. Erik after his martyrdom
in I 160. By the middle of the thirteenth cen
tury, however, it was thought wise to move
the site of the cathedral to the trading center
of Östra Aros (now named Uppsala). The foun
dations for the new building were laid probably
in 1271, and enough had been constructed for
the relics of St. Erik to be moved there in
1273. As originally planned the church had a
nave of seven bays with aisles and chapels, a
transept, aisled choir, and five eastern chapels,
in the tradition of the French High Gothic (fig
ure 2.48). The nave walls are pierced with
small roundels, however, the vaults are slightly
domical, and the buttressing system does not
allow for a full triforium, all of which suggest
influence from German brick Gothic in the ac
49 tual construction.
For continuation of the work after 1287, a
letter of appointment (apparently still extant
when published in 1719) named “Estienne de
South portal. (Upp
sala, Upplands Mu Bonneuill, tailleur de pierre,” as master builder
seum. Photo: Tommy at Uppsala Cathedral, hence the strong French

Arvidson.) character of carving in the choir and on the
2. SO Stockholm. Storkyr south portal (figure 2.49).52 Extensive restora
kan. 1468-1496. Inte tions were needed after a great fire in 1702,
rior. (Stockholm, and then restoration programs were carried
Antikvari sk-Topograf• out from 1885 to 1893 and again from 1971 to
iska Arkivet.) 1976. The cathedral is the largest in Scandina
2.51 Visby, Gotland. St. via, over 380 feet long, and is the national
Mary. Begun late 12th shrine of Sweden, a pilgrimage and coronation
century. church, and a place of burial for monarchs and
honored citizens.
One other great brick cathedral that
should be mentioned is that of St. Nicholas, or
Storkyrkan, the oldest church in Stockholm.53
The first church of the early thirteenth century
burned in 1303 and was rebuilt. Then a major
enlargement took place beginning c. 1468, re-

sulting in the present plan with western tower,
nave, and double aisles, but no transept. The
interior is rather dark, since the brick piers of
the nave and aisles are not whitewashed, and
there is no clerestory (figure 2.50). The domi
cal star vaults of the nave spring from vaulting
shafts on the piers, and their ribs are sunk into
the nave walls without wall ribs. The aisles are
covered with square four-part vaults. The litur
gical furnishings are the most elaborate in Scan
dinavia and include the royal pews by
Nicodemus Tessin the Elder, designed in 1684
and built by Burchardt Precht, who also de
signed and built the pulpit of 1698-1701. The
central section of the ebony, silver, and gold
altar was made in Hamburg in 1652-1654,
while the side sections were built in Stock
holm. And then there is Bernt Notke’s great
sculptural group of St. George and the Dragon
and the Maiden, 1489.
In other parts of Scandinavia there was ex
tensive building in stone. As the round
churches of Bornholm are a distinctive feature
of the Romanesque period, the churches of an
other principal island, Gotland, occupy a special
position among the stone buildings of the
Gothic period. Long a center of trade between
Europe and Asia, in the thirteenth century its
major town, Visby, reached its height of power
in association with the Hanseatic League. This
came to an end in the fourteenth century, but
the time of greatest prosperity left Visby with
no less than sixteen churches and nearly one
hundred parish churches were spread across
the island.
In Visby only the cathedral church of St.
Mary remains in use, the rest being in ruins
(figure 2.5 1).54 It was begun as a three-aisled
basilica at the end of the twelfth century. The
choir was enlarged c. 1230-1250 and the nave
c. 1250-1260, changing the cathedral to a hall
church with tall eastern towers, the masons

The Middle Ages
coming from Saxony, Westphalia, and the builder, Gerlach von Köln, was begun c. 1410.
Rhineland. The large south chapel was added The fashionable star vaults of c. 1498 were
c. 1300. Although in disuse for many years after completed with the help of another German
the decline of Gotland’s fortunes, the cathedral builder, Adam von Düren.
now again serves the diocese and has recently If we turn westward to the Norwegian
been carefully restored.55 churches, we will find that the history of Trond
The churches of the countryside fared bet heim Cathedral from the Gothic period onward
ter. Most have survived to serve their parishes, is different.58 Under Archbishop Eystein Erland-
although changed many times, as for example at son the rebuilding of the choir and the building
Tingstäde (figure 2.52).56 The church here was of the octagon were begun c. I 186. The arch
begun in the late twelfth century with a bishop had been in England for several years
wooden roofed nave, a barre I-vau Ited choir, previously and was evidently much impressed
and a half-domed apse. Then c. 1230, very with the English Transitional and Early Gothic
likely in imitation of St. Mary in Visby, the nave styles that he encountered at Canterbury and
was divided into four bays by a central pillar Lincoln. The work at Trondheim was not com
and covered with vaults. Having the vaults pleted in his lifetime, and later delays, fires, al
spring from within the heavy thick walls made terations, and neglect led to a sorry state by
buttresses unnecessary, hence the outward sim the mid-nineteenth century (figure 2.54). A ma
plicity of these churches. Later additions to the jor campaign of rebuilding was undertaken by
church at Tingstäde were the western tower Christian Christie from 1872 to 1906. He at
and sacristy, c. 12 5 0 -1260. Also characteristic tempted to restore details of construction and
of the parish churches of Gotland are the ornament according to the intentions of the
carved portals, with Biblical scenes and foliage original builders as they drew ideas from Can
motifs on the capitals. terbury, Lincoln, and Westminster Abbey (fig
On the mainland at Linköping in Östergöt ure 2.55).
land the Romanesque cathedral of c. I I 30 be Farther south on the Norwegian coast, at
came outgrown and enlargement was begun Stavanger, a fire in 1272 brought about the re
c. 1230.57 The original sanctuary was broadened building and enlargement of the choir of the
to form a transept, to which was added a cathedral of St. Swithun (figure 2.56).59 The
wider choir surrounded by an ambulatory. The new choir is an extension of the remaining Ro
slender untraceried windows, shafts banded in manesque nave, raised over the crypt, vaulted
the English manner, still rise above the south in five bays, and lit by large windows traceried
transept door. Then the nave and aisles were in the English manner. The east window is
widened and covered with simple four-part flanked on the exterior by niches for statuary,
ribbed vaults. The work proceeded slowly, re then by massive towers, and surmounted by a
sulting in the changing styles of the nave piers traceried gable, these elements combining to
(figure 2.53). Viewed from the west end, the produce an effect more like a western facade.
clustered piers in the English style are followed From these examples of major attempts to
by the polygonal piers of the eastern nave bays, build large Gothic churches in the Scandinavian
and this plainer area forms an introduction to countries it is clear that in terms of a “pure”
the complex of chapels at the east end. A new expression of Gothic architecture in the
ambulatory with three chapels by a German French, German, or English sense the northern

67 .
builders were less than successful. Their enthu

siasm for the elements of Gothic structure and
ornament, however, was unmistakable and led
to buildings with their own distinction. One of
the most surprising and least known of these is
the unfinished cathedral of St. Magnus at Kirk-
jubøur in the Faroe Islands.60
While this community is now apparently
out of the way, it was a center of activity in
the Middle Ages when Bishop Erlend began the
cathedral c. 1300 (figure 2.57). Rectangular in
plan, it was to have been vaulted in six bays,
the two easternmost indicated as the choir by
a rise in the floor. A small chapel on the north
side was evidently once vaulted, but the main
body of the church was not, and it may have
been at one time covered by a wooden roof.
Carved corbels indicate the intention for vault
ing. The walls are built of Faroese basalt, bound
with shell mortar.61 Little is known of Bishop
Erlend except that he went to the Faroes from
52
2.52 Tingstäde, Gotland.

Church. Begun late
12th century.
2.53 Linköping, Östergöt
land. Cathedral. Begun
1130. Interior. (Stock
holm, Antikvarisk-
Topografiska Arkivet.
Photo: Rolf Hintze.)

The Middle Ages
Bergen. He must have known the sacristy of St.

Mary in Bergen, and possibly also the chapter
house at Trondheim Cathedral, which might
have served as prototypes for the little north
chapel at Kirkjubøur. The ornamental details of
St. Magnus recall the English-inspired work at
Stavanger and Trondheim, but whether they
were carried out by local or Norwegian stone-
workers is not known.
A new church was built at Hvalsey in the
Eastern Settlement c. 1300, whose walls are
the most substantial remains of Norse building
in Greenland (figure 2.58).62 Slabs of fieldstone
were fairly well dressed and laid up with shell
mortar, which was rarely used in Greenland.
The 13-foot lintel over the west door and the
arched window in the east gable suggest con
siderable ambition and grandeur. Remains of the
house, a large festival hall, barns, and store
houses are nearby. In 1261 the settlers in
Greenland, who had been assembling to govern
themselves at the Thing at Gardar, agreed to
go under the rule of King Håkon Håkonsson of
Norway. The bishop at Gardar was then re
sponsible to the bishop in Trondheim, whence
stoneworkers may have been brought for the
work at Hvalsey.
The major Gothic churches just described
are cathedrals or large parish churches. In the
1220s three religious orders were founded that
followed the Gothic style in their buildings: the
Dominicans, Carmelites, and Franciscans. For
preaching purposes some of the houses chose
to build hall churches. In the next century a
new order was founded by St. Birgitta, c. 1345,
and confirmed by Pope Urban V in 1370. The
rules that she wrote for her Order include in
structions for buildings. These stipulate lime
stone for the material, sections for monks and
nuns, and prohibition of ornament throughout.
After St. Birgitta’s death in Rome in 1373, her
body was brought to the abbey of Vadstena in
56

69 .
57
2.54 Trondheim. Cathedral.

Drawing by A. Mayer,
c. 1836. (Oslo, Riksan
tikvaren.)
2.55 Trondheim. Cathedral.
Interior. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
Cathedral. Choir. 1272.
2.57 Kirkjubøur, Faroes.
Cathedral. Begun c.
1300.

The Middle Ages
Östergötland which she had founded in 1368.63 ance were not lost on those whose stone vil
Some of the convent buildings remain and have lage churches still had wooden roofs, and some
been restored, while the high broad roof cov of the later Gothic parish churches were
ering the nave and aisles of the church rises vaulted from the beginning. At Hyllestad on
above them. The nuns’ cloister was built on the Jutland, for example, the Romanesque church
north side of the church, and the monks’ dor was given simple four-part vaults, which were
mitory and chapter house were put in a wing painted with Biblical scenes by the Brarup Mas
to the southwest. The interior was built as a ter c. 1400 (figure 2.60).64 Hundreds of these
hall church, the nave and aisles separated by small churches were provided with such paint
four pairs of octagonal piers (figure 2.59). The ings, based on manuscript and woodcut illustra
absence of decorative carving and the severity tions and serving as a Biblia Pauperum for those
of proportion are in keeping with the rule of who could not read the Scriptures. These
the Order, although there was perhaps some vaults are not high, but could be easily reached
concession to contemporary style in the star by ladders or scaffolding for painting al secco
vaults. The Order attracted numerous mem and were close in the view of the spectators. A
bers and by the Reformation had increased to great many were eventually covered with
about eighty houses all over Europe, which usu whitewash, and much cleaning and restoration
ally followed the building instructions of its has been undertaken in recent years.65
founder. Several references have been made to the
The merits of the fire-resistant vaults “star” vaults characteristic of the late Gothic
being raised over these large churches and also period, which were especially popular in Swe
the new fashionable elegance of their appear den. At Almunge in Uppland these were
58

71 .
painted by a follower of Albertus Pictor

c. 1490 (figure 2 .61).66 The complex shapes and
surfaces of these vaults offered both opportuni
ties and obstacles to the painters. The mineral
colors have changed over the years so that the
appearance of light and color of these interiors
is now deceptive, but where the paintings can
now be seen in their entirety the sense of
drama, reverent and irreverent, remains.
Mention should also be made of the paint
ings that were done for the Norwegian stave
churches c. 1250-1300. The structural system r \ \ \ k \\j| jPH
of these churches was not conducive to paint л
ing on the buildings themselves. An ingenious
solution to the problem of pictorial cycles was
found in the baldachins, or canopies, that were
built over the sanctuaries and painted with
1 , 1 '
t '
T
. ér.
i
Sül
l
:й*
i
-
n
I
ДЕя
Biblical or other scenes. Few remain, including
one at Torpo in Hallingdal and one from Ål in HNi niiri ( t r t t f i f f 1
Hallingdal now in the University Museum in
Oslo. They are significant, however, for our un
derstanding of the original appearance of the
medieval churches. The fresh reds and blues
that have survived on the wooden Norwegian
panels are unlike the brown and beige hues and
present golden appearance of such paintings as
those at Hyllestad.67
59
When Christianity was carried from Swe
den into Finland in the early thirteenth century,
numerous parish churches were built in the
Aland Islands and southwestern Finland. Those
built of wood have disappeared. The remaining
churches, built of the local granite under the
direction of clergy coming from the mainland of
Sweden and from Gotland, were usually begun 2.58 Hvalsey, Greenland.
as simple rectangular structures, with single Church, c. 1300.
naves and sanctuaries with flat east ends. The 2.59 Vadstena, Östergöt
first roofs might be of wood, with vaults added land. Abbey Church.
later, as were sometimes porches and towers. 1365-1420. Interior.
An example dating from the thirteenth (Stockholm, Antikvar
century is the church of St. Mikael at Finström isk-Topografi ska Ar
on Aland (figure 2.62).68 Here the south porch kivet. Photo: Clareus.)

The Middle Ages
and the tower with its odd little turrets were

added in the fifteenth century. The sacristy on
the north side is actually the earliest part, built
onto the original wooden church sometime be
fore the beginning of the present building. The
walls of the church are laid up with irregular
blocks of the local granite, marked by bands of
more carefully dressed large blocks.
On the interior heavy piers were added in
the fourteenth century to support low vaults,
covered with paintings in the fifteenth century
(figure 2.63). The arches over the nave are
only slightly pointed, while the arch into the
tower is more sharply pointed, almost stilted.
As in Denmark and Sweden, the Finnish parish
churches carry a wealth of carved and painted
altars, pulpits, and other liturgical furnishings.
St. Mikael at Finström will be remarked
upon again in connection with the Finnish archi
tect Lars Sonck. It also represents another as
pect of medieval Scandinavian architecture, the
extent to which building practices were not
limited by the national boundaries of today. A
comprehensive study of the parish churches
alone of north Germany, Denmark, south Swe
den, including the islands of Öland and Gotland,
the Å land Islands, and southwestern Finland has
yet to be made.69
2.60 Hyllestad, Jutland.

Interior.
2.61 Almunge, Uppland.
Interior. (Stockholm,
Antikvari sk-Topograf-
iska Arkivet.)

73 .
2.62 Finström, Åland. St.

Mikael. 13th century.
(Helsinki, Museum of
Finnish Architecture.
Photo: Nils E.
Wickberg.)
2.63 Finström, Åland. St.
Mikael. Interior. (Hel
sinki, Museum of Fin
nish Architecture.
Photo: Rista.) 63

The Middle Ages
64
Secular Building in the Middle Ages
To turn from religious to secular building, we

find that few individual houses, as distinct from
2.64 Kalundborg, Zealand. castles or palaces, have survived from the medi
City plan. c. 1170. eval period in the Scandinavian countries. The
Drawing, c. 1600. (Co sense of tradition has been strong, and some
penhagen, National habits of building from earlier years can proba
Museum.) bly be seen in housing from the sixteenth cen
2.65 Visby, Gotland. Walls. tury that will be considered in a later chapter.
13th century. Even a brief glance at the history of these
2.66 Copenhagen. Castle. countries from c. 1050 to c. 1530, however,
Begun 1167. Conjec will reveal the frequent wars that made de
tural drawing. (Rams fenses for the cities and strongholds for the
ing, Københavns kings and nobles imperative. Some of the most
h isto rie, figure 10, notable of these will be described to show how
p. 12.) the Nordic builders responded to these needs.
The towns themselves grew as market
centers for local or international trade as well
as centers of ecclesiastical authority. Studies in
urban history and archaeology, especially since
World War II, have done much to clarify the
development of modern cities in Denmark,
Norway, and Sweden, even from as early as Vi
king times.70 For the towns which that en
closed with walls we may, for example, look
briefly at Kalundborg and Copenhagen on Zea-

75 .
land and Visby on Gotland.

We have already considered the unique
church at Kalundborg, begun c. 1170 by Bishop
Esbjørn Snare. The bishop also built a castle
there, and these with the town buildings were
surrounded by a curtain wall with towers and
bastions (figure 2.64).71 The whole defense sys
tem took advantage of the waters of the fjord
on the south and the Munkesø or lake on the
north; today the latter is filled in and the walls
mostly gone.
At Visby, on the other hand, the walls
built from the early twelfth to the mid-thir
teenth centuries have survived and are among
the most extensive of such defenses remaining
in Europe (figure 2.65).72 By 1229 Visby was
one of the member towns of the Society of
Germans Traveling to Gotland, the Hanseatic
League, which came to include more than 65
thirty Dutch, German, and Baltic cities. Having
been the center of German activity on Gotland
for more than half a century, the original town
not surprisingly somewhat resembled Lübeck,
with which its merchants were in close com
mercial relation. In both cities the cathedrals
were not so much on formal central plazas as
they were placed toward the ends of the
towns, with long streets proceeding from
them.
As a third example of how such fortifica
tions could be managed we can look at the
walls and castle of Copenhagen, built by Bishop
Esbjørn Snare’s brother Bishop Absalon in 1167
(figure 2.66).73 Here he hoped to protect what
was then a fishing and trading center from at
tacks by the Wendish pirates coming from Ger
many. The castle was built on an island,
Slotsholmen, and, although it was torn down in
1369, some ruins are now visible under the
present Christiansborg Palace. Some of the old
streets of the town itself, notably the present
series called Strøget and Købmagergade, lead-

The Middle Ages
ing to the old bridge to the castle island, sur

vive in the modern plan of the city.
This brings us to the castles. For the
twelfth century in Denmark, figures 2.64 and
2.66 show the castles at Kalundborg and Co
penhagen to have been typical of European for
tresses of that time. There were two lines of
defense at Kalundborg, and then the castle with
its own towers, formed by five wings around a
courtyard. At Copenhagen the castle consisted
of a ring wall with at least one, possibly two
towers, and there were then buildings inside
the wall, with the baking oven of one still in
place today. The oldest known seal of the city,
from 1275, shows a crenelated curtain wall and
two towers, with a castle rising inside with a
high central tower and projecting wings. It has
been proposed that this depiction is substan
tially accurate and that the castle was a striking
parallel to the church at Kalundborg.74 The
ruins that survived the building of the first
Christiansborg Palace in 1733 were excavated
between 1906 and 1922 during the building of
the present Christiansborg and are open to vis
itors (figure 2.67).
The thick curtain walls, towers, and heavily
defended gateways of such castles were by now
well developed all over Europe, partly as a re
68
sult of the lessons in military architecture
2.67 Copenhagen. Castle.
learned during the Crusades. These elements
Plan of ruins. (Chris
were continued in use, in various combinations,
tensen, Gamle bygnin
for several generations until the introduction of
g e r på Slotsholm en,
gunpowder in European warfare in the fifteenth
n.p.)
century made some of these provisions
2.68 Stockholm. Castle.
obsolete.
13th century. Model.
In the thirteenth century Birger Jarl, re
(Stockholm, City
gent for his son King Valdemar, did for Sweden
Museum.)
what Bishop Absalon had done for Denmark,
2.69 Vädersolstavlan.
Painting, 1535. Stock building a fortress at Tavastehus (now Hämeen
holm, Storkyrkan. linna) in Finland to establish Sweden’s overseas

(Stockholm, City empire and also building Stockholm as a major
Museum.) port for the Lübeck trade. Stockholm’s site on

77.

The Middle Ages
the island of Stadholm was strategic because

here Lake Mälar drains into the Saltsjö, coming
in forty miles from the open sea. Birger Jarľs
castle was dominated by the great Tre Kronor
tower, as seen in a modern model and also
prominent in early illustrations of the city (fig
ures 2.68 and 2.69).75 This typical keep, with
walls 10 feet thick and a 45-foot diameter, was
divided into several stories with a defensive
platform on top.
For a more secure royal residence in an
other great Hanseatic port in the thirteenth
century, King Håkon Håkonsson began a new
stone castle and walls at the entrance to the
harbor of Bergen after the fire of 1248. His
own coronation feast in 1225 had been held in
a timber boathouse, hardly a royal setting. By
1261, however, when his son Magnus
Håkonsson was married to the Danish princess
Ingeborg, the new stone hall was ready for the
feast (figures 2.70 and 2 .71).76 A seventeenth-
century view shows the castle complex at the
edge of the water, with the twin towers of St.
Mary’s church rising just to the right. The hall
itself, now called Håkon’s Hall, was built much
like a German Kaiserpfalz such as the famous
Romanesque example at Goslar, c. 1040-1050.
The ground floor provided storage, the middle
story was divided into three parts for council, 71
reception, and private chambers, and the great
festival hall was built on the third level. A his
tory of fires and gradual desertion was changed
through the efforts of J. C. Dahl, who also res 2.70 Bergen. Scholeus View,
cued the stave church at Vang, but then a tre c. 1580. (Oslo, Riks
mendous harbor explosion in 1944 brought antikvaren.)
down all but the walls. 2.71 Bergen. Håkon’s Hall.
After 1955 a new restoration was begun, 1261. (Oslo, Riks
and the hall is now made suitable for social antikvaren.)
gatherings (figure 2.72). The exterior view of 2.72 Bergen. Håkon’s Hall.
the west side shows the normal medieval slit Great Hall. (Oslo,
openings on the ground level, larger divided Riksantikvaren.)
windows in the middle, and much larger tracer-

79 .
ied windows above; on the interior of the festi sequent enlargements, however, we will leave
val hall these window openings come down to it for later discussion and turn to two impor
the floor, thus providing ample light. The large tant castles of the medieval period in Finland.
window in the north wall is built in the English On high ground overlooking the harbor stands
fashion, with three lancets pierced in a thin the castle at Turku (figure 2.73).78 It was begun
panel on the inner surface of the wall and four c. 1280 as two parallel four-story buildings sep
lancets, three quatrefoils, and a roundel in the arated by six-story towers at the east and west
outer panel. This scheme gave small subdivi ends. Among the later additions are the King’s
sions for best support of glass on the exterior Hall built in the top story of the north wing in
and larger openings for better use of light on the fourteenth century, and also the Nuns’
the interior. A similar double window was built Chapel in the east tower, with the first star
in the east end of St. Mary’s church after the vaulting in Finland. In the sixteenth century the
fire of 1248, and the same masons may have castle was repaired and embellished to become
been employed on both projects.77 the center of court life. In later years it housed
Magnus Håkonsson built another great troops, served as a distillery, was in part a
stronghold, Akershus, in Oslo. Because of sub prison, and also housed an embryonic historical

The Middle Ages
museum. Modern restorations and a full mu

seum installation have followed upon damage
by bombing in 1941. These varied uses help
point out that this building, while heavily con
structed, did not have the curtain walls, tow
ers, and bastions of the other fortresses but
was more a massive residence from the
beginning.
Probably more satisfying to the romantic
mind is the castle of Olavlinna, founded in 1475
2.73 Turku. Castle. Begun c. by the Swedish nobleman Erik Axelsen Tott
1280. (figure 2.74).79 It was built as a fortress against
2.74 Savonlinna. Olavlinna. the Russians, and, like the old Copenhagen Cas
Begun 1475. tle, rises dramatically from a rocky island in the
Kyrösalmi Strait. By the fortunes of war it fell
twice into Russian hands, and was several times
enlarged until finally abandoned after the Napo
leonic wars. After some time as a prison it was
restored in the 1870s and again since World
War II. Originally there were three towers, a

Sl .
main building with living quarters and the ries, larger windows in the top story, and a
Knights’ Hall, and ramparts to form a triangular steep high roof embellished with stepped ga
enclosure. Changes in the towers and additions bles. The building of such imposing and for
of towers, bastions, and outer walls brought it tresslike noble dwellings had been hindered by
to its present plan. In spite of many changes the ravages of the Black Death, which swept
and additions since 1475, the castle’s basic the Nordic countries beginning in I 349, and
structure has survived well enough, providing Queen Margaret I’s prohibition against fortified
excellent opportunity to observe the heavy houses during her reign, 1387-1412. By the
outer walls, deep window embrasures, thick in end of the fifteenth century times had changed,
ner partitions, and narrow, tortuous spiral stair and Glimmingehus was prophetic, not only in
cases with steps of uneven width and depth its comparative grandeur but also in the balance
that characterize such late medieval fortresses. of private living and ceremonial quarters on ei
For the ambitious bishop or nobleman in ther side of a central staircase. It was tradi
the late Gothic period a fine stone house could tional in the vertical disposition of its facilities,
be a matter of pride. One of the best pre with kitchens and storerooms on the ground
served is Glimmingehus in Skåne, begun in 1499 level, living quarters next, and a large open hall
by the mason Adam von Düren for Jens Hol- at the top, recalling the original scheme of
gersen Ulfstrand (figure 2.75).80 The simple Håkon’s Hall.
blocky building rises above wide moats, with Up to this point we have been considering
small window openings in the first three sto ecclesiastical and residential buildings in their

The Middle Ages
75
83 .
greater or smaller aspects. Growth of towns

with their mercantile and civic needs, however,
led medieval Europe to the development of the
town hall as a separate building.81 The earliest 2.75 Glimmingehus, Skåne.
remaining in Scandinavia is the town hall at Begun 1499. (Copen
Naestved on Zealand (figure 2.76).82 It now is hagen, National
enclosed with later buildings on either side, and Museum.)
when first built c. 1450 it did not have the 2.76 Naestved, Zealand.
steep paneled gable of an enlargement c. 1520. Old Town Hall. c.
Modest though it is, it too was prophetic, and 1450-1500. (Copen
five centuries later the Nordic countries were hagen, National

Museum.)
to see the construction of some town halls of a
much grander nature.
By the time Glimmingehus was built, Al
berti had written his treatise on architecture
(1452) and Leonardo in the 1490s was making
sketches for monumental domed churches in
the High Renaissance manner. The Gothic was
now outmoded on the Continent. At the same
time the voyages of Columbus signaled an im
mense expansion of geographical knowledge, to
be followed by new territorial and commercial
rivalries that affected all of Europe. Finally, Sa
vonarola’s pleas for religious reform resulted in
his death in 1498, less than twenty years before
Luther’s 95 theses and the beginning of another
major religious development. In the next two
chapters we shall see how the Scandinavian
builders responded to the impact of these
events on the ideas of European Renaissance
and Baroque designers.

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

3 The Renaissance in Scandinavia
Less than a decade after Luther’s manifesto of

1517, the acceptance of his reforming doctrine
became so widespread in Denmark as to add to
the already mounting political and commercial
tensions. The oppressive policies of Christian II
(1513-1523) caused the dissolution of the
Union of Kalmar, losing Sweden to the protest
ing factions led by Gustavus Vasa. Christian’s at
tempts to reduce the power of the Danish
clergy and nobility caused him to be forced
into exile in 1523, and his attempt to return in
1532 resulted in his imprisonment for life. Un
der the system of an elected monarchy his Lu
theran-sympathizing uncle became king as
Frederik I (1523-1533). Upon his death the
Catholics supported Christian’s great-nephew
Count Christopher of Oldenburg, while the
Reformers supported Frederik’s son. The ensu
ing Count’s War resulted in victory for the Re
formers, the election of Christian III (1534
1559), and the abolition of Roman Catholicism
from Denmark in 1536. Church property was
confiscated for the Crown, but the nobility still
had nearly half the country and the power of
election in the Rigsråd, or Council. Oppression

The Renaissance in Scandinavia
of the peasants led to a revolt in Jutland in rectangular block with the entrance on one of
1536. the long sides and with stair towers and corner
Meanwhile the reign of Gustavus Vasa towers. An early notable example is Rygård on
(1523-1560) brought similarly profound Funen, built for the Councillor Johan Urne (fig
changes to Sweden. Gustavus was elected king ure 3 .1).3 The first building was the north wing
in 1523, and in 1544 the monarchy was de of the present structure, begun probably
clared hereditary under the Vasa dynasty. In c. 1530, while the south, east, and west wings
1527 properties of the Catholic Church were were probably added by 1537. The main resi
confiscated for the State, although the Augs dence was the north building, a three-story
burg Confession was not formally adopted until brick house that originally had a stair tower on
1593. A smaller proportion of property re the north side. Above the vaulted basement is
mained in the hands of the nobility, and a much the main floor, then a great hall with beamed
larger amount was held by the peasants, who ceiling, and a high attic story above with watch
also rose in some revolts.1 gallery and machicolations along the long sides.
Against this background of conflict and re The timber work for the latter is particularly
bellion it is not surprising that building activities fine. Built of red brick with no stone trim to
in Denmark and Sweden were directed more soften its broad outer surfaces, the original
toward the construction of strong manor building rose above its surrounding moat in a
houses and castles than toward churches. After clearly defensive manner, as did Glimmingehus.
all, the Scandinavian countries were by now At Rygård, however, there is a difference. The
rich in churches, and the major changes division between the main floor and the great
brought by the Reformation were in liturgical hall is marked by a shallow corbeled arcade as a
furnishings rather than in the buildings them stringcourse, and on the long sides the machi
selves. For wealthy landowners, desire for dis colations add a second arcade; the result is a
play of wealth and at the same time need for sense of horizontality, of layering, that is absent
security against frequent turmoil led to the at Glimmingehus and is indicative of changing
construction of great masonry manor houses taste. Two somewhat curious features may be
having a fortified character. Decorative schemes noted. The gables are embellished with paneling
were now based on Renaissance principles, par in the brickwork, but in patterns that suggest
ticularly as they were then being interpreted Romanesque rather than Gothic models, as
by imported German and Netherlandish artists. does the thin corbeled arcade of the string
Although technically it is not appropriate to course. Was there a conscious archaizing here?
speak of a “Renaissance” in Scandinavia, where Further, there are rudimentary hood molds
classical art and architecture had never existed, above the windows of the great hall at the east
the ornamental vocabulary of the “Northern end of the building, a feature then becoming
Mannerist” version of the true Italian Renais popular in England. The builder of Rygård must
sance was eagerly adopted, especially in Den have had some sound training in military con
mark and Sweden.2 struction and perhaps some experience in
Two main approaches to the planning of travel as well. The details of the three addi
manor houses can be observed from the first tional wings combine to a nearly symmetrical
half of the sixteenth century. In Denmark, es and harmonious whole.
pecially on Funen, the preference was for a

87.
3.1 Rygård, Funen. Begun c.

1530. (Copenhagen, Na
tional Museum.)
3.2 Hesselagergård, Funen.
North wing. M. Bus sert,
attr. Begun 1538. (Co
penhagen, National
Museum.)

In 1538 Christian Ill’s powerful Chancellor,

Johan Friis, began his lofty brick manor house
of Hesselagergård, also on Funen (figure 3.2).4
The building consists of a rectangular block
with two full stories and an attic story, a square
tower on the south, and octagonal corner tow
ers on the north side for effective defense of
the walls. Partially surrounded by water and
equipped with machicolations, Hesselagergård
has a basically medieval aspect. But now the ga
bles are richly ornamented with round-headed
window openings and blind arcades divided into
four vertical sections separated by applied col
onnettes and topped with semicircular pedi
ments, all this being completed c. 1550. The
builder was probably the Dutchman Morten
Bussert, the royal master builder. For the de
sign of the gables Chancellor Friis may have
turned to the painter Jakob Binck. Whether in
spired directly from Italy, perhaps via the works
of Serlio, or based on gables already appearing
on houses such as that of Philip Melancthon in
Wittenberg, 1536, which Friis had seen, the
medieval stepped and paneled gables of Rygård
3.3 Hesselagergård, Funen. are here replaced by the distinct motifs of the
Detail of wall painting. Renaissance. The new style is also represented
(Copenhagen, National in the paintings on the walls of the great “Deer
Museum.) Salon,” where a hunting scene and a banquet
3.4 Egeskov, Funen. Begun are shown (figure 3.3). This painting may also
1554. be attributed to Jakob Binck.
A third fortified manor house on Funen is
Egeskov, begun on an old estate by General
Frands Brockenhuus in 1554 (figure 3.4).5 The
name means “oak wood” and comes from the
forest that was cut to provide the pilings on
which it rests. It is a double building with a
double roof, the ridges running lengthwise. It
rises directly from the defensive lake, with the
land connection on the west, where there is an
entrance and stair tower. On the east side
there is a round tower at each end, and the
present bridge linking the castle to the gardens

89 .
was built in 1883-1884. The upper parts of the

gables were also restored in the same /ears.
The formal gardens in the French manner were
laid out c. 1730, and the elegant parterre on
the east side in 1962. Egeskov’s service build
ings now house a restaurant and a car museum,
while the gardens are maintained as exhibit
grounds by local landscape firms. These manor
houses presided over the farm, grazing, and
timber lands that gave them as much self-suffi
ciency as possible.
In Skåne, then under the Danish crown,
the more popular manor house was that built
with four wings around a courtyard and two
diagonally placed defensive towers. Torup, built
in 1545, is one of the best preserved examples
(figure 3.5).6 It was built by the wealthy Gjör-
vel Fadersdotter Sparre in the middle of an ar-

sert. The central long rectangular block is four

stories high, containing the royal apartments on
either side of a central stair tower, with a firing
loft in the top story. The round cannon towers
stand forward, linked to the main block by
wings. The gables here are not yet as Italianate
as those of the later manor houses, but are
stepped and paneled in the late medieval
manner.
Meanwhile Gustavus Vasa was moving to
solidify his new kingdom, ruling over the build
ing of Sweden’s mightiest and most picturesque
fortresses. He began at Gripsholm, where a
castle had been built on an island in Lake Malar
in the eleventh century. This had burned, and
tificial lake, since partially drained so that it the new building was intended as a fortified
now rises from a small island. The towers are royal country residence (figure 3.7).8 The archi
at the southeast and northwest corners, round tect was Heinrich von Cöllien from Germany,
at their bases. The southeast tower is octagonal who built an irregular hexagon of brick around
above the first level and is the higher of the a courtyard, defended with four massive round
two. Steps lead up to the main entrance on the towers. The king’s council chamber was located
south side, through which one reaches the in the Grip Tower on the north, the queen’s
courtyard. The residential quarters are on the apartments in the east range, and the hall of
north and east sides, with large windows open state in the west range. Although the rooms
ing into the court. Here the exterior is more look out into the courtyard, this is not spa
severe than at Hesselagergård and Egeskov, cious, and at best the castle must have seemed
with no machicolations or stringcourses and cramped. The addition to the west was begun
only simple panels in the stepped gables of the in 1572 by the Duke of Södermanland, the
attic stories. An arcade on the east side of the youngest son of Gustavus Vasa who later ruled
court adds a touch of fashion. as Charles IX. Duke Charles’s Chamber in the
A more deliberate stronghold built under Prison Tower is a richly paneled Renaissance
the Danish rule in Skåne is Malmöhus (figure room with an elaborate painted ceiling.
3.6).7 The city was at that time the second Gustavus Vasa’s ambitions for defense did
largest in Denmark and an important port. Erik not end with Gripsholm. In 1545 he started
of Pomerania began a fortress here c. 1434, Vadstena Castle in Östergötland, on Lake Vät
some parts of which remain, and then a new tern (figure 3.8).9 The abbey, which we have
fortress in the Italian manner with moats and already noted, had been an important place of
round towers was begun in 1536 under Chris pilgrimage and the town itself a political center,
tian III. It was the first of the Scandinavian for with assizes and meetings of the Diet. A south
tresses for which the central residential portion central point of defense against the Danes
was planned in a regular manner, and the seemed logical here, and Joachim Bulgerin of
builder is thought to have been Morten Bus- Pomerania was given the task of designing the

91 .
3.5 Torup, Skåne. 1545.

Plan. (After Paulsson,
Scandinavian A rch itec
tu re, figure 49, p. 107.)
3.6 Malmö, Skåne. Malmö
hus. M. Bussert, attr.
Begun 1536.
3.7 Gripsholm, Uppland.
H. von Cöllen. Begun
1537. (Stockholm, An
tikvarisk-Topografiska
Arkivet. Photo: Oskar
Bladh.)

fortifications. The scheme consisted of a broad

four-sided enclosure with round cannon towers
at the corners and the residence block on the
north side. This block was laid out symmetri
cally, with staircases in the central tower, quar
ters for troops on the ground floor, and the
royal apartments above. This building was in
creased by one story in the reign of John III
(1568-1592), at which time the columned por
tico by Pietro della Rocca was also added. The
Netherlandish gables date from the early seven
teenth century.
In 1545 Gustavus Vasa also undertook a
building project at Kalmar in Småland. Situated
on the sound between the mainland and Öland,
this had long been a port town, with a castle
8 built in the thirteenth century. The latter was a
walled enclosure defended by round and polyg
onal towers, with the residences built inside
the north wall. Gustavus Vasa began a new sys
tem of outer ramparts with heavy round cor
ner towers (figure 3.9).10 These fortifications
were also started by Heinrich von Cöllen, but
not completed to surround the castle until
1609. Old buildings on the south side were de
molished by John III in 1568 and replaced by
the present royal apartment block with its mas
sive central tower.
The Chamber of Erik XIV, which he fur
nished before his reign (1560-1568), shows
how the bare castle walls could be concealed
with paneling, intarsia work, and a hunting
frieze of painted and molded plaster (figure
3 .10). It contrasts sharply with the larger, more
barren halls. The castle chapel was built for
John III by the Italian architect Domenicus Pahr
(figure 3.1 I).11 Begun in 1586, it is located in a
large hall of the south building. It is a long nar
row room, the altar at the east end and the
entrance originally in the west for the benefit
of the royal family, who resided in the north
suite. This was not the first chapel at Kalmar,

93 .
3.8 Vadstena, Östergötland. but it is important because of this last point, its
Castle. Begun 1545. relation to the royal apartments. In the years
Plan. (After Unnerbäck, to come, the court chapels and also the court
Vadstena slo tt, figure 9, theaters were to be part of the original plans
p. 23.) for new royal palaces rather than, as here, cre
3.9 Kalmar, Småland. Cas ated as well as possible from existing spaces.
tle. H. von Cöllen. Re For a third project Gustavus Vasa called
built 1545. (Kalmar, Heinrich von Cöllen to Uppsala. In 1545 the
Regional Museum.) foundations of a new castle were laid on a high
3.10 Kalmar, Småland. Cas ridge of sand south of the city.12 This building,
tle. Chamber of Erik
which had a characteristic round tower, was
XIV. (Kalmar, Regional
still incomplete when it burned in 1572. A new
Museum.)
campaign was begun under John III, with Fran
ciscus Pahr the building master (figure 3 .12).

12

95 .
3.11 Kalmar, Småland. Cas

tle. Chapel. D. Pahr.
Begun 1586. (Kalmar,
Regional Museum.)
3.12 Uppsala, Uppland. Cas
tle. F. Pahr. Rebuilt
1572. (Uppsala, Upp
lands Museum.)
W. Boy. Enlarged 16th
century. Painting by
Govert Camphuysen,
1661. (Stockholm, City
Museum.)
Plan, superimposed on
outline of Royal Pal
ace. (After A. Lind
blom, Stockholm s
Slottf n.p.)
13

Royal apartments, chapel, and audience hall

were located in the south range, a rectangular
block four stories high with round towers at
each end of the south facade. A long east wing
was added c. 1640, and a north wing and west
wall appear to have been intended but never
built. Italianate stucco decorative motifs of the
exterior were almost entirely lost in another
fire in 1702. The present castle is largely the
work of Carl Hårleman’s rebuilding from 1744,
with restorations by Ragnar Östberg in 1930—
1940.
Finally, the medieval castle in Stockholm
underwent a number of changes in the six
teenth century (figure 3.13).13 Gustavus Vasa
began a curtain wall around it, complete with
corner towers, and by 1568 a major western
entrance with a drawbridge. Under John III the
old Tre Kronor tower was heightened, new
apartments were built in the east wing, and a
castle chapel in the west wing, the latter a hall
church. The enlarged plan is shown superim
posed on the plan of the present palace (figure
3.14). From 1577 until his death in 1592 the
building master was William Boy, a Dutch mas
ter who oversaw the embellishment with ar
cades, window surrounds, and elaborate gables.
A century later Nicodemus Tessin the Younger
was already remodeling the north wing when
the fire of 1697 set the stage for the present
Royal Palace.
In the sixteenth century Norway was still
under the Danish crown, and with no resident
monarchy it was not the scene of such grandi
ose projects. Two buildings in Bergen, how
ever, deserve our attention, both dating from
c. 1562. On orders from Frederik II the old
medieval tower at Bergenhus was torn down 16
and a new one built in its place (figure 3.15).14
Like Håkon’s Hall it was severely damaged in
the 1944 explosion and has been rebuilt. It
now once more rises in five stories, with a

97 .
steep roof and small turret. The restricted win

dow openings in the two lower levels and the
battlements at the top indicate its defensive
function. Its name comes from the governor
who built it, Erik Rosencrantz, who employed
Scottish masons. The Renaissance makes its ap
pearance here only in small details. Rosencrantz
was also responsible for the Wall House, built
as a gatehouse in the walls on the opposite side
of the harbor (figure 3 .16). The lower portion
is still used by merchants.
In another Norwegian city a significant
step was taken in the introduction of Renais
sance principles in city planning. The Swedes
sacked the ancient town of Sarpsborg on the
Glomma estuary in 1657, and to replace it
Frederik II had Fredrikstad farther to the
southwest built as a fortress town (figure
3.17).15 The part on the east side of the river
was laid out in grid fashion with an open plaza,
from which streets extend in all four direc
tions. Although the church and barracks now
date from the late eighteenth century, their lo
cation at this central drill ground and market 3.1 5 Bergen. Rosencrantz
place is probably original. The plan has been Tower, c. 1562. (Oslo,
tentatively attributed to Hans von Paeschen, ar Riksantikvaren.)
chitect to the king, who worked at Oslo on 3.16 Bergen. Wall house, c.
the defenses of Akershus from 1566 to 1570. 1562.
The exact source of inspiration for the plan of 3.17 Fredrikstad, Østfold.
Plan. H. von Paeschen,
Fredrikstad might be difficult to identify, as the
attr. c. 1570. (After
concept of regular grid plans with squares had
Kavli, N orwegian A r
been published by several architects since the
chitecture, p. 57.)
beginning of the century. The ultimate source
was probably Vitruvius, of which a German edi
tion had been published in 1548. While modest
in size and not provided with the outer de
fenses seen on the plan until 1665, Fredrikstad
nonetheless was an important forerunner of ex
tensive city-planning projects to come.
By 1560 Frederik II had already acquired
the manor of Hillerødsholm, located on a
marshy island in a forested area north of Co-

penhagen. Like Gustavus Vasa at Gripsholm he

wanted a country retreat as an alternative to
the old medieval castle in the heart of the city.
3.18 Hillerød, Zealand.
What resulted, however, was much less a for
Hillerødsholm. Begun
tress than Gripsholm (figure 3.18).16 The newly
c. 1560. Painting by Th.
named Frederiksborg did, in fact, more resem
Vibom. (Hillerød,
ble an Elizabethan “prodigy house,” with the
Nationalhistoriske
latter’s supporting buildings and lands, or per
Museum på
haps a French château. The manor house itself
Frederiksborg.)
had been built for the previous owner c. 1550
3.19 Helsingør, Zealand.
and resembled Egeskov in consisting of two
Kronborg. H. von
ranges with parallel roofs and twin gables. This
Paeschen and A. van
building was little changed. The site was devel
Opbergen. 1574-1585.
oped into a clear system of three islands by a
Museum.)
series of dams and canals, with stables and two
round towers on the first, a church and kitchen
building on the second, and the manor house
on the third. As we shall see, most of this was
to disappear not long after Frederik Iľs death
in 1588, but the stables and round towers on
the first island, the long pantry wing beside the
road, and nearby Badstuen or Bathhouse, begun
1580, remain. The painting gives the impression
of a comfortable, thriving royal estate.
Frederik II, however, had other responsi
bilities, not the least of which was to keep the
royal coffers filled. In 1570 a peace was con
cluded in a war with Sweden, and by then the
18

99 .
king had already started measures to increase toward the land. From 1574 to 1577 Hans von
the Sound Dues. These were levied on ships Paeschen, who had been working at Oslo,
passing Krogen (“The Hook”), a fortress on the served as master mason, and he was succeeded
promontory that forces the Øresund to its nar by Antonius van Opbergen, a Flemish builder
rowest point, less than three miles from Swe and military engineer. The chapel, kitchens, and
den. Here in 1421 Erik of Pomerania had built guard rooms were on the ground level, the
an earlier fortress and levied Sound Dues in state apartments containing the king’s and
1426. Christian III had strengthened the de queen’s apartments in the north wing, and the
fenses, but it was Frederik II who began the great Riddarsal, or Knights’ Hall, in the south
transformation of the old fortress to an impos wing. In 1580 the red brick walls built under
ing castle as a grandiose expression of his roy von Paeschen were refaced in gray sandstone
alty (figure 3.19).17 Kronborg is impressive by van Opbergen, and thanks to the leadership
from the sea, but a view by C. W. Eckersberg of the Flemish master builders the details were
shows how commanding it was once from the carried out by Netherlandish sculptors, espe
land side (figure 3.20). As Frederik II developed cially the north and south portals. The Riddar
his new castle from c. 1574 to 1585, his build sal, 206 feet long, is said to be the largest in
ers followed some of the earlier structures, northern Europe, and it was here that in 1589
hence the thicker walls on the west and south the wedding festivities of Christian IV’s sister

Anne and James VI of Scotland took place (fig

ure 3.21). Perhaps this even inspired Shake
speare’s placement of Hamlet in the castle of
“Elsinore” (with which the original Hamlet
story had nothing to do). Except in the chapel,
the original interior fittings were destroyed by
a fire in 1629, after which Christian IV under
took restorations and some changes.
One building unique in its purpose was
built during the reign of Frederik II. In 1576
the king bestowed the island of Ven in the
Sound on the astronomer Tycho Brahe.18 Al
though Brahe left for Germany in 1597, having
lost the favor of Christian IV and also his fund
ing, he had published illustrations of the obser
vatory that he built on the island, fortunately,
for by 1652 the abandoned buildings had all but
crumbled away (figure 3.22). Brahe’s observa
tory, which he called Urani borg, had a symmet
rical plan thought to have had a French origin,
possibly in a plan by Domenico da Cortona for
the château of Blois. The building contained the
astronomer’s residence in the main block, with
guest apartments and student quarters, and a
domed observing chamber on top. Towers on
the north and south sides carried further ob
serving instruments, and there were also work
shops, printing presses, and a library. Some
notion of the carvings on doors, windows, and
gables may be gained from the contemporary
illustrations. Much of the work must have been
21
done under the Netherlandish builder Hans van
Steenwinckel the Elder, who studied at Ven
from 1578 until he was appointed royal building
master in 1583.19 Uraniborg was surrounded by
a formal walled garden, in which were located
additional observing rooms. All this was carried
out in luxury equaled only by Tycho Brahe’s
irascibility, and with its many working facilities
was prophetic of later scientific establishments.
Certainly there was no architectural precedent
for Brahe to follow. Though well equipped for

101 .
its time, Uraniborg set none for the first obser

vatories to use the telescope, invented by Gali
leo early in the next century.
3.20 Helsingør, Zealand. Up to this point there has been no men
Painting by C. W. Eck- tion of church building in the Renaissance pe
ersberg, c. 1810. riod apart from the castle chapels. While this
(Copenhagen, Hirsch
may seem surprising in view of the eagerness
sprung Collection.)
with which the Reformation was adopted in
3.21 Helsingør, Zealand.
Scandinavia, several factors made a new wave
Kronborg. Riddarsal.
of church building unlikely. Thousands of parish
churches were already built and in use, to
Museum.)
which were now added the convent churches.
3.22 Ven. Uraniborg. H. van
In addition, the Lutheran reform was less icon
Steenwinckel I, attr.
oclastic than some other strains of Protestan
1576. Site plan. Rae-
tism, Luther in his Preface to the German Mass
der, E. Strömgren, and
of 1526 having said that “The Mass vestments,
B. Strömgren, Tycho
Brahe’s D escription,
altars and lights may be retained till such time
n. p. (Copenhagen, as they shall all change of themselves or it shall

Academy of Art please us to change them.”20 One of the few
Library.) churches of this period was the one at Slange
rup on Zealand, begun in 1576 from designs by
Hans van Steenwinckel the Elder, replacing an
earlier Gothic church that had become too
small. Even here the building is still fundamen
tally Gothic, with its high pointed windows, but
the tower and porch gables are in Dutch Re
naissance style, probably designed by Steen
winckel as well (figure 3.23).21 Even more
impressive is the great gable added to the Ro
manesque church at Valløby on Zealand in 1590
(figure 3.24).22 In this case the architectural
motifs are further enriched by coats of arms,
herms, and reliefs portraying David and a
warrior.
The coronation of Christian IV of Den
mark in 1596 ushered in another lively period
of building in the Scandinavian countries.23 For
the event the 19-year-old king gave out his
first architectural commission, to have the
tower of Copenhagen Castle heightened and
finished with a spire (figure 3.25).
22

In 1599 he turned to the harbor next to

Copenhagen Castle where a timber arsenal
from 1560 was already in place. A new rectan
gular basin was dug on the south side of Slots
holmen, and the brick Arsenal was built on the
west side, with its vaulted cannon hall 495 feet
long (figure 3.26).24 As it appears on the left of
the basin in figure 3.25, it was approached by
ship through an opening in the south range of
buildings. Opposite was built a warehouse for
provisions, including taxes paid in kind. The
basin was filled in 1868, and the Royal Library
now occupies the site of the south range. The
Arsenal now houses the Armory Museum.
As can be readily seen from the 1611 en
graving, Copenhagen Castle, surrounded by a
moat, with the busy harbor on the south and
the dense medieval city on the north, was un
likely to suit the king as a year-round resi
dence. He did, after all, have Frederiksborg,
which he had known from childhood. Its old
manor house from c. 1550 did not satisfy his
ideas of magnificence, and down it came to
make room for a more splendid establishment
(figúre 3.27).25 The church and other buildings
on the middle island were also razed, but the
stables and round tower on the south island
were kept. In order to have a residence at
Frederiksborg during the years of construction
the king built Sparepenge (“Save Money”) on
the north side of the lake. This was taken
down in the eighteenth century.
As the new palace was built, an element of
symmetry was introduced that gives a more
stately approach than that to the fortress of
Kronborg. From the plan of the site we can
see how the road through the stables on the
south island is linked by a curving bridge to the
Barbican Gate on the middle island (figure
3.28). When one passes through the gate the
Castellan’s House is on the left, the Chancel
lery on the right, while the courtyard created

103 .
by these buildings is dominated by the replica

of the Neptune Fountain by Adriaen de Vries,
completed in 1624 (figure 3.29).26 The ap
proach to the palace becomes a drama in itself, 3.23 Slangerup, Zealand.
as the visitor moves from the comparatively Church. H. van Steen-
spacious Fountain Courtyard across the narrow winckel I. 1576. Portal.

3.24 Valloby, Zealand.
bridge over the canal, with terrace arcades on
Church. 1590. East ga
either side of the gateway. Now the opulence
ble. (Copenhagen, Na
to be encountered throughout the palace is
tional Museum.)
clearly stated. The gate by Caspar Boegardt,
3.25 Copenhagen. Castle (at
1609, is treated as a triumphal arch, with rusti
center). Detail of
cated Tuscan pilasters flanking the arched open
Wijk’s Prospect, 1611.
ing and two sets of armorial bearings above.
The arcades rest on Tuscan columns, rising
Museum.)
from brackets in the wall of the canal. This
somewhat improbable arcade encloses twelve
pedimented niches, containing statues of the
Olympic gods. The gate, arcade, and niches are
in sandstone, contrasting with the red brick
walls. The same use of stone and brick is made
on the three wings of the palace that surround
the inner courtyard. As one enters, the Chapel
Wing is on the left, or west, side, the main
residence of the King’s Wing opposite on the

2Ô
27

105 .
3.26 Copenhagen. Arsenal.

1599. Cannon Hall.
(National Museum of
Denmark.)
Frederiksborg. 1602
1608. Air view. (Co
penhagen, Academy of
Art Library.)
Frederiksborg. Plan.
(After Weilbach, Fred-
e riksb o rg, figure 12,
n.p.)
Frederiksborg.
Courtyard.
28 modern

north, and the east or Princess’s Wing on the singly, however, it is seen to be a long resi
right. There is a richly ornamented door to the dence block with octagonal corner towers, a
Chapel, and the King’s Wing was made splendid central projecting square tower, and additional
by the addition of the two-story Marble Gal projecting octagonal towers on the opposite
lery, with its alternating arches and columned side— in other words an essentially traditional
niches and statuary. The warm gray color of manor house plan. A similar sense of tradition
this gallery now is deceptive, it originally having seems to be revealed in the Gothic tracery of
had red marble columns and black marble the chapel windows. For the details of comple
moldings. tion there are the chapel tower by Lorenz van
The change in color was the result of a Steenwinckel, the tilting gate by Hans van
great fire in 1859. On the interior of the pal Steenwinckel the Younger, and the statues in
ace, little survived that disaster except the the terrace by Geraert Lambertsz from the
Chapel (figure 3.30). Even here there is some workshop of Hendrik de Keyser in Amsterdam.
restoration, especially at the north end, where The Privy Passage across the west canal and
the original organ of 1614 fell. By great good the Mint Gate with Audience Chamber on the
fortune the organ built in 1610 by Esaias Com- second level were added about 16 14.28
penius and given to Christian IV in 1617 was on For all its splendor and extensive forest
loan to another palace at the time of the fire. surroundings, Frederiksborg is 22 miles from
Otherwise, its regular place being at the north Copenhagen, then a day’s journey. It could not
end of the Great Hall above the Chapel, it be expected to offer an afternoon’s respite
would surely have perished. It now stands in from the duties and constraints of Copenhagen
the south gallery, where its fine craftsmanship Castle. The latter was later described by the
and wide range of possibilities in performance English traveler Lord Molesworth as “being for
make it one of Denmark’s greatest musical the Situation, Meanness, and Inconvenience the
treasures. The Chapel was planned as a long worst in the World.”29 In 1606 Christian IV had
high central space, separated from the aisles at purchased land outside Østerport, the eastern
ground level by an arcade with coupled col gate of the city, and began a summer house
umns before the piers and arcaded galleries that would be more readily accessible. It
above the aisles, all surfaces being richly orna started out as a two-story brick house with a
mented. The interiors of the other three wings square tower on the northeast side, and was
restored after the fire now house the collec enlarged with two more towers in 1613-1614
tions of the Museum of National History. and a fourth in 1633. Hans van Steenwinckel
The overall conception of Frederiksborg the Younger worked here, but the main plans
cannot be attributed with certainty to any one were probably by another Netherlandish
designer. Hans van Steenwinckel the Elder and builder, Bertel Lange. The exterior surfaces
the king himself have both been proposed, were made lively by stringcourses, window en-
partly because of certain resemblances in plan framements, quoins, and scrolls of sandstone
to Kronborg.27 Influence from French château against the brick. In its park setting, with for
design is evident, possibly coming from the mal gardens laid out in the new French fashion
publication of du Cerceau’s Plus excellents bath to the south and west, Rosenborg rises like an
ments de France in 1559. If the plan of the architectural jewel in the heart of the city (fig
King’s Wing, which was built first, is looked at ure 3.31).30 The interior rooms are finished

107 .

Frederiksborg. Chapel.
Museum.)
3.31 Copenhagen. Rosen
borg Palace. H. van
Steenwinckel II and
B. Lange, attr. 1606.
30
with both original and later paneled walls and

ceilings and now serve as the museum of the
Danish kings.
Christian IV’s building activities did not
stop with Frederiksborg and Rosenborg. With
his encouragement public buildings, churches,
and even city plans were begun or redesigned
at home and abroad. As early as 1608 he had
Copenhagen’s old Town Hall, standing between
Gammeltorv and Nytorv, rebuilt with an arcade
on the ground level facing Nytorv, a turret ris
ing above it in the center, and a large Nether
landish scroll gable on either side (figure
3.32).31 A larger central tower, also flanked by

gables, rose from the street level on the Gam

meltorv side. Now it resembled such Continen
tal buildings as the old Town Hall in
Amsterdam, but we are not told which of the
Netherlandish builders then in Denmark was
responsible for it.
The extant commercial building for which
Christian IV contracted in 16 19 is the famous
Bourse (figure 3.33).32 Lorenz van Steenwinckel
was the first architect appointed when the king
decided to have a suitable building for the trad
ing companies that he was promoting.33 On
Lorenz’s death in the same year his brother
Hans assumed the work, and the building was
completed in 1640. The king took much inter
est in the project, especially in the early years
up to the completion of the spire in 1625. This
somewhat exotic building was rebuilt as a mod
ern stock exchange by Harald Conrad Stilling in
1857 and has fortunately survived fires and
bombing. The ground level was divided into
warehouse rooms running athwart the building
and entered only from the street sides, while
33

109 .
the second level had offices and merchant stalls

and was entered at either end. Along each side
the bays are divided by sandstone pilasters with
herms and strapwork and are further accented
by the scroll gables rising at regular intervals.
The east and west ends are lavishly ornamented
with sandstone carvings against the red brick
walls. The unique spire composed of four inter
twined dragon tails was apparently based on
firework designs and was planned by the sculp
tor Ludwig Heidritter.
32 Christian IV’s concern for his overseas
travelers extended to the families of his naval
officers and men. At the north end of town,
midway between Rosenborg and the new cita
del of Sankt Annae Skanse, 1627, Nyboder
were begun in January 1631 (figure 3.34).34
These were row houses, to be administered by
the Admiralty, ranged in twenty blocks with
over six hundred apartments. As first built they
were single-story yellow brick buildings with
common walls and the ridges of the red tile
roofs running parallel to the street the entire
length of each block. This is different from the
more usual town dwellings with their gable
3.32 Copenhagen. Old Town ends to the street. Nyboder are attributed to
Hall. Rebuilt 1608. Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger and Leon
Thurah, Danske V itru hard Blasius and are more like workmen’s row
viu s, vol. 3, plate 4 1• houses in Germany and the Netherlands in this
(Copenhagen, Academy treatment of their roofs, more economical to
of Art Library.) build than individual gables and symbolically cre
3.33 Copenhagen. Bourse. ating social unity rather than distinction. A ves
L. and H. van Steen- tibule, living room, kitchen, and two bedrooms,
winckel II. 1619. with a stairway to attic storage space, consti
tuted the interior arrangements. Later second
stories were added, and not all the original
number have survived. We are reminded of the
multifamily Iron Age house, and similar housing
would in years to come be a concern for some
of Scandinavia’s most prominent architects.
Before turning to the city plans of Chris
tian IV we may note briefly the kind of house

to which a wealthy individual might aspire dur case to an octagonal turret gives access to the
ing his reign. In Copenhagen, Number 6 Ama main dwelling level, and communication be
gertorv was built in 1616 for the alderman tween all four stories is via a conservative stair
Mathias Hansen, who later became burgomaster case tower at the back. For such merchants the
(figure 3.35).35 Three stories high, it is impres lavish exterior ornament of their houses might
sive in its red brick and sandstone trim, with be matched by that of the interior (figure
elaborate gables rising above the large windows 3.37). Broad paneling with pilasters, arches,
of the second and third levels. The ground level strapwork, biblical or allegorical reliefs, and in
has been remodeled for business purposes, but scriptions lined the walls, while the ceiling
the portal of the passage to the original garden beams were also paneled, a fit setting for the
at the back remains. Another well-known ex heavily carved furniture of the period.
ample is Jens Bangs House in Ålborg, built in In connection with the building of Ny
1623 (figure 3.36).36 Like the Mathias Hansen boder, reference was made to the defenses
House it has its ridge parallel to the street, that Christian IV had added to Copenhagen.
here finished by three richly ornamented gables His interest in planning and fortification ex
that give light to the attic stories. The building tended to several other projects, three of
is faced with yellow brick and sandstone trim, which will be described briefly here. An early
the ground level quite plain but the three up plan of 1614 was for a new town, named Kris
per stories with abundant strapwork. A stair tianstad, located on the east coast of Skåne

Ill.
35 36
3.34 Copenhagen. Nyboder.

H. van Steenwinckel II
and L. Blaslus, attr.
Begun 1631.
3.35 Copenhagen. No. 6
Amagertorv. 1616.
3.36 Ålborg, Jutland. Jens
Bangs House. 1623.
Museum.)

37

113 .
39
3.37 Room from Ålborg,

Jutland, c. 1620. (Co
penhagen, National
Museum.)
3.38 Kristianstad, Skåne.
Plan. 1614.(Copen
hagen, National
Museum.)
3.39 Christianshavn. Plan. c.
1620. (Copenhagen,
Royal Library.)
3.40 Oslo. Plan. 1640s. Ak
ershus at lower left.
(After Kavli, N orwe
gian A rch itectu re, p.
57.)
3.41 Oslo. Akershus. Paint
ing by J. Coning, 1699.
(Oslo, City Museum.)

(figure 3.38).37 In this case a rectangular plan final project was based on an irregular octagon,
was chosen, the length parallel to the shore, with fewer bastions, the streets on a grid sys
with moat and bastions and two inner plazas in tem, a central square, and a canal running
addition to the space for the church. A canal across the whole plan in a northeast to south
separates the main plaza with the royal resi west direction on the north side of the square
dence, town hall, and church from the burgher (figure 3.39). The basic grid of the plan remains
district. The diagonal of the larger plaza was today, including the canal, the square, and the
planned to be parallel with the traditional east- southern portion of the ramparts.
west axis of the church, begun in 1617. Kris The third town is Oslo, founded in 1048
tianstad has since grown out and over the orig by King Harald Hard rada on the site of Gamle
inal lines of the walls, a few outlines of which byen in the modern city, east of the Aker
remain on the northern edge. River. Fires took their toll over the years; after
At home Christian IV planned a new town an especially destructive one in 1624, Christian
and defense system at the north end of the is IV set about planning a new and better-de
land of Amager.38 The first plan, by the royal fended city which he named for himself, Chris
engineer Johan Semp, called for a symmetrical tiania.39 He had a residential area laid out on
design based on an incomplete decagon, with the other side of the river from the old town,
streets radiating from a central square with a where a level site could be walled in and partly
church on one side and served by a canal. The defended by the old Akershus on a ridge over-

115 .
looking the Pipervik (figure 3.40). An irregular

bastioned wall on the north side enclosed a
grid plan with blocks of varying dimensions and
a plaza for the church that was moved there.
Building the new houses in brick and roofing
them with tile was, not surprisingly, encour
aged, although many were also built of half-tim
ber work.
The key to the whole scheme was Akers
hus.40 Begun by King Håkon V c. 1319, it con
sisted of an irregular series of walls, wings, and
courts, with two major towers, the Vågehall
and the Jomfru Tower. By the mid-sixteenth
century the former was deteriorating; its ruins
were incorporated into the east wing during
the rebuilding by Christian IV from 1625 to
1648, when two new stair towers crowned
with spires were also added (figure 3.41). Con-
ing’s painting shows how it appeared at the end
of the seventeenth century, rising above the
outer defenses and commanding the harbor, as
did Kronborg on the Øresund. Extensive
changes to convert it to a Baroque palace were 3.42 Kristianstad, Skåne.
proposed in 1756 but not carried out. No Holy Trinity Church.
longer a residence, it has been restored in L. and H. van Steen
modern times and serves as a museum and fes winckel II. 1617-1628.
tival hall. As the visitor climbs up the steep ap 3.43 Kristianstad, Skåne.
proach and enters through the heavy portals Holy Trinity Church.
the impression is one of great fortified Plan. (After Lund and
strength. Millech, eds., Dan
Christian IV also sponsored a certain marks bygningskunst,
amount of religious building. In 1613 he con p. 130.)
tracted with Lorenz van Steenwinckel to build
a burial chapel on the north side of Roskilde
Cathedral.41 This was richly ornamented outside
and in, the windows having Gothic tracery amid
the profusion of Renaissance ornament like
those of the Chapel at Frederiksborg. The
same was done for the church that Lorenz and
Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger built for
the king at Kristianstad from 16 17 to 1628 (fig
ure 3.42).42 Built in brick with stone trim, its

generous proportions and Netherlandish orna

ment give Holy Trinity Church a certain nobil
ity that might seem surprising in a new port
town, some distance from the capital. The plan
at first glance gives the impression of a central
ized structure, but this is not the case (figure
3.43). There is an entrance tower on the west,
then a six-bay nave, separated from compara
tively wide aisles and terminating in a project
ing eastern sanctuary. From the south and
north walls project shallow additions, the width
of the two central bays of the nave, with col
umns centered in the gaps in the walls to com
plete the support for the vaults.43 The aisles
rise to the height of the nave in the traditional
hall church fashion, now given a Renaissance
expression (figure 3.44). The tall windows seen
on the exterior admit abundant light. The
vaults are covered with a cross-gabled roof,
which accounts for the large ornamented gables
on the north and south sides. An especially
valuable piece of the liturgical fittings is the or
gan case by Johan Lorentz, built in 1630, al
though the works themselves are modern.44
For the capital city the king saw to the
3.44 Kristianstad, Skåne.
provision for a seamen’s church even before
Holy Trinity Church.
the building of Nyboder.45 An anchor forge dat
Interior.
ing from 1563 was converted to a church in
3.45 Copenhagen. Holmens
1619 with Leonhard Blasius as the master
Church. L. Blasius.
builder (figure 3.45). The higher of the two
1619.
forge buildings was converted to the sanctuary
of the new church, and three additions were
made to make it cruciform in plan. The walls of
the church are plain, but the gables are orna
mented with applied pilasters and moldings. Its
rather curious appearance, rising from the
water of Holmens Canal, comes from its origin
in an entirely different building.
Another church dedicated to the Holy
Trinity was begun in Copenhagen in 1637 after
plans by Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger46
It too is of brick, apparently a hall church from

117 .

the exterior, but without the gables and Re

naissance ornament of the church in Kristian
stad. The exterior is rather forbidding, very
plain, with wall buttresses between the win
dows rising to the eaves. The interior gives an
entirely different impression (figure 3.46).
Whereas at Kristianstad the columns are round
and support simple four-part vaults, in the Co
penhagen church the columns are octagonal and
support star vaults over the nave. The aisles
are covered with four-part vaults springing
from the nave colonnade and corbels in the
aisle walls, as had been done at Kristianstad. A
comparison with Storkyrkan in Stockholm
might be made here, for in that church the
nave is covered with star vaults, and the aisle
vaults do not rise from wall shafts either. The
difference is that in Storkyrkan the shafts
emerge from the walls without brackets to
support them, in the disintegration of forms
characteristic of the late Gothic period. In the
two churches dedicated to the Holy Trinity, on
the other hand, the clarity of Renaissance prin
ciples demanded that at least token support for
the aisle wall vaulting shafts be given visible
expression.
46 At Holy Trinity we find the last of Chris

tian IV’s buildings that we are to consider, and
the most unusual. This is the Round Tower at
tached to the church at the west end (figure
3.47).47 It was not the idea of the astronomer
Longomontanus to have an observatory in the
heart of the city, but the king wanted it as part
of the intellectual center of the capital, across
the street from the University, whose library
was to be housed in an attic story of Holy
Trinity. The church was built to be the student
church. The astonishing part of the tower is
the spiral ramp that winds to the observing
platform at the top in eight whorls. The idea
was derived from Continental castles in which
such ramps were built for riding or drawing up

119 .
3.46 Copenhagen. Holy

Trinity Church. H. van
Steenwinckel II. 1637.
Interior. (Copenhagen,
National Museum.)
3.47 Copenhagen. Holy
Trinity Church. Draw
ing by C. W. Eckers-
berg, 1809.
Museum.)
47
gun carriages, and there w as already a ramp at death o f her father, G ustavus II A dolf, in 1626,
the fortress o f V arberg in Halland, then under had seen no leadership like that o f C hristian IV
Danish rule. T he use o f the telescope w as then in the arts, and Sw edish involvem ent in the
in its infancy, and such tow ers, w itho ut the spi T hirty Y ears’ W ar did not encourage m any
ral ramp, w ere to be the general rule for o b large building projects. A n attem pt w as made
servatories for m any years. to colonize in the N ew W orld, to be sure,
Before H oly T rinity w as com pleted and w ith the settlem ent at Fort C hristina on the
dedicated in 1656 Christian IV died at Rosen D elaw are River in 1638. But the fort w as built
borg Palace in 1648. A m ap draw n in 1659 by a D utchm an, Peter M inuit, then in the ser
shows the legacy he left the city: a new harbor vice o f Sw eden, and w as taken over by another
and A rsenal, a Bourse, new defenses for the D utchm an, Peter Stuyvesant, in I6 5 5 .48 W hile
land side, housing for seam en and th eir fam ilies, the queen did try to encourage com m erce and
a new tow n on A m ager, the palace in the gar m anufacturing after the T reaty o f W estphalia in
den that pleased him so much, new churches, 1648, she w as far m ore interested in presiding
and an expanded university quarter (figure over a brilliant court, to w hich she invited fo r
3.48). But old C openhagen C astle w as still eign artists, scholars, and philosophers, including
there, becom ing less com fortable by the year. René D escartes.49 H er extravagance and indif
In the m eantim e notable events w ere tak ference to her people nationw ide led to her
ing place in building elsew here. Q ueen C hris abdication and conversion to Roman C atholi
tina cam e to the Sw edish throne at the age o f cism in 1654.
18 in 1644. The years o f regency since the

The m ost im portant w orks in Sw edish ar

chitecture at this tim e actually belonged to the
regency. The M akalös (“ N onesuch”) palace in
Stockholm is know n to us only from prints and
paintings, having been destroyed in 1825 (figure
3.49).50 It w as built for G eneral Jako b de la
G ardie by the G erm an architect Hans Jacob
Kristler in 1630. O ccupying a splendid site on
the w ater across from Stockholm Castle, near
N orrbro, it w as a rectangular block w ith steep
roof, corner pavilions in the French manner,
and a po lyglo t ornam ent. A w ealthy m erchant,
on the other hand, m ight build a residence like
the Petersén House in the Old Tow n o f Sto ck
holm. Built by C. J. D öteber in 1645-1649, ris
ing four stories w ith gable w indow s lighting the
attic, it is rich w ith G erm an-N etherlandish or
nam ent (figure 3.50).51
O f the several noble estates that received
mansions during these years, a good exam ple is
Tidö in Västm anland, the palace o f the regent
C hancellor A xel O xenstierna, begun c. 1620
and finished 1635-1645 under the architects Si
mon de La Vallée and N icodem us Tessin the
Elder (figure 3 .5 1).52 Rising on a height above
Lake Mälar, just south o f Västerås, it w as w ithin 3.48 Copenhagen. Map as of
easy reach o f the capital by w ater. The main 1659. Resen, A tla s
residence is three stories high, flanked sym m et Danicus. (Copenhagen,
rically by tw o -sto ry w ings, w ith the entrance Royal Library.)
w ing opposite. The palace is especially notable 3.49 Stockholm. Painting by

E. Martin, 1787. Maka
for its rich sculptured doorw ays by the stone
lös palace at right.
mason H indrich Blum e.
(Stockholm, National
O ne truly grandiose building for Sto ck
Museum.)
holm w as at least envisioned. In 1641 a com
3.50 Stockholm. Petersén
mission w as granted to Sim on de La V allée for
House. C. J. Döteber.
the Riddarhus, or House o f N obles, to be their
1645-1649.
place o f assem bly in Sto ckho lm .53 Sim on de La
V allée w as the son o f a French architect w o rk
ing in Paris on the Luxem bourg Palace under
Salom on de Brosse. The original proposal was
for a central rectangular building, w ith turreted
corner pavilions and w ings form ing large court-

121 .

yards on either side. This plan, along w ith the (figure 3.52). The sandstone pilasters o f the
proposed details o f rustications, balustrades, m onum ental order ornam enting the brick build
and segm ental pedim ents all reflected French ing are not rusticated, and the central entrance
rather than G erm an or N etherlandish taste. S i bays are em phasized by low triangular pedi
mon de La Vallée died, how ever, the same ments. A vestige o f the corner pavilion design
year, w ith construction barely started, and rem ains in the d oubling and coupling o f the pi
w o rk w as delayed for m ore than a decade. lasters fram ing the end bays, but the w hole fa
W hen building w as resum ed in 1653, the cades on north and south are unified by the
new architect w as Justus Vinckeboons from nearly unbroken line o f the entablatures. A fter
A m sterdam , and the style o f the Riddarhus w as three years o f w o rk on the Riddarhus Justus
changed from French to Dutch. This did not V inckeboons returned to Holland, and the
mean a return to N orthern M annerism , how w o rk w as com pleted by Sim on de La V allée’s
ever, but to the now flourishing D utch Palladi- son Jean. N ow a French touch w as added in the
anism. The w ings, courtyards, and corner round attic w indow s and the shape o f the “sä
pavilions w ere abandoned, Sim on de La V allée’s te ri” roof, rising in tw o curving parts w ith a
project being reduced to the central building short vertical part betw een. If w e com pare the
and tw o pavilions at the north edge o f the site Riddarhus as fin ally com pleted in 1674 w ith

123 .
52
3.51 Tidö, Västmanland.

S. de La Vallée and N.
Tessin I. Begun c. 1620.
(Stockholm, Nordic
Museum.)
3.52 Stockholm. Riddarhus.
S. de La Vallée,
J. Vinckeboons, and
J. de La Vallée. Begun
1642.
3.53 Austråt, Sør-
Trøndelag. Castle.
1654. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
53

Makalös and Stockholm Castle as it appeared in

1661, we can see that a new taste had been
introduced, mainly by the nobility.
By contrast the only major Norwegian
building at midcentury was not planned on such
theoretical principles at all. In 1654 Chancellor
Olav Bjelke began the transformation of the
medieval church at Austråt in Sør-Trøndelag to
a castle at the entrance to Trondheim Fjord
(figure 3.53).54 The owner’s journeys to Padua,
Madrid, and Vienna probably inspired his con
54
version of the church to chapel with Riddarsal
above and his addition of wings to create a
courtyard residence, complete with columned
loggia and further Renaissance ornament. Res
torations were necessary after a fire in 1916,
but it is still an ingenious example of adaptive
reuse.
The early seventeenth century was not a
time of extensive church building in either
Sweden or Norway. In Stockholm a new
church of St. Jacob had been started as a nearly
square hall church with long choir and apse in
1588. Work was interrupted, and as finished in
1643 by the German architect Hans Förster it
was enlarged by several bays and covered with
late Gothic star vaults of varying patterns (fig
ure 3.54).55 The portals were carved by Hin-
drich Blume, who also did the portals at Tidö
(figure 3.55). The church was completed with
side aisles lower than the nave and has none of
the spacious quality of the Steenwinckels’
churches in Kristianstad and Copenhagen.
Another church by Hans Förster was built
at Tyresö in Södermanland.56 Here there is a
single nave with a three-sided choir, Gothic
windows, and domed-up vaults springing from
half columns on the walls (figure 3.56). Once
again there was the conservatism in the use of
Gothic elements for church building that char
acterizes the Chapel at Frederiksborg and Holy
Trinity in Kristianstad. 55

125 .
By the beginning o f the second half o f the

seventeenth century, then, the royal and noble
patrons o f building in Scandinavia had m oved
from the encouragem ent o f a tentative adm ix
ture o f m edieval and Renaissance elem ents to a
much greate r reliance on theoretical principles,
and some o f th eir m ost am bitious projects have
survived. The change in color from the often
m onochrom atic brick surfaces o f the M iddle
A ges to the lively contrasts o f brick w ith stone
carvings w as due largely to the contributions of
Germ an and N etherlandish architects and sculp
tors. A part from the planning o f new cities and
their defenses, how ever, much o f this activity
had to do w ith individual buildings rather than
w ith large-scale urban projects. M ore sw eeping
changes w ould be m ade in the cities o f D en
m ark, N orw ay, and Sw eden during the com ing
years o f the Baroque.
3.54 Stockholm. St. Jacob’s

Church. H. Förster. Be
gun 1588. Plan. (After
Lundmark, Sankt Ja
ko bs K yrka, figure 59,
p. 256.)
3.55 Stockholm. St. Jacob’s
Church. South portal.
3.56 Tyresö, Södermanland.
Church. H. Förster.
1638-1640. Interior.
(Stockholm, Antikvar
isk-Topografiska
Arkivet.)

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

4 Scandinavian Baroque and Rococo
,
Early Baroque c. 1660-1730
In the m iddle years o f the seventeenth century

a num ber o f political and m ilitary events o c
curred th at accom panied and probably hastened
changes o f direction in Scandinavian architec
ture. As w e have just seen, buildings carrying
Renaissance decorative m otifs often sim ply per
petuated m edieval ideas o f planning; but the
later part o f the century brought more essen
tial changes, not only for individual buildings but
also for city planning.
Before turning to the extensive royal proj
ects o f the late seventeenth century, w e m ay
find it illum inating to review briefly the per
sonal circum stances o f the m onarchs o f D en
m ark and Sw eden. The Danish kings in the
seventeenth century cam e to the throne im m e
diately upon the deaths o f th eir fathers as
young or m ature adults. W hen Christian IV
died in 1648 at the age o f 7 1, his son Frederik
III succeeded him at the age o f 39. Frederik Ill’s
son Christian V w as 24 years old w hen he be
cam e king in 1670, ruling until his sudden death
in a hunting accident 29 years later. In 1699
Frederik IV w as 28 years old and lived to rule
until 1730.

Scandinavian Baroque and Rococo
The situation w as different in Sw eden. A different system w as used by N icodem us

W hen the great king and m ilitary leader Gusta- Tessin the Elder in his plan for the new Sw ed
vus II A d o lf w as killed in the figh tin g at Lützen ish naval base o f Karlskrona, Blekinge, in 1680,
in 1632, his daughter C hristina w as only six for w hich Erik D ahlberg designed the fo rtifica
years old, and Sw eden w as ruled by a regency, tions in 1683.2 D ahlberg had been trained as a
dom inated by C ount A xel O xenstierna, for 12 m ilitary engineer in G erm any and had assisted
years. H er abdication in 1654 left the throne to w ith C harles X ’s rem arkable m arch from Ju t
the cousin w hom she had named her hereditary land across the frozen w aters to C openhagen
successor, C harles X . His brilliant m ilitary ca in 1658. Im m ediately after the Sw edish victory
reer w as cut short six years later by pneum onia he had strengthened the defenses o f Karlshamn,
when he w as only 38. T hat left his little son, a seaport tow n in the new ly w on province o f
aged four years, to a regency until 1674. In Blekinge. Then in 1680 he built the fort at
1697 at the age o f 42 Charles X I died, leaving Landskrona, across the Sound from D enmark.
the throne to his son, w ho becam e Charles XII But Karlskrona, founded as a naval base in 1679
at the age o f 15, the R iksdag having decided and nam ed for the king, w as the m ost forw ard
that a regency w as not necessary. looking project o f the three.
M eanw hile Frederik III in D enm ark was W hereas Karlshamn and Landskrona had
faced w ith losses from the w ars, and w ar broke grow n from m edieval tow ns w ith churches and
out again in 1657, ending in 1658 w ith the loss central m arket places and streets m ore or less
o f Skåne, Blekinge, Halland, Bornholm , Ven, and on grid plans, a new er o pportunity w as pre
T røndelag to Sw eden. A no ther w ar resulted in sented at Karlskrona. The islands surrounding
the return o f Bornholm and T røndelag to D en the tow n w ere to be fortified. T essin’s plan for
m ark in 1660, and internal politics forced the the tow n itself had the basic elem ents seen on
Council o f State in that year to declare the the plan for fortifications by D ahlberg (figure
Danish m onarchy hereditary. In both D enm ark 4.2). The fortress w as to be on the south side
and Sw eden the stage w as now set for large- o f the island, its main building facing a square.
scale building program s under absolute m onar Then a principal street w as to lead to a second
chies, and neither country w as to be square, and diagonal streets w ere to lead o ff
disappointed. the north corners o f the first. These, w ith fu r
These w ars m eant th at tow n planning w as ther diagonal streets, w ould provide the vistas
still ve ry much directed tow ard defense. The already adopted in such plazas as the Piazza del
fortifications surrounding C openhagen shown Popolo in Rome. Tessin had probably intended
on the map o f 1659 (figure 3.48) w ere be a church in the center o f the main plaza. Dahl-
sieged by C harles X , and the inner bastions o f b erg’s plan, how ever, show s a church at the
the citadel w ere com pleted by the D utch en gi east side (the Fredriks Church later designed
neer H enrik Rüse in 16 6 2 - 16 6 4 .1 He also laid by N icodem us Tessin the Y ounger in 1697), the
out the m ajor streets connecting K astellet w ith Tow n Hall opposite on the w est side, and the
the older portion o f the city. C hristian IV had Church o f the H oly T rinity, also by Tessin the
intended a new plaza, K ongens N ytorv, to be Younger, on the south. These streets and build
octagonal w ith radiating streets, but Rüse evi ings form the basis o f Karlskrona today.
d ently tho ught a grid system to be m ore e ffi A plan less am bitious but incorporating
cient (figure 4 . 1). som e Baroque elem ents w as adopted at Trond-

129.
4 .1 Copenhagen. Plan by G.
Hartmann, c. 1680.
(Copenhagen, City
Museum.)

4.2 Karlskrona. Plan by

E. Dahlberg. 1694.
(Stockholm,
Krigsarkivet.)
4.3 Trondheim. Plan by Ci-
cignon and Coucheron.
1681. (After Kavli, N or
wegian A rch itectu re, p.
59.)
4.4 Møgeltønder, Jutland.
Slotsgade. 1680.

131 .
heim after a fire in 1681 (figure 4 .3 ).3 The old From this period also dates a small but
city w as surrounded by w ater except for a nar w ell-know n street, Slotsgade in M øgeltønder
row connection w ith the m ainland on the w est. on Jutland. G eneral Hans Schack, w ho had led
M ilitary considerations w ere forem ost in the the defense o f C openhagen against the Sw edes
plans for rebuilding by Johan Caspar C icignon in 1659, purchased the m edieval castle o f
and W yllem C oucheron. From the w est gate in M øgeltønder in 1664, razed it, and built a new
the w all a broad street w as laid across the country house, Schackenborg. In 1680 a street
tow n, w ith a central plaza crossed by another w as laid out from the m anor house w estw ard
broad street, not quite at right angles. The re beyond the church.4 Shaded by rows o f lime
m aining streets w ere laid out grid fashion, w ith trees on either side, the little brick one-and-a-
blocks o f varying sizes, the w hole much resem half-story houses now date from the 1730s at
bling the plan o f Fredrikstad from c. 1570 (fig the earliest but still preserve order and tran
ure 3 .17). The north-south street w as laid out quility (figure 4.4).
to give a line o f sight from the Cathedral in the Before the seventeenth century w as over,
southeast sector o f the tow n through the cen how ever, at least one tru ly grand city plan
tral square and out tow ard the island o f M unks em erged. In Stockholm there had been some
holm en, w here the abbey had been converted regularizing o f streets after a fire in the Old
to a fortress after the Reform ation. If C icig- Tow n in 1625. W ith N icodem us Tessin the
non’s plan did not depend on fully developed Y ounger w e encounter a strong personality,
Baroque theory, it ye t had a certain grandeur this tim e less o f a m ilitary engineer and more
o f conception. o f civil architect. Son o f the Royal A rchitect

4.5 Stockholm. Plan by N icodem us Tessin the Elder, to w hose w o rk at

N. Tessin II. 1697. D rottningholm w e shall return and w ho had
(Stockholm, Royal Pal been a pupil o f the French architect Sim on de
ace Collections.) La Vallée, he had gone to Italy in 1673 and
4.6 Hamina. Plan by C. A. w orked in D enm ark in 1678. O n his return to
Blaesingh and A. Löwen. Sw eden he w as appointed Royal A rch itect after
1681. (After Richards, the death o f his fath er in 1681. The m ajor task
800 Years, p. 72.) before him w as to m odernize Stockholm Cas
tle. A s it turned out, a new palace w as soon to
be required, in connection w ith w hich Tessin
the Y ounger developed a plan for a royal city
much less dom inated by m ilitary considerations
than C hristian IV ’s plans for C openhagen. The
differences in character betw een these tw o cit
ies w ere doubtless in part brought about by
their d ifferent geographical locations. C open
hagen lay on the Sound, open to hostile as w ell

133 .
as com m ercial traffic betw een the N orth and

Baltic Seas. Stockholm , on the other hand, in
spite o f salt w ate r in her harbor, lay back be
hind an archipelago, w ith Sw e d e n ’s naval d e
fenses in the coast tow ns like Landskrona and
Karlskrona.
A m ajor fire in Stockholm Castle in 1697
provided a clearly w elcom e challenge for Tessin
the Younger, w ho had seen Rom e, Paris, and
V ersailles. His draw ings show a new palace on
the site o f Stockholm C astle, a rebuilt N orth
Bridge leading to a new square, N orm alm storg,
w ith a massive royal burial church on the cen
tral axis, flanked by lesser palaces. To the w est,
arsenals and go vernm ent offices w ere planned
sym m etrically at the w ater side, behind w hich a
form al garden, nearly as large as the Royal Pal
ace, extended to the main cross street o f the
new er city (figure 4 .5 ).5 N ot all the buildings
planned w ere built, but the bridge, the plaza
beyond it, and the gardens w ere carried out
and, although m odified, are part o f the m odern
city.
O ne o f the last form al tow n plans o f this
period appeared in Finland, w hich was also in
volved in the w ars o f this period. The Sw edish
coastal tow n o f V ehkalahti, near the Russian
border, w as occupied by the Russians and vir
tually destroyed from 17 13 to 17 2 1. It w as
then returned to Sw eden by the T reaty o f
N ystad. Renam ed Fredriksham n, or H am ina, it
w as laid out by the Sw edish engineer Carl A.
Blaesingh on an octagonal plan w ith e igh t main
streets radiating from a central plaza, a rare
surviving exam ple o f an ideal city (figure 4 .6 ).6
The elaborate bastions on the land side w ere
designed by A xel Löw en, and som e traces o f
them still rem ain.
W hile these tow n planning projects w ere
intended to protect the interests o f D enm ark
and Sw eden during m any years o f strife, the
kings and nobles found opportunities to build

for them selves in the grand manner. O ne o f the

earliest and still m ost im pressive o f the royal
w orks is D rottningholm Palace on Lake M älar
4.7 Drottningholm. N. Tes near Stockholm , built for D ow ager Q ueen
sin I. Begun 1667. H edw ig Eleanora, w ido w o f C harles X (figure
4.8 Copenhagen. Old Amal 4 .7 ).7 It w as begun by N icodem us Tessin the
ienborg. A. Mathiesen. Elder in 1662, and the w ings w ere heightened
1667. (Thurah, Danske
by Carl Hårlem an in 1744. The palace was d e
V itru viu s, volume 3,
signed in the sym m etrical French style that
plate 13. Copenhagen,
characterized T essin’s sm aller palaces for the
Academy of Art
nobility. The principal entrance is on the w est,
Library.)
or garden side, approached by a double stair.
The three large portals give access to an en
trance hall w ith a grand staircase. The State
Bedroom and Banqueting Hall lie on either side
in the main block, w ith private residence cham
bers in the four corner pavilions. The basem ent
story is rusticated, w hile the w alls above have
strips o f stone betw een the w indow s, w ith a
triglyp h and m etope frieze above. The säteri
roof is used on the side portions o f the central
block and also on the pavilions. O riginally the
color w as pale red w ith gray trim , very differ-

135 .
ent from w hat it is now. The state rooms w ere A m alienborg for the queen. A fire destroyed
finished w ith much grandeur. B uilt on the site her palace in 1689, four years after her death,
o f an earlier manor, D rottningholm Palace w ith but the nam e w as kept for the later palaces
its extensive gardens has been called the “V er proposed for the site.
sailles o f the N o rth.” The city palace built for U lrik Frederik
W ithin the next decade tw o palatial resi G yldenløve, natural son o f Frederik III and G ov
dences w ere built for m em bers o f the Danish ernor o f N orw ay, w as m ore fortunate (figure
royal fam ily, one o f w hich survives, now put to 4 .9 ).9 It w as begun by the Dutch builder Evert
a different use. In 1667 Frederik Ill’s Q ueen So Janssen, and som e reflection o f the Tow n Hall
phie A m alie o f B runsw ick-Lüneberg had seen to in A m sterdam has been seen in it. Brick w ith
the planning o f a m ore agreeable palace on a stone trim , it rises in three stories, w ith four
tract o f land in the new part o f the city, be w ings around a courtyard, covered in part by
tw een Kongens N ytorv and Kastellet. The pal low hipped roofs. Special features are a m onu
ace is generally attributed to the builder m ental staircase on the entrance side and a cer
A lbertus M athiesen and w as much like an Italian em onial hall overlooking the garden. In 1700
villa in design, w ith a three-sto ry central block D ow ager Q ueen C harlotte A m alie, w ido w o f
and low w ings term inating in pavilions on ei C hristian V, purchased the property, for w hom
ther side (figure 4 .8 ).8 The grand curving stair it w as then nam ed C harlottenborg. It is now
case w as also Italian in origin, but the pilasters the main building o f the Royal Danish A cadem y
o f the second and third stories, the w indow o f Fine A rts.
surrounds, and the balustraded roof m ay have A fter the shock o f the Sophie A m alien
been closer to the D utch Palladianism o f Jacob borg disaster another attem p t was m ade to
van Cam pen. The palace w as named Sophie provide the Danish court w ith a fashionable
bb.lllii/J/ul/r ( T " » aJ',*/. n Ó ^ lü jH ir K ' yt ' I' •( T ;7 1 J " (ijX«JUJte y y .

4.9 Copenhagen. Charlot-

tenborg. E. Janssen.
16 7 4 -1683. (Thurah,
Danske V itru viu s, vol
ume I , plate 42. Copen
hagen, Academy of Art
Library.)
4 .10 Copenhagen. Amalien
borg. Plan by N. Tessin
II. 1693. (Stockholm,
Royal Palace
Collections.)
ю
4 .11 Stockholm. Royal Pal
ace. N. Tessin II. Begun
1697.

137 .
m odern residence. Lam bert von Haven had In Stockholm Tessin began the rem odeling
prepared plans for a new palace to replace C o o f the Castle as com m issioned by C harles XI.
penhagen C astle, but Christian V w as evidently The king, how ever, died on A pril 5, 1697, w ith
not pleased w ith them . U lrica Eleanora, sister the w o rk only partly com pleted. On M ay 7 a
o f Christian V, had been m arried to C harles XI fire broke out and left the w hole castle in
o f Sw eden in 1680 in hopes o f strengthening ruins. Tessin now had the task o f building a
the then m ore peaceful relations betw een D en new palace w o rth y o f Sw e d e n ’s strength and
m ark and Sw eden. H er Royal A rchitect, N ico- the confidence o f the yo ung new king, Charles
dem us Tessin the Younger, w as called to X II. The grand urban design that Tessin envis
C openhagen in 1693 to plan another palace. aged w ith this oppo rtunity w as only in part re
The palace w as again to be on the A m al alized, but the Royal Palace itself is still
ienborg site, in the Italian m anner w ith a cen fundam entally as he planned it (figures 4.5 and
tral courtyard (figure 4 .1 0 ).10 The entrance 4.1 I ) . 12
w ing was planned to face K astellet on the The palace is com posed o f four w ings
north, and there w as to be a chapel in the around a central nearly square courtyard. The
w est w ing and a th eater in the east, w ith the main entrance is on the w est from a plaza
main residence on the side tow ard the castle. form ed by the curved barracks o f the palace
A no tew o rthy feature w as the inclusion o f a guards. The central portion is em phasized in
perm anent court theater, w hereas heretofore granite w ith a rusticated D oric applied colon
the Scandinavian m onarchs had had to make do nade on the ground floor, then herms against
w ith tem po rary structures or rem odeled halls.11 rusticated pilasters on the next level and C o
T essin’s project cam e to nothing. He returned rinthian pilasters and elaborate w indo w pedi
to Stockholm and w en t to w o rk on rem odeling m ents on the third level. On the south side the
the north w ing o f the castle there. Christian V portal leads to the Hall o f State on the w est
died in 1699, another w ar w ith Sw eden started and the Chapel on the east. Here an even
in 1700, and w e shall see th at Frederik IV had m ore im posing effect is created by a trium phal
other ideas about royal palaces. arch m o tif using six gian t C orinthian applied

columns w ith niches for statues betw een and

more statues on the attic story (figure 4 . 12).
The central portions o f the east and w est façade
4 .12 Stockholm. Royal Pal s in the courtyard are also in stone, a rusti
ace. South façade. cated arcade at ground level and Corinthian
4 .13 Frederiksberg Palace. pilasters through the second and third levels.
E. Brandenburger. Be For the overall grandeur o f his conception T es
gun 1703. sin ow ed much to his experiences in France
and Italy, w here w ith the help o f form er
Q ueen C hristina he m et B ern in i.13 So large a
project to o k tim e to build, and there was an
interruption during the N ordic W ar from 1700
to 1721. Tessin died in 1728, and the palace
w as com pleted and furnished under his succes
sors. For the m ost part his designs w ere fo l
low ed, w ith the notable exception o f the court
theater intended for the southeast w ing but
never built. The success o f the Royal Palace as
it rises above the w ater o f Stockholm Harbor
lies in its proportions and the d ign ity w ith
w hich the broad w alls and the horizontal balus-

139 .
trade o f the roof hold the richness o f the east tral bays have the third-story w indow s height
ern, w estern, and southern façades in check. ened and are marked o ff by pilasters rising to
Shortly after this great w o rk w as begun in an entablature at the top. O therw ise the e x te
Stockholm , on the death o f Christian V in 1699 rior is rather soberly finished. Lauritz de
Frederik IV succeeded to the throne o f D en Thurah provided the plans for the side w ings,
mark. As C row n Prince he had already ac built 1733-1738 w hen the palace w as needed
quired a half-tim bered sum m er house on land to house the royal fam ily during the construc
w est o f the city. He now enlarged the gardens tion o f the new C hristiansborg Palace. The
and began a new palace on the hilltop, inspired original portal to the grounds was rebuilt in
by the villas he had seen in Italy. The architect 1929. Much o f the interior w as richly furnished
o f Frederiksberg w as the royal building inspec w ith painting and stucco decorations, especially
tor Ernst B randenburgén w ho had it essentially in the chapel in the east w in g .15 The palace was
com plete by 1703. Then in 1708 Johan Conrad taken over by the state in 1849 and has been in
Ernst made designs for additions at the ends o f use as a m ilitary academ y since 1868. In 1834
the main block, w hich w as built after changes the English traveler John Barrow rem arked o f
by the general building m aster W ilhelm F. C openhagen that “the inland view s are also
Platen (figures 4.13 and 4 . 14 ) .14 The building is striking, and the palace o f Frederiksberg, stand
three stories high, w ith em phasis on the middle ing on a w ell-w o o ded hill, adds much to the
story through the addition o f triangular and beauty o f the scenery.” 16
segm ental pedim ents o ver the w indow s. On M ention o f C hristiansborg Palace is a re
both garden and court façades, the three cen m inder that the old C openhagen Castle w as

still in use. It had not been much changed since

the tim e o f C hristian III and still had the gables
and balconies that had been added for a touch
o f Renaissance fashion in the 1550s (figure
3 .2 5 ).17 Frederik IV w as not partial to city liv
ing, but he made an attem pt to convert the
castle to som ething m ore regular. The w hole
com plex w as enlarged and the gables and irreg
ularities abolished or concealed as much as pos
sible (figures 4.15 and 4 . 16 ).18 The w o rk was
IIЕОШ
done in stages, from 1710 to 1714 under the
builder C hristopher M arselis and from 1720 to
1727 under Johan Christian Ernst and Johan
C ornelius Krieger. W hile this w as all at best a
m akeshift solution, one no tew orthy detail w as
the inclusion o f a theater, the first to be in
stalled perm anently in a Scandinavian royal
palace.
The contrast betw een w hat Frederik IV
w as able to do w ith C openhagen Castle and
w hat he could do w ith a fresh start is w ell
dem onstrated by com paring the b ird’s-eye view
o f the castle w ith a b ird ’s-eye view o f the pal
ace o f Fredensborg (figure 4 . 17 ) .19 N orth o f
C openhagen and a little beyond Hillerød w as a
royal hunting park east o f Esrom Sø, w here
Christian V had laid o ut a radiating system o f
avenues. H ere in 1719 Frederik IV began a new
sum m er palace, w hose name (m eaning “For
tress o f P eace”) com m em orates the treaty end
ing the N ordic W ar betw een D enm ark and
Sw eden, signed here in 1720. The architect Jo
han C hristian K rieger began w ith the main
block crow ned by a dom e, w hich covers a high
central hall, the m ajor interior space. The four
corner pavilions w ere added by N iels Eigtved in
the 1750s, and the m inaret-like turrets w ere
added by Lauritz de Thurah. The buildings o f
the octagon w ere raised a story higher by
Caspar F. H arsdorff in 17 7 4 - 1776, and he also
opened an entrance to the o riginally enclosed
octagon, m aking a closer connection betw een

Ml .
4 .14 Frederiksberg Palace.

Plan. (Thurah, Danske
V itru viu s, volume 2,
Academy of Art
Library.)
4 .15 Copenhagen Castle.
Plan of 1728. (Copen
hagen, National
Museum.)
4 .16 Copenhagen Castle.
View by J. J. Bruun. c.
1728. (Copenhagen,
National Museum.)
4 .17 Fredensborg Palace.
J. C. Krieger. Begun
1719. Bird’s-eye view
by H. C. Lønborg, c.
1730. (Copenhagen,
National Museum.)
17

gram s. In its ease o f setting and spaciousness

Fredensborg has much in com m on w ith D ro tt
ningholm , and it is interesting th at for a variety
4 .18 Fredensborg Palace. o f reasons these royal country estates preceded
Chapel. Interior. (Co the first great urban palaces in both D enm ark
penhagen, National and Sw eden.
Museum.)
By the tim e Fredensborg w as begun, the
4 .19 Rosendal, Hordaland.
new palace in Stockholm was already under
1661-1665. (Oslo,
construction, interrupted by the same N ordic
Riksantikvaren.)
W ar from w hich the Danish estate derived its
name. Before turning to the new palace that
shortly w as begun in C openhagen, how ever, w e
should note first som e residences built for less
exalted individuals and also som e churches.
In 1661 a barony had been created in N or
w ay that w as first held by the Danish aristocrat
Ludw ig Rosencrantz, w ho had m arried into a
w ealthy Scottish trad in g fam ily. He laid out his
m anor farm called Rosendal near M alm anger
Peak in H ordaland in 1661-1665 (figure 4 . 19).21
The residence w as built sym m etrically around a
the main palace and the eight small houses lin courtyard, w ith a grand curving staircase in the
ing the main avenue o f approach. central portion and a large k n igh t’s hall in the
The interior o f Fredensborg w as provided north w ing. Som e o f the original w ooden
w ith a series o f painted and stuccoed decora paneling o f the interior rem ains, but some
tions by several artists through the 1770s. Es rooms w ere subdivided by later ow ners. The
pecially fine is the chapel in the east w ing, property w as w illed to the U niversity o f O slo
com pleted in 1725, w ith its hipped roof, tow er, in 1923. A s at Fredensborg, a coherent plan
and elaborate southern entrance. The royal box was possible, unlike the earlier piecem eal con
is in the w e st end, accessible from the palace. struction at A ustråt.
A lthough econom y dictated m arbleized The com parative m odesty o f Rosendal in
w ooden colum ns rather than any m ore expen N orw ay is not surprising in view o f its distance
sive m aterials, the altar and pulpit by Johan from the center o f court life. In Sw eden and
Friedrich Ehbisch provide the appropriate D enm ark a num ber o f much m ore am bitious
splendor (figure 4 . 18).20 m anor houses rem ain, attestin g to the w ealth
U nlike C openhagen Castle, Rosenborg, and and position o f th eir ow ners. For a good Sw ed
Frederiksborg, Fredensborg w as never isolated ish exam ple w e can look at Skokloster in U pp
fortresslike by w ater. K rieger used the hunting land on an inlet o f Lake M älar, northw est o f
avenues to link the palace w ith the Sø and fo r Stockholm (figure 4 .2 0 ).22 Like T idö earlier, it
ests and to m ake a basis for the form al gardens was built by a pow erful noblem an, this tim e
on the south. Much o f this has been retained, G eneral Carl G ustav W rangel, w ho contributed
w ith the addition o f several sculpture pro his ow n ideas after seeing castles during his

143 .

4.20 Skokloster, Uppland, cam paigns in G erm any and Poland. The archi
j. de La Vallée. 1679. tect w as Jean de La V allée, w ho also had N ico-
4.21 Clausholm, Jutland. dem us Tessin the Elder w o rking w ith him.
E. Brandenburger. Partly because o f the o w n e r’s inclinations, the
1693-1699. plan o f the castle around a courtyard w ith oc-
tagonal tow ers pro jecting at the four corners
gives the mass o f the building a conservative
m edieval shape. The abundance o f large w in
dow openings, especially on the ground level,
belies any fortress character. The exterio r w alls
are rusticated, w ith strong horizontal stri
ngcourses and shallow panels surrounding the
w indow s. O n the interior, w hich has been re
stored, little expense w as spared in furnishing
w ith tapestries, stuccoed ceilings, and elaborate
tiled stoves.
In D enm ark a sim ilar form ality w as ob
served at Clausholm on Jutland, built in 16 9 3 -

145 .
21
1699 by Ernst B randenburger for C hancellor self in Stockholm across from the Royal Palace
Conrad R eventlow . (figure 4 .2 1).23 This is a reveals som ething o f his ow n sense o f im por
large m anor house, w ith a central block and tance (figure 4 .2 3 ).25 It is three stories high, the
w ings that form a w ide courtyard on the north, low est one rusticated. The second and third
or entrance, side. The shorter w ings on the stories are fram ed by corner pilasters betw een
garden side w ere added in 1722-1723. Here w hich runs a bracketed cornice w ith an attic
the portal, w hich w as redesigned by Tessin the story above. A triple-arched portal leads into a
Y ounger, leads to a w ide vestibule w ith stairs colum ned vestibule across the low er story,
at either end. The rooms in the w ings are w hich in turn opens out to the garden. Tessin
served by a corridor on the courtyard sides, w as able to secure enough land to lay out an
the doors betw een them set en filade. The din im posing effe ct in very little space. The garden
ing salon o verlooking the garden and the salon w alls w ere purposely slanted to give a perspec
above have som e o f the finest stucco decora tive effect, w ith curved elem ents, niches, co l
tions in D enm ark (figure 4.22). The gracious umns and pilasters, balustrades, sym m etrical
fam ily chapel in the w est w in g w as restored in planting beds, and sculptures. Since 1772 the
19 3 1.24 house has been the residence o f the G overnor
A m o ng the city houses o f the period, the General.
mansion that Tessin the Y ounger built for him

4.22 Clausholm, Jutland.

Stucco decoration.
4.23 Stockholm. Tessin
House. N. Tessin II.
1697.
4.24 Copenhagen. Library of
Frederik III. A. Mathie
sen. 1665. (Copen
hagen, National
Museum.)
4.25 Kalmar, Småland. Ca
thedral. N. Tessin I.
Begun 1660. (Kalmar
Museum.)
23

147.
25

W hile the Baroque period w as prim arily

notable for palaces, m anor houses, and some
churches, one building rem ains in C openhagen
that w as built for a m ore specialized purpose.
In 1665 Frederik III decided to build a library
and m useum to house the royal collections.26
The builder w as A lbertus M athiesen, on w hose
death in 1668 the w o rk w as com pleted by
Thom as W algenstein, the city building master.
It is o f brick, three stories high, located on
Slotsholm en on the east side o f the form er na
val harbor, w hich is now the Royal Library g ar
den. The ground flo o r w as for the storage o f
field artillery, w ith the library on the second
level and the K unstkam m er on the third. A
beautiful room w as created for the library,
paved w ith m arble and lined w ith galleries car
ried on gilded C orinthian colum ns (figure 4.24).
A ll this lasted until 1908, w hen the building was
rem odeled to house the State A rchives. The
paving w as salvaged for the flo or o f the G reat
Hall in the present C hristiansborg Palace.
Baroque church building in D enm ark and

Sw eden w as not extensive but partook o f the
regularity o f planning and frequent grandeur o f
expression that characterized the palaces and
m anor houses. A t Kalm ar the old city w ith its
w inding m edieval streets lay inland north o f the
castle. M ilitary considerations c. 1640 prom pted
a decision to relocate the city on the nearby
island o f Kvarnholm en, offshore to the east,
w hich w as fairly w ell accom plished by 1658.
The new city w as laid out after several years o f
planning and w as o f course regular in design,
w ith a central plaza that w as to contain the ca
thedral. For this N icodem us Tessin the Elder
provided the design. The construction, w hich
to o k o ver fo rty years to com plete, w as begun
in Ju n e 1660. The rising land o f the island pro
27
vided a m ajestic settin g above the harbor, al
though as at K alundborg the effect is now
som ew hat obscured by m odern buildings. The

149 .
cathedral is the only m ajor ecclesiastical w o rk

by Tessin the Elder, and on it he lavished ideas
gleaned from his observations o f Baroque
Rome (figure 4 .2 5 ).27
To m eet the requirem ents for the co n gre
gation-oriented Lutheran services o f the tim e,
Tessin began w ith a G reek cross plan. As it d e
veloped, the plan w as given east and w est e x
tensions, ending in apses. The four massive
central piers m ay have been intended to carry a
dom e, but one w as never built. The principal
entrance is on the south side, the upper story
w ith pedim ent and scrolls perhaps recalling II
G esii in Rome. The cathedral is colorful, w ith
Tuscan and Ionic pilasters against the pink stuc
coed w all surfaces and the copper-green roofs
and turrets above. The broad south façade
gives a m ajestic backdrop to the plaza. The in
terior is m ade stately by a gian t order o f paired
Ionic pilasters. The pulpit against the northeast
pier first captures the attention o f those en ter
ing from the plaza. The cathedral is not entirely
centralized, how ever, because the main body is
clearly on the east-w est axis, w ith the seating
directed tow ard the altar in the eastern apse.
4.26 Copenhagen. Vor Frel
sers Kirke. L. von Ha
A com parison w ith Kristianstad, founded in
ven. Begun 1682.
1614, is instructive here. There the fortified
(Thurah, Danske Vi
tow n w as laid out in grid fashion, w ith tw o
tru viu s, volume 3,
principal squares, but the site along the w ater
plate 6 1. Copenhagen,
ran northeast to southw est so that H oly T rinity
Academy of Art
Church had to be built on a diagonal in relation
Library.)
to the tow n (figure 3.38). It w as not given a
central location and its principal entrance was
sers Kirke. Plan.
planned on the traditional line w ith the altar
(Thurah, Danske V i
rather than in relation to a m ajor part o f the
tru viu s, volume I,
tow n plan. Entirely apart from the differences
in ornam ental vocabulary o f the tw o buildings, Academy of Art
w e can see that fo rty years later at Kalm ar a Library.)
new concept had been form ulated for planning 4.28 Copenhagen. Vor Frel
tow n and church. sers Kirke. Interior.
In D enm ark a m odified G reek cross plan (Copenhagen, National
was chosen for an im portant new city church in Museum.)

1682. Founded under Christian V as the church

for the O rder o f the Elephant, V or Frelsers
Kirke was built in Christianshavn in C open
hagen by Lam bert von Haven and com pleted
except for the spire by 1696 (figures 4.26 and
4 .2 7 ).28 The vie w illustrated here is from Det
D anske V itruviu s by Lauritz de Thurah, w ho was
justly proud o f the spire he added in 1749—
1752, based on th at o f Borrom ini’s S. Ivo della
Sapienza in Rom e. On the exterior, brick Tus
can pilasters rise the full height o f the building,
w ith tall round-headed w indow s betw een and
an entablature above encircling the church. On
the interior four central piers rise to support
the roof, and the eastern, northern, and south
ern projections from the main square are shal
low enough to give the effect o f a hall church
(figure 4.28). The m agnificent Baroque altar-
piece w as designed by Tessin the Y ounger in
1695 but not finished until I7 3 2 .29 In contrast is
the neoclassical pulpit by Caspar Frederik Hars-
dorff, designed in 1773. From the original pe
riod o f building com es the fam ous “Elephant
O rgan ,” carved by the royal sculptor Christian
N erger in 1698 (figure 4 .2 9 ).30
C ontem porary w ith V or Frelsers Kirke is
29
the Reform ed Church in C openhagen (figure
4 .3 0 ).31 The G erm an Reform ed w orship w as
perm itted by Christian V in 1685, in response
to the religious preferences o f Q ueen C har
sers Kirke. Organ.
lotte A m alie o f Hessen-Kassel, and the church
C. Nerger. 1698. (Co
w as built by H einrich Brockam , from G erm any
penhagen, National
or H olland, in 1688-1689. U nlike the Protes
Museum.)
tant churches w e have seen in the Lutheran
4.30 Copenhagen. Reformed
tradition, the Reform ed Church w as planned
Church. H. Brockam.
w ith the principal axis across the breadth
1688—1689. (Copen
rather than the length o f the building. This is
hagen, National
expected on the exterior, w here the main en
Museum.)
4.31 Rennebu, Nord- trance is on the center o f the long northeast
Trondelag. Church. side. As at V or Frelsers Kirke, there are pilas
1668-1669. (Hvalsted, ters, here Ionic, rising the full height o f the
Sigurd Muri.) building, w ith an entablature and a pedim ent

151 .
over the entrance bay. The hip roof has dor

mers and is crow ned by a turret. The interior
is arranged in the G erm an/D utch C alvinist m an
ner w ith the altar and pulpit opposite the
door.32 The original schem e w as repeated in re
building after the fire o f C openhagen in 1728.
The late seventeenth century w as not a
tim e o f extensive church building in N orway.
A small num ber o f w ooden parish churches
w ere built in an experim ental manner, using a
Y-shaped plan. O ne exam ple is the church at
Rennebu in N ord-T røndelag, 1668-1669 (figure
4 .3 1).33 From the southw est the entrance w ing
o f the church recalls som ething o f the stave
churches, w ith its successive gables, turret, and
spire. The interior is arranged w ith tw o w ings
for seating and the third for the sanctuary. This
plan did not, apparently, prove to be entirely
satisfactory and gained little acceptance.
For the new cathedral in O slo by Jø rge n
de W iggers in 1697 a cruciform plan was 30
chosen (figure 4 .3 2 ).34 In 1850 the spire w as
added by A lexis de c h â te a u neuf, the w est
to w er having originally been low er w ith a pyra
midal roof. The w ide cross-arm s make a spa
cious interior, w here the pulpit and altar dating
from 1699 dom inate. T heir design by an anony
mous N etherlandish m aster w as im portant in
bringing to N orw ay the acanthus ornam ent that
spread over the country in the next century in
carved and painted decorations for churches
and houses (figure 4.33).

32
4.32 Oslo. Cathedral. J. de

Wiggers. Begun 1697.
4.33 Oslo. Cathedral. Pul
pit. 1699. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
33

153 .
Late Baroque and Rococo, c. 1730-1800
The accession o f C hristian VI in 1730 brought

D enm ark a m onarch w ho w as som ew hat para
doxical in his approach to the arts and architec
ture. In the years fo llo w ing, the grandeur o f
the late Baroque and its lively transform ation
into the Rococo w ere part o f another paradox.
A long w ith an apparent clim ax o f stylistic rich
ness in the visual arts and music w e n t the be
ginning o f m ajor political, econom ic, and
industrial change, som e effects o f w hich can be
detected in Scandinavian architecture from
c. 1730 to c. 1800.
The early years o f this period in D enm ark
w ere dom inated by the building o f the first
C hristiansborg Palace in C o penhagen.35 The al
teration o f C openhagen Castle under Frederik
IV placed too gre at an additional load upon the
old foundations, and by 1730 it w as clearly tim e
to m ake a m ajor change. Furtherm ore the now
hopelessly unfashionable irregularity o f the cas
tle plan could not be concealed, and the m o
notony o f the new ex terio r m ust have been
even m ore fo rbidding than the castle in m edie
val tim es. A s C row n Prince, Christian VI had
already been involved w ith the building o f

Hørsholm Palace, begun for his future queen

Sophie M agdalene in 1728, and the rebuilding
o f a mansion across Frederiksholm s Canal from
4.34 Copenhagen. Chris the castle.36 A lthough J. C. K rieger w as one o f
tiansborg I. E. Häusser. the architects for both projects, w hen it cam e
Begun 1732. (Thurah, to a new royal palace the new king chose Elias
Danske V itru viu s, vol David Häusser as the general building master.
ume I , plate 23. Co Häusser w as a m ilitary engineer, trained in
Germ any, and had given Christian VI som e in
Art Library.)
structions in architecture. In 1731 his first pro
4.35 Copenhagen. Chris
posal for the palace w as subm itted, but it w as
tiansborg I. Site plan.
dull and heavy. A second proposal, dated M ay
(After Faber, H isto ry
10, 1732, m et w ith m ore approval, and in the
o f Danish A rch itec
same year the final project w as begun. The
tu re, p. 74.)
royal fam ily m oved to Frederiksberg, and the
old castle w as pulled dow n.
tiansborg I. Plan.
W hether H äusser w as the author o f the
(Thurah, Danske V i
final design is a m atter o f som e question. He
tru viu s, volume I,
plate 10. Copenhagen, w rote on the d raw ing that it w as a copy o f
Academy of Art one that the king had give n him as a model.
Library.)
34

155 .
Here the overall schem e o f the palace façade

w as established. It w as divided horizontally by
rusticated basem ent stories, tw o principal sto
ries, plus an attic, crow ned by a balustrade be
hind w hich rose three mansard roofs and a
central to w e r.37 The vertical divisions w ere
m arked by three bays at each end separated by
giant pilasters rising through the tw o main sto
ries, and a central portion o f nine bays w ith a
m odified trium phal arch m o tif for a projecting
portico rising in the center o f the basem ent
story. A curved pedim ent over the central bay
and triangular pedim ents over the end bays, as
shown on the draw ing reproduced here, w ere
replaced by a triangular pedim ent in the center
35 A. Main Palace
B. Riding Ground and segm ental pedim ents at the ends on the
C. Chapel
D. Arsenal building itself. In the final version the roof line
E. Bourse
was also m ade continuous. W ith its chapel and
adm inistrative w in gs the palace could now
overlook its square w ith a grandeur deriving
from the south G erm an and A ustrian princely
palaces (figure 4.34).
W hoever the designer m ay have been, the
new palace w as also laid out so as to form a
m onum ental co m plex (figure 4.35). The main
building consisted o f four w ings around a cen
tral courtyard, w ith a grand entrance hall on
the east, or square, side, another on the w est
side in connection w ith the tow er, and addi
tional entrances and stairs on the north and
south sides o f the court (figure 4.36). This plan
m ay have ow ed so m ething to Lam bert von Ha
ve n ’s project for a royal residence or to Tessin
the Y o u n ger’s plan for the A m alienbo rg (figure
4.10). A s at Fredensborg the Chapel w as built
separately to the north; the C hancellery had al
ready been built b y j . C. Ernst in 1715-1720 to
the so uth.38 Both w ere connected to the main
palace by tw o -sto ry gallery w ings. The w est façade
looked out to the Riding G round, w hich
36
w as flanked by the stable w ings, ending in
curved portions leading to a bridge o ver the

canal. The sym m etry th at no am ount o f rem od lize the height o f the room.
eling could bring to the old castle w as now H ow Eigtved and Thurah treated the resi
achieved and the w hole spatial setting for dential suites w e do not know, but in his book
courtly splendor much enlarged. Den D anske V itruviu s Thurah illustrated the in
So large a project required considerable terior o f the chapel.39 This w as the w o rk o f
tim e for execution, and the palace w as in fact Eigtved. He com bined the French arrangem ent
not entirely com plete in all details w hen the o f the royal boxes at the east end, connected
main building and the chapel w ere destroyed by to the main palace as at Versailles, w ith the
fire in 1794. H äusser w as prim arily a m ilitary Germ an Reform ed placem ent o f the pulpit w ith
engineer w ho undoubtedly used the surveying organ above in the center o f the w est end, as
techniques fo r fortificatio ns in laying out the at the Reform ed Church. To the w est beyond
plan. He w as responsible for the Riding School the chapel lay the coach house and the stables
building in the center o f the south w ing. He for the horses o f the guard and the C row n
also planned a m onum ental gatehouse for the Prince.
entrance to the bridge o ver the canal, but this The w hole establishm ent reflected the
w as not built. C onstruction o f the main building kind o f court life that C hristian VI intended.
had risen except for the tw o top stories by Erecting the palace chapel as a separate building
1736, w hen Lauritz de Thurah and N iels set forth court religious observances as more
Eigtved w ere appointed for the interiors. Häus than private devotions. Further, the im portance
ser w as gradually superseded, finally dismissed o f horses and riding skills as entertainm ent is
in 1742, and sent to take com m and o f the fo r w ell dem onstrated by the broad Riding Ground
tifications at N yborg. In the m eantim e enough and surrounding buildings, w hich survived the
had been com pleted th at the royal fam ily was fire o f 1794. The ex terio r o f the w in gs is
able to m ove in by N ovem ber 1740, and the treated soberly, w ith rustication on the low er
name “C hristiansborg” w as o fficially adopted in
January 1741. O n the departure o f Häusser,
Eigtved, w ho by then w as much in the k in g’s
favor, w as appointed the ch ief architect.
For the nature o f the interior designs w e 4.37 Copenhagen. Chris
m ay consult a draw ing o f 1781, w hich show s tiansborg I. Salon.
the dining salon w ith its decorations designed Drawing by J. W. Haff-
by the sculptor Louis-A ugustin Le C lerc (figure ner, 1781. (Copen
4.37). The room overlooked the Riding hagen, Rosenborg
Ground, and the narrow w alls betw een the Palace Collections.)
w indow s w ere echoed by pilasters on the inte 4.38 Copenhagen. Chris
rior w all opposite. The end w all visible in the tiansborg I. Stables.
draw ing w as rhythm ically adorned w ith alter (Copenhagen, National
nating w ide and narrow panels, w ith rich pedi Museum.)
ments over the doors at either side. The

cartouches on the pilasters and in the narrow
end panels w ere not placed at the m idpoint but
just above head level in such a w ay as to stabi

' LSI

level and pilasters betw een the w indow s above.

A s show n on T hurah’s plan, a colonnade sur
rounded the R iding G round, still a w elcom e
shelter from sun or rain. O n the north side the
low er level w as m ade into stables throughout,
w ith the saddlery in the raised central section.
Even the horses w ere splendidly housed in
their m arble stalls (figure 4.38). On the south
side the R iding School occupied both stories,
w ith the royal box at one end and surrounding
galleries carried on curved brackets.
H ere w as a paradox in the nature o f
Christian VI and his queen, Sophie M agdalene
o f Brandenburg. A m id receptions, banquets,
balls, musical events, and equestrian entertain
m ents there w as no place for theatrical perfor
m ances, w hich had been part o f C openhagen
C astle’s festivities since the tim e o f Christian
IV.40 The k in g’s religious convictions led to the
prohibition o f all th eater in D enm ark and N or
w ay in I7 3 8 .41 No theater w as included in the
palace, in contrast to w hat Tessin had proposed
for the A m alienbo rg and Stockholm palaces,
and in this respect C hristiansborg w as out o f
step w ith the princely palaces o f the C ontinent.
O ne other m ajor building project cam e
during the reign o f Christian VI. The fire o f
1728 also devastated V or Frue Kirke. A fte r
several proposals for its rebuilding had been
m ade, that o f J. C. K rieger w as chosen and the
m ajor portion o f the w o rk done betw een 1731
and 1742 (figures 4.39 and 4 .4 0 ).42 The church
w as rebuilt on its form er basilical plan but w ith
the side aisles now raised to the height o f the
nave and separated from it by square piers w ith
flat pilasters. Light cam e from tw o ranges o f
w indow s in the aisles, the upper range being
the taller. The spectacular w estern to w er and
spire w ere built from draw ings by the court
M aster o f C erem onies V incent Lerche, w ho
based his design on plates in A Book o f A rch ite c
39 ture, published in London by the English archi-

159 .

Kirke. J. C. Krieger.
1731—1742. (Thurah,
Danske V itru viu s, vol
ume 1, plate 61 • Co
Art Library.)
Kirke. Interior. En
graving by J. Haas. (Co
penhagen, National
Museum.)
4.41 Copenhagen. Frede-
riksstad. Site plan. 40
(After Faber, H isto ry
o f Danish A rch itec
tu re, p. 80.)
teet Jam es G ibbs in 1728. A s to the furnishings,

the pulpit and altar w ere by Johan Friedrich
Ehbisch, w ho had done those at Fredensborg.
As finally com pleted about 1747, the church
stood until the English bom bardm ent o f C open
hagen in 1807.
On his death in 1746 C hristian VI had had
only fiv e years to enjoy his new palace. His son,
Frederik V, w as m ore fortunate, and further
significant contributions to art and architecture
in D enm ark w ere m ade during his reign o f
tw e n ty years. Born in 1723, he had seen the
great fire o f C openhagen in 1728, the dem oli
tion o f the old castle, and the building o f the
palace. It w as for him th at Eigtved had built a
new P rince’s Palace on the site o f J. C. Krie-
I------ 1------ 1___ I___ I m
g e r ’s rem odeled mansion in I7 4 3 - I7 4 4 .43 A l A. Garnison Church
B. Moltke's Palace
m ost im m ediately on his accession Frederik V C. Levetzau's Palace
D. BrockdorfPs Palace
revoked the 1738 ban on theaters, and several E. Schack's Palace
F. Frederik's Church
places in C openhagen w ere at once fitted up G. Frederik's Hospital
41

42
w ith stages.44 O ne o f E ig tv e d ’s first projects in

the new reign w as the Royal T heater in Kon
gens N ytorv, built in 1748, rem odeled several
tim es, and finally dem olished in 1874 45 Then in
4.42 Copenhagen. Frede
1749 a new project w as begun, in the three
riksstad. Engraving by
hundredth anniversary year o f the House o f
J. M. Preisler after
O ldenburg.
drawing by L.-A. Le
W here the gardens o f the ill-fated Sophie Clerc, c. 1740. (Copen
A m alienbo rg had provided space for m ilitary hagen, National
exercises, a new section o f the city w as laid Museum.)
out and called Frederiksstad (figure 4 .4 1 ) 46 4.43 Copenhagen. Levet-
From the present Sankt A nnae Plads to K astel zau’s Palace.
let, the area betw een B redgade (then called N. Eigtved. 17 5 4 -1756.
N orgesgade) and the harbor w as divided by a
new street, called A m aliegade, and crossed by
another new street, called Frederiksgade. A t
the crossing a m onum ental square w as created,
at the corners o f w hich four prom inent noble
men built mansions in 1750-1754. A n eques-

161.
43
trian statue o f the king w as planned for the eriksgade opposite the church site w as flanked
center o f the square, and a church w as planned by the Bernsto rff and D ehn mansions. Perhaps
to be the clim ax o f the ensem ble as view ed this concept ow ed som ething to Tessin the
from the harbor (figure 4.42). The attribution Y o u n ger’s proposal for a burial church in Sto ck
o f the designs for the site plan and its buildings holm (figure 4.5).
has not been defin itive ly established for lack o f The four palaces w ith th eir pavilions sur
docum entary evidence. The G erm an architect rounding the square com prise the finest e x
Marcus Tuscher and Eigtved both w orked on pression o f the Danish Rococo (figure 4 .43).47
the project; probably T uscher’s role w as more Each palace consists o f a central block three
w ith the planning o f streets and squares, w ith stories high, placed diagonally at the corners o f
Eigtved designing the buildings them selves. Part the square and flanked by pavilions w hose
o f the original schem e w as to have A m aliegade w ings partially enclose a garden at the rear.
lined w ith houses o f uniform requirem ents for A bove the shallow rustication o f the basem ent
faqades, but this w as not fully observed. On story the main and upper stories are em bel
B redgade the area w as given a strong accent at lished w ith a gian t order o f Ionic pilasters be
the south end by the Bergentin mansion (now tw een the w indow s and crow ned by a low
the O dd Fellow s Palace) and at the north end balustrade before the hip roof. The three cen
by Frederik’s H ospital (now the Museum o f tral bays are brought forw ard, form ing a bal
D ecorative A rts), w hile the beginning o f Fred- cony enobled by coupled colum ns fram ing the

central bay and surm ounted by a richly carved w ith elevations, plans, and sections, to geth er
gable. There is no longer a grand entrance, as w ith descriptions in Danish, French, and G er
at C hristiansborg. Instead, the entrance is now man. These illustrations are especially valuable
through the short w in g connecting palace and for buildings that have since been lost or al
pavilion. tered. C hristian VI had in mind to m em orialize
A t the m ain level on the interior o f the splendors o f his reign, but it is probably
M o ltke’s palace the rooms are arranged en fi more T hurah’s contribution than the k in g’s that
lade behind the façade, w ith sim ilar extension com m ands our attention today.
into the pavilions. This is the least altered inte The other project w as the location o f the
rior o f the four and includes the great salon Royal Danish A cadem y o f A rt in the C harlot-
designed by Eigtved w ith stucco w o rk and tenbo rg Palace in I7 5 4 .49 Founded in 1738 and
painted and gilded panels betw een a series o f variously housed, the A cadem y had becom e the
paintings by François Boucher (figure 4.44). training school fo r young painters, sculptors,
Small w o nder that w hen C hristiansborg burned and architects. Eigtved had been named D irec
in 1794 the royal fam ily under the leadership o f to r in 1751, and on his death a few w eeks after
C row n Prince Frederik purchased the A m alien the m ove to the new quarters (w hich are still
borg palaces fo r th eir enforced new residence. occupied by the A cadem y), the French sculptor
In the splendor o f the palace built by Count Jacq u es-François-Joseph Saly w as chosen to re
A dam G. M oltke, high stew ard to Frederik V, place him .50 Trained in the French academ ies o f
w e see an ornam ent to the city that w as en Paris and Rom e, his great w o rk w as the eques
couraged by the king, a situation contrasting trian statue o f Frederik V for the A m alienborg
w ith the jealousy th at N icolas Fouquet’s m agnif
icent V aux-le-V ico m te had provoked in Louis
X IV nearly a century earlier.
T w o o f the principal architects o f C hris
4.44 Copenhagen. Moltke’s
tiansborg and A m alienbo rg w ere involved w ith
Palace. N. Eigtved.
m ajor projects other than th eir w o rk in design.
1754-1756. Salon. (Co
In addition to the w o rk at C hristiansborg, Lau penhagen, National
ritz de Thu rah had designed the palace at Museum.)
H ørsholm, 1728-1744, and the Erem itage in 4.45 Copenhagen. Town
the D eer Park in C openhagen, 1734-1736. In Hall. J. C. Ernst. Begun
1735 C hristian VI com m issioned him to pre 1729. (Thurah, Danske
pare an illustrated book on the architecture o f V itru viu s, volum e I,
D enm ark.48 Den D anske V itruvius appeared in plate 94. Copenhagen,
tw o volum es, the first in 1746 and the second Academy of Art
in 1749. M aterials assem bled for additional pub Library.)
lications w ere still in m anuscript form at Thur-
ah’s death in 1759 and w ere published as a
third volum e in the m odern edition o f 1967.
U nlike earlier publishers o f maps and view s,
Thu rah presented m ost o f the buildings as ar
chitectural rather than topographical subjects,

163 .

y ъ
i
at M Li C . ^ A.fK/1 m . Urn U j .u ~ f k .
46

165 .
A ustrian architect Lucas von H ildebrandt.52 As

houses and shops w ere rebuilt after the fire,
this m ansion o f the city must have added to
4.46 Copenhagen. Asiatic pride and determ ination in recovery.
Company Office. P. de Surviving, on the other hand, is the A siatic
Lange. 1738. (Thurah, C om pany O ffice, built in 1738 from designs by
Danske V itru viu s, vol the D utch architect Philip de Lange (figure
ume I, plate 107. Co 4 .4 6 ).53 Built o f brick w ith sandstone trim , it
has a ground-level story above w hich the prin
Art Library.)
cipal and attic stories are fram ed by a giant o r
4.47 Damsholte, Mon.
der o f Tuscan pilasters. The central segm ental
Church. P. de Lange.
pedim ent above has sculptures o f N eptune and
1743.
H ermes, patrons o f the Com pany, and the
building is covered w ith a mansard roof. The
m anner here is D utch, rather than G erm an as
at the Tow n Hall. Located across the harbor on
square, 1755-1771. U nder his leadership D an Christianshavn, it does not occupy a dom inant
ish art students w ere brought into an interna position and is hardly distinguishable from a
tional setting, w ith strong ties to France. large m ercantile or noble residence.
Formal education in architecture w as now This points up a contrast betw een these
more firm ly established and included the neces tw o nonresidential buildings. The Tow n Hall fit
sary techniques o f draftsm anship, lectures from ted in w ith w hat w as by then a fairly normal
professors, com petition in exhibitions, and, if pattern: a sym m etrical blocky building, distin
the m eans could be found, travel in Europe, es guishable from a residence by site, cerem onial
pecially to Paris and Rom e. M easured draw ings entrance, and tow er. For an individual com m er
and sketches from ancient m onum ents and cial organization the precedent w ould be the
m odern buildings follow ed upon careful obser guild hall, in form sim ilar to the tow n hall. The
vation and gave the young architect a store m erchant’s house w ith shop on the ground
house o f m odels for his ow n choosing. floor and residence above, tw o to three w in
A m o ng other notable buildings in D en dow s w ide, w ith gab le end to the street, w as
m ark from the reign o f C hristian VI w ere the fam iliar enough, such as the houses in C open
Tow n Hall begun in 1729 and the A siatic C om hagen and Stockholm th at w e have already seen
pany O ffice o f 1738. The form er has not sur (figures 3.35 and 3.50). The Bourse in C open
vived, having burned in 1795, and is know n hagen had been built to accom m odate a large
from T hurah’s illustration (figure 4 .4 5 ).51 Built num ber o f individual m erchants (figure 3.33).
on the foundations o f the old Tow n Hall, lost in But a building for offices w as another matter,
the fire o f 1728 (figure 3.32), it w as planned by and Lange’s solution is essentially dom estic in
J. C. Ernst w ith gables designed by J. C. Krie- its outw ard appearance. This is an early exam
ger. A strong resem blance can be seen to the ple o f the dilem m as th at architects in the com
curved gable and cro w ning to w er o f the 1732 ing industrial ages w ere to face in designing
design for C hristiansborg, and both are thought appropriate expressions for a w hole new set o f
to be derived ultim ately from the w orks o f the building program s.

The pilasters fram ing the principal salon o f

the A siatic C om pany O ffice also appear on the
e legant parish church th at w as com pleted in
1743 at D am sholte on Møn from Lange’s only 4.48 Sigtuna, Uppland.
com plete designs for a church (figure 4 .4 7 ).54 It Town Hall. 1744.
consists o f a rectangular nave w ith a polygonal 4.49 Helsinki. Sveaborg.
projection on the w est for a porch and another A. Ehrensvärd. Begun
on the east for the pulpit and altar. The roofs 1745. (James A.
o f these projections are hipped and set into the Donnelly.)
hip roof o f the nave, w ith an onion-dom ed tu r
ret over the porch. The brick w alls are painted
yellow , and the corners are accented w ith
w hite Tuscan pilasters. T he central w indo w in
the south w all is further accented w ith rusti
cated pilasters and a pedim ent, carrying the
em blem o f C hristian VI, w ho provided som e o f
the funds for the church. D am sholte Church is
a surprising note o f the baroque in a rural land
scape m ore characterized by m edieval churches,
such as those at Elm elunde, Keldby, and Fa
nefjord nearby.
D am sholte Church is one o f several, start
ing perhaps w ith the Reform ed Church in C o
penhagen, built in 1689 and rebuilt in 1731,
w hose sources m ay lie in earlier seventeenth-
century D utch designs, such as those o f Pieter
Post. O ther churches and chapels built in early
eighteenth-century D enm ark had this charac
teristic broad façade and hipped roof w ith cen
tral turret. In the Reform ed Church the pulpit
is on the broad w all opposite the entrance. In
other exam ples the pulpit and altar are on the
long axis, as at the Fredensborg chapel. D am
sholte Church seem s to be a variation, having
no entrance through the central bay o f the
south side and the tu rret displaced to m ark the
entrance on the w est.
The churches and chapels w ith entrances
on the long sides, hipped roofs, and central tu r
rets resem ble nothing so much as tow n halls,
and indeed for som e branches o f English P rot
estantism the tow n hall or m arket hall w as
48

167.
49
probably the inspiration for church design.55 still under Sw edish rule. Begun in 1745 on a
C ertainly the Tow n Hall o f 1729 in C open group o f islands at the m outh o f the harbor,
hagen w as the grandest to be built, and it had Sveabo rg (Suom enlinna) w as com pleted several
its im itators. The typ e w as fam iliar, and one years later and becam e know n as the “G ibraltar
much m ore m odest exam ple survives at Sigtuna o f the N o rth” (figure 4 .4 9 ).57 Ehrensvärd had
in U ppland, built in 1744 (figure 4 .4 8 ).56 O ne journeyed to D enm ark, G erm any, France, H ol
story high, w ith a m assive säteri roof and dom i land, and England in 1736-1738, studying fo rti
nating turret, the building stood for authority fications, and for Sveabo rg he follow ed the
in the tow n. The tu rret was much m ore than a principles o f the m ilitary engineer to Louis XIV,
decorative clim ax, for it could be a w atch Sebastian de Vauban. The bastions, outw orks,
tow er, house the tow n bell, and also som e and casem ents w ithstood bom bardm ent by the
tim es the tow n clock. C om m unication by British and French in 1855, during the Crim ean
w atchm an’s cry, by lantern, and by bell w ere all War, although the go vern o r’s residence and o f
still needed in the eighteenth century. fice rs’ quarters w ere destroyed. Today the fo r
A last gre at fort w as nearly contem porary tress is largely a park, w ith museum ,
w ith the Tow n Hall at Sigtuna. The m ilitary en restaurants, and m any w alkw ays w inding am ong
ginee r A ugustin Ehrensvärd w as called upon to the high heavy w alls. For the visitor to H elsinki
design new defenses for H elsinki, Finland, then w ho has no tim e to venture into the country-

side, Sveabo rg offers a rich o pportunity to see

the w ide variety o f color available in native Fin
nish granite, here w ith the different colors o f
4.50 Svartsjö, Uppland. stone juxtaposed at random, ye t form ing a har
C. Hårleman. 1735 m onious total picture.
1739. (Stockholm, Läns
A fte r the Frederiksstad project it w as
Museum. Photo: Ingvar
m any years before any further large urban d e
Lundkvist.)
signs w ere carried out in the Scandinavian
4.51 Ledreborg, Zealand.
countries. For the w o rk o f various architects
J. C. Krieger. c. 1743.
and som e o f the changes in taste that occurred
Engraving by J. J.
during the rem ainder o f the eighteenth century,
Bruun, 1753. (Copen
w e m ay look b riefly at several houses and also
hagen, National
churches.
Museum.)
A t Svartsjö in U ppland, for exam ple, a six
teenth-century castle w as rebuilt for the
ow ner, Fredrik I, in 1 735-1739 by the Sw edish
architect Carl H årlem an. He w as then in charge
o f decoration for the Royal Palace in Sto ck
holm, w here w o rk had been resum ed. For the
new m anor house he created a com pact build
ing in tw o stories w ith a mansard roof and rus
ticated exterior, the main salon projecting from
the garden (figure 4 .5 0 ).58

169 .
SI
A no ther rebuilding to o k place at Ledre- connecting them to the main building w ith
borg near Roskilde (figure 4 .5 1).59 Bruun’s view curved w ings. A third hand, th at o f Eigtved, is
shows that a desire for pom p w as by no means seen in the decorations o f the interior. All in all
restricted to the royal fam ily. H ere and at it had becom e a splendid estate, including the
other great noble estates, such as Lerchenborg m ajestic tree-lined alléé, six kilom eters long,
and B regentved, the main buildings and their leading from the main road beyond the gates
dependencies, much like Palladian villas, pre that o riginally belonged to the A m alienborg
sided o ver great tracts com prising form al g ar gardens.
dens and large forests and plantations. A bo ut A third rem odeling was begun in 1759 on
1743, J. C. K rieger rem odeled the old manor a property acquired in 1758 by C hancellor
o f Lejregård for its new ow ner, C ouncillor Jo M oltke and later named M arienlyst, in Hels
han Ludw ig H olstein. The long garden façade is ingør (figure 4 .5 2 ).60 Frederik II had built a
rhythm ically divided by gian t pilasters form ing sum m er house called “ Lundehave” on the
five bays, the central one em phasized by a shal strand there north o f H elsingør, and M oltke
low balcony over the door and a segm ental pe had it substantially enlarged by the French ar
dim ent above. The end bays are accented by chitect N icolas-H enri Jardin. The latter had
balustrades at the roof line. H olstein was a bib been called to the A cadem y by Saly after the
liophile and collector, and Thurah added pavil death o f Eigtved in 1754 and w as at w o rk on
ions for his private library and m useum, the F rederik’s Church project, to w hich w e

shall return. He brought to D enm ark the new

classicism o f French architecture, prom ulgating
its ideals in his teaching. These are clearly
4.52 Helsingør, Zealand. stated at M arienlyst, w ith its sim ple blocky
Marienlyst. N.-H. Jar mass, clear division o f stories, restrained use o f
din. Begun 1759.
ornam ent, and low -pitched ro o f virtually hidden
4.53 Copenhagen. Harsdorff
behind the cro w ning balustrade. The surface
House. C. F. Harsdorff.
energy o f the Rococo has been replaced by a
1779-1780.
quieter and m ore dignified statem ent, a great
4.54 Bergen. Damsgård.
contrast to M o ltk e’s palace in A m alienborg.
1770-1795. (Oslo,
The French taste now dom inant in the
Riksantikvaren.)
A cadem y w as continued by Jard in ’s student
Caspar Frederik H arsdorff, w hose teaching em
phasized even m ore the correct use o f classical
details. As a dem onstration o f his ideas he w as
able to build a double house on Kongens N y
torv next to the A cad em y in 1 779-1780 (fig
ure 4 .5 3).61 The sm aller unit, next to the
A cadem y, has a five -b ay façade w ith rusticated
ground level, entrance in the central bay, and
segm ental pedim ents o ver the end bays at the
second level. The larger unit, intended to house
a w ealth y o w n e r’s offices as w ell as residence,
has a three-bay façade, m arked by an applied

171 .
S3


173 .
tem ple-fro nt m o tif w ith gian t Ionic pilasters and

a pedim ent filled w ith sculpture above. On the
interior H arsdorff m ade use o f the curved w alls
in salons and staircases th at w ere also becom ing 4.55 Trondheim.
popular in France and England at this tim e. A l Stiftsgården. 1774
though som e o f his proposals aroused contro 1778.
versy, the classicism o f H arsdorff and his pupils 4.50 Drottningholm.
becam e even stro nger in the tow n houses o f Chinese Pavilion. C. J.
C openhagen, especially those built after the

Cronstedt and C. F.
Adelcrantz. 1763
next great fire, in 1795.
1768.
W hile the French classical taste w as taking
hold in D enm ark, the Rococo w as m ore persis
tent in N orway, w here m ajor postm edieval tion o f tw o triangular and tw o segm ental p edi
contributions w ere ye t to com e. The m ost m ents over the w indow s. From this relatively
striking o f the late eighteenth-century N orw e decorous exterio r one passes to an interior en
gian m anors is D am sgård in B ergen, as rebuilt riched w ith lively stucco ornam ent.
in 1770-1795 (figure 4 .5 4 ).62 The original If w e turn from N orw ay to Sw eden w e
w ooden house w as enlarged by brick w ings on encounter a d ifferent aspect o f late eighteenth-
either side o f the fro nt and by the addition o f a century taste, th at o f fascination w ith Chinese
central roof platform and turret. The rather as art and design. The Sw edish East India C om
tonishing gables and pedim ents w ere undoubt pany w as established in 1731, w ith its head
edly inspired by designs in pattern books. Much quarters in G othenburg, and Chinese goods
less exuberant but certainly com m anding is the w ere pouring into Sw eden as into other Euro
contem porary Stiftsgården in Trondheim , built pean countries. Sir W illiam Cham bers, w ho in
1774-1778 for the C om m andant’s m other-in 1774 becam e a knight in the O rder o f the Po
law (figure 4.5 5 ).63 Said to be the largest lar Star, w as the son o f a Scottish m erchant in
w ooden building in Scandinavia, the main build G othenburg and as a youth sailed on his fa
ing is laid out sym m etrically w ith a central re th e r’s ships to China. In 1757 he published D e
ception salon and flan kin g lesser salons and signs for C hinese B u ild in gs, w hich w as a source
cham bers. Service quarters extend as w ings at o f ideas for Carl Fredrik A delcrantz w hen he
the back. It is a northern chåteau in w ood. The designed the second Kina Slott, or Chinese Pa
main façad e, seventeen bays long, is potentially vilion, at D rottningholm in 1763 (figure 4 .5 6 ).04
hopelessly m onotonous in spite o f the pilasters It is set in a w ooded area o f the park, some
and pedim ent fram ing the entrance and above distance from the palace, and provided a pri
these a pedim ent interrupting the roof line and vate retreat for the royal fam ily. It is like a tin y
extending o ver the three central bays. An illu Palladian villa, w ith central block and dependen
sion o f greate r h eigh t than is actually the case cies, cheerfully decked out w ith Rococo and
was achieved by building a 6-foot space be Chinese m otifs. Je an Eric Rehn provided designs
tw een the ceiling o f the ground flo or and the for som e o f the interiors in his light and e le
flo or tim bers o f the n ext level. Then the eight gan t fashion. C arefully restored, it is one o f the
bays on either side o f the central elem ent are m ost perfectly preserved Chinese pavilions in
subdivided into four units each by the alterna- Europe.

A m o ng other Chinese interiors o f this p e A no ther approach w as that o f the cruci

riod in Sw eden is the to w er room at T yresö in form plan, w hich A delcrantz adopted for A d o lf
Söderm anland, decorated in the 1770s. O f even Fredrik’s Church in Stockholm in 1768 (figure
m ore interest, perhaps, is the setting o f Tyresö, 4 .6 1).69 W ith its applied orders, pedim ented
for here there is much less em phasis on form al w indow s, and details o f carving, this building
gardens and a greate r preference for a country has a much richer exterio r than the sm aller
landscape in the new English m anner (figure N orw egian exam ples. O rnam ental details w ere
4 .5 7 ) .65 The designer w as Fredrik M agnus Piper, o riginally supplied by the French artists A drien
w ho also did parks in the English style at and Jean Baptiste M asreliez, w ho also w orked
D rottningholm and Haga. at the Royal Palace in Stockholm . The altar was
A sim ilar park w as laid out at Liselund on designed by Sw e d e n ’s prom inent sculptor Johan
Møn, attributed to the Dane A ndreas Kirkerup, Tobias Sergei, w ho also designed the m onu
w ho built the charm ing little country house for m ent to D escartes, w ho w as buried in the old
A ntoine de la C alm ette in 1792-1795 (figure churchyard there on his death in 1650. A d e l
4 .5 8 ) .66 Its sym m etrical plan and refined interi crantz had traveled extensively in France and
ors are not apparent at first glance, the Italy, and the great dom es o f late seventeenth-
thatched roof, turret, and adjacent pond givin g century Parisian churches and the recently
exactly the bucolic im pression that w as in com pleted Superga in Turin had clearly inspired
tended. A C hinese pavilion, N orw egian house, him.
and gard e ner’s lodge com plete the pastoral as A delcrantz w as not alone in his adm iration
sem blage. Liselund is perhaps the m ost com for the splendors o f C ontinental churches. W e
plete expression o f Rom antic N aturalism in have already noted that Frederik’s C hurch in
Scandinavia. C openhagen w as planned as the clim ax o f the
In church design, the side-entrance and short axis o f the Frederiksstad project, at the
centralized plans continued in popularity in the end o f Frederiksgade opposite the harbor.
eighteenth century. A t K ongsberg in N um edal There is indeed a church there now, and the
the church planned by Joachim A ndreas Stuck- history o f how it go t there marks one o f the
enbrock in 1739 and com pleted by 1761 is en m ost frustrating episodes in eighteenth-century
tered on the long side through a projecting Scandinavian b uilding.70 Eigtved, w ho had earlier
porch that carries the bell to w er (figure proposed a large centralized church to be built
4.5 9 ).67 The interior is furnished w ith double under Christian V I, drew up several designs for
balconies and an ex ceptio nally rich com plex o f the church in Frederiksstad, and these too
altar, pulpit, and organ, one above the other ow ed much to the C ontinental churches that
opposite the entrance. Later at Røros in Sør- Eigtved had seen. It is perhaps w o rthw hile to
T røndelag the church built in 1784 by Sven As- em phasize once m ore th at for these Protestant
paas is an elongated octagon in plan, tw o sto state churches in Sw eden and D enm ark, there
ries high, w ith a central entrance to w er and w as no hesitation in draw ing upon the grandest
belfry, and galleries on three sides w ithin. A l designs o f the Church o f Rom e. The corner
though octagonal in plan, the Røros church is stone o f E igtve d ’s Frederik’s Church w as duly
arranged on the interior as at Kalmar, w ith the laid in 1749.
altar on the long axis opposite the entrance, E igtve d ’s proposal w as fo r a round church
w hich is not apparent on the ex terio r (figure w ith a m assive dom e and flan kin g tow ers. On
4 .6 0 ) .68

175 .
4.57 Tyresö, Södermanland.

F. M. Piper. 1770s.
(Stockholm, Nordic
Museum.)
4.58 Liselund, Mon. A. Kirk-
erup, attr. 1792—179S.

han Friedrich Struensee, w ho w as then ap

proaching the height o f his pow er in D enm ark,
decided th at the w o rk had becom e too costly,
4.59 Kongsberg, Numedal. had Jardin dism issed as architect to the king,
Church. J. A. Stucken- and im posed a new constitution upon the
brock. Begun 1739.
A cadem y w itho ut consulting either Jardin or
Saly. Funds for Frederik’s Church w ere cut off,
4.60 Røros, Sør-Trøndelag.
and Jardin resigned his professorship in the
Church. S. Aspaas.
A cadem y and returned to France in 1771, ge n
1784.
erously proposing that his form er pupil Hars-
4.61 Stockholm. Adolf
d o rff be his successor.72 A nd so there stood the
Fredrik’s Church. C. F.
m arble pillars (figure 4.62), the statue o f Fred
Adelcrantz. 1768.
erik V left gazin g up Frederiksgade at the un
finished church that w as to have borne his
name and m ade a visual link betw een church
his death in 1754 Thurah proposed changing and king. No effective attem p t to com plete the
the plan to a square church w ith a dom e and building w as m ade until a century later, and
no tow ers. Thurah had left C openhagen for his that is another story.
second w ife ’s estate o f Børglum Kloster in Ju t The last eighteenth-century church to be
land in 1750, partly to pursue his literary w o rk considered has also had a som ew hat unusual
and partly because o f dissatisfaction w ith his history. In 1785, after m onths o f severe earth-
position after a reorganization o f the official
building adm inistration in 1742. W hatever the
m erits o f his proposal m ay have been, it is not
surprising that the building com m ission sought
instead to continue the church in the French
academ ic tradition, w ith the Royal Danish
A cadem y o f A rt new ly relocated and the late
Eigtved its first director. Through Saly’s influ
ence N icholas-H enri Jard in w as called from his
native Paris to prepare further designs.71
W e have already seen Jard in ’s w o rk at
M arienlyst. In the proposal that was approved
in 1756, Jardin kept E igtv e d ’s round dom ed
church and flanking tow ers but low ered the
dom e to broader proportions and sim plified
the surfaces by o m ittin g much detail and unify
ing the stories w ith strong gian t orders. The
fate o f Jard in ’s project w as linked to econom ics
and court intrigue. By 1770 the building w as far
from com plete, the m arble pillars o f the central
portico standing alone, 30 fe e t high. C ount Jo
59

177.
60

4.62 Copenhagen. Freder-

ik’s Church. Painting
by C. W. Eckersberg, c.
1817. (Copenhagen,
Hirschsprung
Collection.)
4.63 Reykjavik from Hóla-
völlur. Drawing by
Kloss, 1835. (Copen
hagen, Royal Library.)
4.64 Drottningholm. Court
Theater. C. F. Adel-
crantz. 1766. Interior.
(Drottningholm, The
ater Museum.)
63

179 .
quakes that ruined the old C athedral o f Iceland ters is carried onto the proscenium , w hich
at Skalholt, the decision w as m ade to m ove the form s an introduction to the stage.
seat o f the bishop to Reykjavik. The tow n w as In 1766 Q ueen Ju lian a M aria had Jardin
beginning to flourish as a port, and this part o f convert the arm ory o ver the stables at C hris
Iceland w as tho ugh t to be less subject to earth tiansborg to a theater.76 W hereas at D rott
quakes and volcanic eruptions. The church ningholm the seating consists o f rows o f
there then being too sm all, A ndreas Kirkerup benches w ith concealed boxes in the corners,
w as given the task o f designing the new one. Jardin chose a parterre and tw o tiers o f boxes
He began w ith a plan fo r a church built o f hori for his long narrow space (figure 4.65). He may
zontal logs, in section sim ilar to an aisled farm have been th in kin g o f the new O péra at V er
house, thinking erroneously th at this w as in sailles (1 7 6 3 -1 7 7 0 ), about w hich he could have
good Icelandic traditio n.73 Had he gone to Ice learned during his visit to Paris in 1763. The
land him self, w hich he did not, he w ould have w alls o f the boxes w ere built at right angles to
had a less rom antic view . This inclination to the rails as w as custom ary in French theaters,
w ard a vernacular building w as consistent w ith rather than slanting in th e Italian manner. Jar-
his use o f the thatched co ttage m o tif for Lise din ’s theater, w ith its Ionic rather than C orin
lund. His plans fo r a w ooden church w ere not thian o rder and lack o f much surface
accepted, and the final plan w as for a stone decoration, is less exuberant than th at at
church w ith a tile ro o f (figure 4.63). Even this D rottningholm . A ltho ugh the C hristiansborg
w as not w ho lly satisfactory, fo r the tiles kept theater sets are gone, the interior has been re
blo w ing o ff in vio len t w in te r storm s, and the stored, prim arily as a m useum o f Danish th e
cathedral w as much enlarged and the interior ater history but used fo r occasional
rebuilt in 1846. perform ances as w ell.
Som e specialized projects w ere also under T hree buildings in Stockholm should also
taken in late eighteen th -cen tu ry Scandinavia. be m entioned. In 1746 H årlem an w as called
Both A delcrantz and Jardin w ere involved in upon to plan an observatory fo r Stockholm ,
theater design, and tw o o f th eir m ost interest w hich w as com pleted in 1753 (figure 4 .6 6 ).77 In
ing w orks have survived. A t D rottningholm
Q ueen Lovisa U lrika’s enthusiasm for theatrical
perform ances led to the building o f a theater
beside the palace in 1753, fo r w hich A delcrantz
prepared d raw ings fo r rem odeling in 1755.74
This burned in 1762, and A delcrantz designed
its successor, w hich w as com pleted in 1766.
Restored in m odern tim es after m any years o f
neglect, the D rottningholm court theater is
now once m ore in use. A ll the m ore rem ark
able is that o ver th irty o f the original stage set
tings are extant.75 The ex terio r is sim ple, but
the interior is rich w ith pilasters, garlands, and
a pale rose, blue, gray and ye llo w color schem e
64
(figure 4.64). A n entablature above the pilas

t he years fo llo w in g the introduction o f te le
scopes for astronom ical observations, high to w

ers had been popular as observing stations.
Hårlem an departed from this trend by building
a mansion, the tw o low er stories for w orking
space and the residence on the third. A solu
tion for scientific establishm ents other than the
conversion o f houses or tow ers had not yet
been reached.
A no ther fam iliar building type w as adopted
for the new Exchange in Stockholm , built in
1767-1776 by Erik Palm stedt (figure 4.6 7 ).78
The long-standing form ula o f a rectangular
block w ith side entrance and central turret that
w e saw in such a m odest tow n hall as that o f
Sigtuna is still discernible in the Exchange, now
o f course on a larger scale. The low er story is
rusticated. The em phatic three-bay central e le
m ent w ith arcade below and tem ple-front
above, using coupled colum ns, recalls the Fred-
eriksstad façades, w hile the turret is stro ngly
Baroque. This gave Stockholm one grand new
colum ned façade, and the O pera House, built
by A delcrantz in 1 7 75-1782, gave the other
(figure 4 .6 8 ).79
T essin’s original schem e for a great square
across N orrbro from the Royal Palace had not
m aterialized. W hen G ustavus III com m issioned
4.6 5 Copenhagen. Chris the O pera House, it w as placed on the east
tiansborg Court Theat side o f T essin’s proposed square. It w as d e
er. N.-H.jardin. 1766. stroyed in 1891 and replaced by the present
Interior. (Copenhagen, Royal O pera House, but w hen built it provided
The Theatre Museum a strong elem ent o f the grand effect th at Tessin
at the Court Theatre.) had intended. T here w as a rusticated ground
4.66 Stockholm. Observa story, w ith w all arches o ver the w indow s as
tory. C. Hårleman. w ell as o ver the central triple entrance, then a
1753. (Stockholm, C orinthian o rder rising through tw o stories,
Royal Swedish Acad w ith the three central bays projecting so that
emy ot Sciences.) the colum ns w ere free-standing. An attic story
4.67 Stockholm. Exchange.
gave the final em phasis to the central portion.
E. Palmstedt. 1767
A delcrantz w as able to design a freestand
1776.
ing building, for w hich he seem s to have de-

181 .
rived inspiration from Jacques-G erm ain

So u fflo t’s theate r at Lyons o f 1754, the plan o f
this having been published in I7 7 4 .80 So u fflo t’s
theater, the first to be freestanding in France,
w as planned w ith the then popular truncated
ellipse for the auditorium , a deep stage, a grand
foyer and staircases, and auxiliary room for
spectators and perform ers. A delcrantz adopted
these, but because o f site restrictions he placed
the axis o f the auditorium and stage north-
south, w ith his grand entrance on the east, fac
ing the square. He included a main foyer and
also a royal fo yer and a royal box at the center
o f the first o f four tiers o f boxes and galleries.
The interior w as finished in the French classic
taste, much o f the design being furnished by
66
Jean Baptiste M asreliez.
O ne other note o f grandeur that Tessin
had not envisaged w as the equestrian statue o f
Gustavus II A d o lf that the French sculptor
Pierre H ubert L’A rcheveque w as com m issioned
in 1755 to prepare for the square before the
O pera House w as built. It w as placed facing
across N orrbro tow ard the Royal Palace,
w here the stairs to the north entrance are
faced w ith a trium phal arch m otif. This m ay
have been in response to the statue o f Frederik
V, just com m issioned in C openhagen. It is,
how ever, interesting to observe that instead o f
the state-church sym bolism o f the Frederiksstad
schem e, in Stockholm a national hero rather
than the reigning monarch w as glo rified and the
sym bolism w as purely secular.
T w o special cases o f tow n planning w ill
close this chapter. A print by M eno Haas o f
1780 gives a bird ’s-eye vie w o f C hristiansfeld, a
Moravian settlem en t founded in 1772 (figure
4 .69).81 The “ H errnhutter,” as th ey w ere called
from the tow n o f H errnhut in Saxony given to 67
th eir sect by C ount Z inzendorf, practiced piety,
good w orks, and celibacy, and laid out their
tow n in o rderly parallel streets w ith the help

o f the Bohem ian architect J. C. A rndt. Separate

houses for the brothers and the sisters, a guest
house, and a plain w ooden church w ere the
principal buildings. In gran tin g the new settlers
their perm ission, Christian VII had som e hopes
that their industries w ould be an econom ic as
set, and to som e ex ten t the brotherhood
earned a reputation for high quality o f w ork.
The religious fervo r o f the early years eventu
ally died out, how ever, and in 1970 C hristians
feld becam e an ordinary m unicipality.
Finally, w hile w e have concentrated upon
the m ajor stylistic events o f the seventeenth
68
and eighteenth centuries, there w ere strong
forces at w o rk that w ere to bring great
changes in structural technology and attitudes
o f taste in the nineteenth century. In England
the sm elting o f iron by coke had been devel
oped in the 1740s, and by the end o f the cen
tury steam pow er w as being used in industrial
production. The factory, as distinct from the in
dividual w orkshop, w as starting into prom i 4.68 Stockholm. Opera
nence as a new building type, w ith the House. C. F. Adel-
accom panying need for w o rk er housing. A l crantz. 1775-1782.
though forges, saw m ills, glassw orks, etc., w ere (Stockholm, City
certainly not new, the iron-w orking estate at Museum.)
Fagervik in Finland w as a prophetic m icrocosm 4.69 Christiansfeld, Jutland.
o f the “com pany to w n ” (figure 4.7 0 ).82 W ater Engraving by Meno
cascading into a ravine from the lake provided Haas, 1780. (Copen
pow er for the w orks, a church w as built in hagen, National
1737, and the o w n e r’s house new ly built in Museum.)
1773. A street o f plain w ooden houses for 4.70 Fagervik. Painting
w orkers com pleted the group, w hich still has

after drawing by
Z. Topelius. (Helsinki,
the quiet rural character that the com ing indus
National Museum of
trial cities could never attain.
Finland.)

183

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License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

5 Scandinavian Neoclassicism
In the second half o f the eighteenth century

the vocabulary o f the classical orders w as used
in a m ore sober m anner than under the Ba
roque and Rococo tastes, largely from the im
pact o f French classicism on the A cadem y in
C openhagen. A t the end o f the century there
w as another m om ent o f reinterpretation o f
classical motifs. Its m ost eloquent Scandinavian
expressions w ere m ade in Sw eden, and there
w ere sim ilar expressions in England and A m e r
ica.1 W hat in England is called the “A dam esque”
and in A m erica the “Federal” has been term ed
the “G ustavian” style in Sw eden because o f the
strong support o f the arts by G ustavus III, w ho
reigned from 1771 to 1792.2
The late G ustavian period is generally
dated from 1784, w hen Gustavus III returned
to Sw eden after a journey to Italy. He had
been to Rome in com pany w ith the sculptor
Johan Tobias Sergei, even clim bing M ount V esu
vius and visiting the Forum in Rom e w ith one
o f the first in Sw eden to undertake archaeolog
ical investigations, Carl Frederik Fredenheim .3
Even before this journey, Gustavus III had
called a French troupe o f players to his court,

Scandinavian Neoclassicism
and delicate interpretation o f Roman and Pom

peiian m otifs w ithin.
O ne o f the first m ajor projects w as the
Botanicum at U ppsala (figure 5.2).7 A Botanic
Garden had been founded at the U niversity o f
U ppsala in 1657, and thanks to the efforts o f
the Sw edish botanist Carl Linnaeus w as given
fresh im petus in the m id-eighteenth century.
He had the patronage o f his friend Carl Hårle-
man, w ho designed the O rangery c. 1745.8 To
w ard the end o f his life activity in the garden
declined, and then in 1786 his pupil Carl Peter
T hunberg as Professor o f Botany m oved the
Botanic G arden closer to the Castle. The
Sw edish architect O lo f Tem pelm an prepared a
design for the institute building, a design that
and he had already had a th eater built at Grips- w as altered by the French architect Louis Jean
holm Castle by Erik Palm stedt.4 The place D esprez.9 The result w as a building that has in
chosen w as the upper story o f the southeast com m on w ith Thom as Je ffe rso n ’s nearly con
tow er. Palm stedt’s first solution w as to put tem porary C apital at Richm ond, V irginia, the
both stage and seating w ithin the circle, but in problem o f pu ttin g a late eighteenth-century
1781 this w as all enlarged to the present ar secular activity into a Rom an tem ple. The w alls
rangem ent (figure 5 .1).5 The seats are set in a o f the rectangular institute building are pierced
sem icircle, w ith access stairs and corridors in w ith w indow s that could not have been used
the thick w all o f the tow er. Ionic colum ns and on either a G reek or a Roman tem ple, but the
engaged colum ns encircle the auditorium , tw o façade has a D oric portico in valiant im itation
tiers o f boxes betw een the colum ns at the o f the Parthenon.
back. A further rem odeling in 1786 m ay have Far m ore am bitious w as D esprez’s project
been inspired by II Teatro d ’E rcolana, the second for a new palace just outside Stockholm at the
printing o f w hich Piranesi dedicated to Gusta-
vus III in I7 8 3 .6 The G ripsholm theater is
therefore alto geth er different from those at
D rottningholm and C hristiansborg and is an
early attem pt to w o rk in the full classical
manner.
A fter his jo urney to Italy G ustavus III w as

all the m ore enthusiastic about classical antiq
uity. W ith his and o thers’ encouragem ent, sev
eral architects and interior designers produced
distinguished buildings in the Gustavian style.
These buildings are m arked by reserve and at
tem pts at “co rrect” use o f the orders w ithout 2

187 .
royal estate o f H aga.10 A rotunda, colonnades,

tem ple fronts, and statues in niches w ere all in
tended in the design o f 1791, but after the
5. I Gripsholm. Theater.
death o f the king in 1792 the idea w as aban
E. Palmstedt. 1781. In
doned. W hat was accom plished at Haga, how
terior. (Drottningholm,
ever, w as the pavilion. T em pelm an enlarged an
Theater Museum.)
existing m anor house, adding w ings but keeping
5.2 Uppsala. Botanicum.
the w all surfaces uncluttered and the roof low
O. Tempelman and L. J.
behind a balustrade. This near severity does not
Desprez. 1788. (Stock
m ark the interior, w here the French designer
holm, Antikvarisk-To-
Louis M asreliez adorned the principal rooms
pografiska Arkivet.
w ith light-hearted paintings in the Pom peiian
Photo: Sigurd Curman.)
m anner (figure 5.3).
5.3 Haga, Uppland. Pavilion.
A m o ng the m any other projects that Des-
O. Tempelman, c. 1793.
prez proposed w hile in Sw eden, not all o f Salon. (Stockholm,
which w ere carried out, w e m ay cite one o f his Royal Palace
church designs, th at for the church at Tavaste- Collections.)
hus, now H äm eenlinna, in Finland, built 1795—
1798 (figure 5 .4 ).11 A s w e see it today, it has

been enlarged by the w ings projecting from the

central rotunda and the bell tow er o f 1837, but
the basic idea is still a little Pantheon. Much
sim plified, using D oric colum ns in the porch
rather than a full colonnade, the church w as an
early foray o f N eoclassicism into Finland. The
m ajor invasion w as to com e later, and from an
other direction.
A no ther kind o f building that w as to be
com e a concern for architects in the nineteenth
century w as the school. A prom inent exam ple
from the late eighteenth century is the G ym na
sium at Härnösand in V ästernorrland, 1785—
1791 (figure 5 .5 ).12 In the capital city o f the
province this turned out to be m ore com pli
cated than sim ply an educational institution. In
stead o f having m asters’ lodgings in the same
building w ith the classrooms, the teachers w ere
lodged elsew here, and the second story had a
hall for the m agistrates’ court. Perhaps this led
to the later conversion o f the building to the
tow n hall. The first plans w ere by the Sw edish
architect Per Hagm ansson, and then there w ere
m odifications by T em pelm an, w ho w as respon
sible for the pillared porch. O nce m ore an es
sentially dom estic solution w as found for the
exterior. The G ym nasium could easily have
been taken for a G ustavian m anor house.
G ustavus Ill’s enthusiasm for the antique
therefore helped to stim ulate som e pioneering
efforts tow ard incorporating classical ideas in
5.4 Hämeenlinna. Church.
contem porary design am ong architects active in
L. J. Desprez. 1795
Sw eden in the 1780s and 1790s. An era more
1798. (Helsinki, Museum
archaeologically inclined follow ed in the early
of Finnish Architecture.
years o f the nineteenth century. This w as the
Photo: A. Salokorpi.)
first o f tw o such episodes in Scandinavian archi
5.5 Härnösand, Västernorr
tecture, the second to fo llo w a century later,
land. Gymnasium.
w hen the principles o f antiquity w ould be stud
P. Hagmansson and
O. Tempelman. 1785 ied and interpreted in ye t a different manner.
1791. (Stockholm, An- In the first, forces quite apart from changing
tikvarisk-Topografiska taste precipitated new opportunities in D en
Arkivet.) mark, Finland, and N orway.

189 .

As D esprez and T em pelm an had provided H ansen’s w o rk w as to be characterized by

leadership in Sw eden, Christian Frederik H an the elem ents seen in the draw ing for Perdol.
sen becam e the leader o f Danish N eoclassi He chose sim ple blocks, in this case played o ff
cism .13 His principal contributions w ere not so against cylindrical form s, much in the m anner o f
much the result o f royal enthusiasm for a par Ledoux. The plain w all surfaces provided a
ticular artistic style as o f tw o great catastro backdrop for the Ionic pilasters fram ing the tri
phes in C openhagen. He received his training in ple w indow s o f the pavilions. The m o tif w as
the A cadem y there as a pupil o f Harsdorff, w in stated in a different w ay on the salon, w ith its
ning the gold m edal in 1779. This award low colonnade at the ground level and three
obliged him to undertake a student journey w indow s above. D etails w ere finely draw n and
abroad, w hich he did late in 1782, returning in firm ly contained. The treatm ent o f light and
1784. M eantim e he had been appointed inspec shade on the d raw ing suggests that the salon
to r o f buildings in H olstein, w here he w ent to received reflected light from the w ings, and it
begin practice in the Danish com m ercial tow n should be com pared to Eckersberg’s treatm ent
o f A itona, outside H am burg. o f light on the pillars o f Frederik’s Church. It is
For the w e alth y m erchants he designed interesting to see how even in an architectural
m anors and country houses, such as Perdol, draw ing the study o f light to be so splendidly
built 1788-1790 (figure 5 .6 ).14 The architect’s exploited by the Danish N eoclassical painters
draw ing show s the garden façade. The round w as already beginning.
salon projected directly opposite the central H ansen’s ow n house, w hich he built proba
entrance to the main block. From this salon bly in 1792, is on Palm aillen, a long parkw ay
corridors led to the w ings and w ere continued lined w ith tow n houses th at takes its name
along the courtyard sides, as at Clausholm . from the gam e “p alla-a-m aglio ” (figure 5 .7 ).15
W ider pavilions at either end gave a sense o f He built a com pact three-sto ry house w ith a
enclosure to the courtyard and made a fram e rusticated low er portion, then a tem ple-front
for the circular salon as seen on axis. A lthough to m ark the principal salon above. The staircase
no longer standing, the building w as an im por is circular, w hile in som e o f his other houses it
tant landm ark in H ansen’s approach to planning is oval.
and treatm ent o f surface.

191 .
5.6 Perdol, Holstein. C. F.

Hansen. 1798. Drawing
by C. F. Hansen. (Copen
Library.)
5.7 Aitona, Holstein. Han
sen House. C. F. Hansen,
c. 1792. Drawing by C. F.
Hansen. (Copenhagen,
Academy of Art
Library.)
5.8 Aitona, Holstein. Baur
House. C. F. Hansen.
7 1803—1815. Drawing by
A. Meldahl. (Copen
Library.)


193 .
For the interiors a richer finish w as de Hansen w as called back to C openhagen for
signed, a particularly fine exam ple being that o f w o rk tow ard rebuilding C hristiansborg. He also
the large salon o verlo o king the garden at the prepared designs for the “ R åd-og-dom hus,” the
G eorg Fr. Baur house (figure 5 .8 ).16 The owner, new Tow n Hall and Law Courts, built 1805
a w ealthy grocer, com m issioned Hansen to 1815 and now housing only the courts (figure
build eleven large houses on land he had pur 5 .I 0 ) .17 The site o f the old building w as aban
chased, and fortunately his ow n w as am ong doned and the new building placed on the w est
those that survived the bom bing o f H am burg side o f N ytorv. The broad façade w ith its im
harbor during W orld W ar II. These houses are pressive portico o f six Ionic colum ns gives no
lined close to geth er at the edge o f the street hint o f the w ings exten d in g behind it. Hansen
in traditional urban fashion, but there are g ar departed from the traditional turreted model
dens behind that give a m ore country air, par for a tow n hall and built som ething more like a
ticularly to those o verlooking the harbor. The palace for the city. He planned the entrance
deep arches over the w indow s o f the Baur sa block w ith flanking cham bers, then a deep ve s
lon are expressed by arches carried on the tibule or w aitin g room w ith four D oric co l
Ionic colum ns o f the balcony above the garden. umns, and d irectly beyond the courtroom , w ith
The decorative m otifs o f the salon are H ansen’s C orinthian colum ns and the m agistrates’ niche,
version o f the interpretation o f the antique for all the w orld like the apse o f a Roman basil
that w e have seen in the Gustavian style o f ica. This last w as undoubtedly intentional.
D esprez and M asreliez. Shortly after cam e the A rrestbygning, or
W hile Hansen w as carrying out his assign prison, w ith a heavily rusticated low er level and
m ent in A itona, tw o disastrous events too k connected to the main building by a heavy arch
place in C openhagen. O n the night o f February across the street, recalling Piranesi’s Carceri.
26 in 1794 C hristiansborg Palace w e n t up in H ansen’s leaning w as to Roman rather than
flam es. It w as not entirely finished, and the fire G reek antiquity, and perhaps this caused him to
must have been a sad blow not only to the choose a dark reddish stucco for exterio r fin
royal fam ily and o ther residents but to the ish. By the tim e he visited Rome much o f the
craftsm en w ho saw th eir w o rk destroyed as m arble had been quarried away, leaving brick
w ell. A s w e have noted, the w ings surrounding the dom inant color. W hatever the reason, w e
the R iding Ground w ere spared. Then in June can see th at color w as one o f the significant
1795 another fire laid w aste the center o f the
city, including the Tow n Hall. Harsdorff, still
teaching in the A cadem y, w as 59 years old. The 5.9 Copenhagen. Amalie-
royal fam ily bo ught the A m alienborg palaces for gade Colonnade. C. F.
tem po rary residence in 1794, and H arsdorff d e Harsdorff. 1794.
signed the colonnade linking those on A m alie- 5 .10 Copenhagen. Råd-og-
gade (figure 5.9). He died in 1799, how ever, domhus. C. F. Hansen.
before much could be done to recover the loss I80S—1815.
o f the largest buildings in the city, since re
placem ent o f houses and shops had to come
first.

areas in w hich H ansen’s classical cityscape d if central tem p le-fro n t rising through the tw o
fered from som e others. principal residence stories.
In 1803 a com m ission had been appointed The royal apartm ents w ere located on the
for the Tow n Hall and C hristiansborg Palace, low er o f these, w ith the k in g’s suite in the east
and H ansen’s proposal o f 1800 for rebuilding w ing, the q u ee n ’s in the north, and the state
the palace w as basically accepted, leaving the reception suite in the south. The w est w ing
tw o projects to be undertaken sim ultaneously.18 w as not entirely rebuilt, the north and south
Econom y dictated that the w alls rem aining w ings being linked by a colonnade. The interi
from the old palace should be used as much as ors w ere never fu lly com pleted, but th ey ow ed
possible, w hich m eant th at H ansen’s palace was much to H ansen’s aw areness o f French N eo
to som e extent predeterm ined (figure 5 .1 1). classical design, particularly through the w orks
The m any w indow s and elaborate surface orna o f Percier and Fo n tain e.19 The G reat Hall had a
m ents o f the old palace w ere no longer fash gallery supported by sixteen stately Corinthian
ionable. Hansen sim plified the main façade colum ns and decorated w ith a frieze by the
tow ard the Palace Square by closing openings Danish sculptor Herm ann W ilhelm Bissen (fig
in the tw o end projections, elim inating a co l ure 5.12).
umned portico for the main entrance, and re Construction proceeded slow ly, the roof
ducing ornam ent to his characteristic discreet over the principal w in g not being raised until
w indo w m oldings. The necessary expression o f 1809. The N apoleonic W ars had Europe in
grandeur w as achieved by the six-colum ned strife once m ore, bringing D enm ark increasing
II

195 .
financial difficulties.20 The palace that Lauritz de

Thurah had built for Q ueen Sophie M agdalene
at Hørsholm in 1744 w as razed in 1811 for its
m aterials.21 By 1816 all w ings w ere roofed, and
tiansborg II. C. F. Han
the interiors o f the royal apartm ents, at least,
sen. 1803—1828.
ready by 1828. A s had been the case w ith its
Lithograph after H. F.
predecessor, how ever, the second C hristians
G. Holm. (Copenhagen,
borg w as never en tirely finished.
Royal Library.)
The Palace C hapel also had to be rebuilt,
S. 12 Copenhagen. Chris
and Hansen m ade the same changes from Ba
tiansborg II. Great
roque to classical th at he had on the palace
Hall. (Copenhagen, Na
(figure 5 .13).22 The east façade w as closed up
tional Museum.)
and given a four-colum n tem ple-front, w hile
the o ther w alls w ere also finished w ith smooth
surfaces and restrained detail. W ork w as begun
in 1810 and the dom e roofed w ith copper in
1820. The interior w as also given much sim pler
treatm ent o f surface, w ith the galleries now
m inim ized behind C orinthian pilasters and the
Baroque ceiling replaced by a coffered dom e
on pendentives.

In the m eantim e C openhagen had suffered

another catastrophe. T hree nights o f bom bard
m ent by the British in Septem ber 1807 had left
much o f the center city, including Vor Frue
Kirke, in ruins. To Hansen fell yet another res
toration, for w hich he began plans in 1808 (fig
ure 5 .14).23 C onstruction began in 1811, and
the new church w as dedicated in 1829. A l
though built on the ruins o f J. C. K rieger’s
church, rem inder o f the latter is in the austere
outer w alls, as is the case w ith the Palace
Chapel. C hevet buttresses gave w ay to the
tw o cylinders and dom e w ith which Hansen
built the new apse, another expression o f the
bold massing that he liked so much. On the
east the tem p le-fro n t portico is set o ff by the
plain east w all and the sim ple to w er rising
above it. The interior is one o f H ansen’s
strongest expressions o f Roman grandeur. Rec
tangular piers w ith niches for statutes o f the
A postles line the nave at the ground level, w ith
an Ionic colonnade in the gallery. The length o f
the church suggested a coffered barrel vault for
the nave rather than a dom e, and the apse,
probably designed for T horvaldsen’s statue o f
Christ, is lit from its dom e. The effect is serene
and m ajestic, particularly w hen light com es in
from the south.
5.13 Copenhagen. Chris W e m ay add here notice o f a som ew hat
tiansborg II. Chapel. later building, the museum built for the w orks
Interior. (Copenhagen, and collections o f T horvaldsen by M ichael G o tt

National Museum.) lieb Bindesbøll after the return o f the sculptor
S. 14 Copenhagen. Vor Frue from Rome in 1838 (figure 5 .15).24 A fte r sev
Kirke. C. F. Hansen. eral grand proposals had been m ade for this im
1811-1829. Watercolor portant new national museum , Frederik VI
by P. Christensen. (Co granted the royal carriage house, just w est o f
penhagen, National the palace chapel, for the purpose. Bindesbøll
Museum.) added a portico on the fro nt and an enclosing
S. IS Copenhagen. Thorvald w in g on the back and chose the Ionic order as
sen Museum. M. G. fittin g for T horvaldsen’s classically inspired
Bindesboll. 1838. sculptures. The sculpto r’s ow n tom b is in the
center o f the courtyard, and after his death in

197 .
IS

1844 a frie ze depicting his trium phal arrival in

C openhagen w as painted on the exterio r by
Jø rge n Sonne. The building is an early and strik
ing exam ple o f a m useum devoted to the w o rk 5.16 Helsinki. Senate
o f a single artist, and it becam e an im portant House. C. L. Engel. Be
source o f inspiration in D enm ark’s second clas gun 1818.
sical period. 5.17 Helsinki. University.
In this brief review o f w h at enthusiasm for C. L. Engel. 1828-1832.
the antique m eant in Sw eden and D enm ark w e

have found scattered projects in and around
Stockholm and several im portant rebuilding
projects in C openhagen. A lthough the Gusta- at w hat is now V anhakaupunki, three miles east,
vian style, especially for interiors, and H ansen’s is marked by foundations o f the church in a lit
great official style each had its ow n distinction, tle park. The harbor facilities here proved un
neither w as exercised in the service o f major satisfactory, and the present site w as chosen in
urban com plexes. For this kind o f undertaking 1640. N ever large, the tow n w as plagued by
w e m ust turn to Finland and N orway. fire and fam ine, and it w as tw ice occupied by
W hile Hansen w as providing a badly dam the Russians, in 1721 and in 1742. To create a
aged C openhagen w ith palace, church, and m ajor city from this unprom ising start w as a
tow n hall, there w as a w ho le new set o f cir significant achievem ent.
cum stances in the old city o f Helsinki. A t the A reconstruction co m m ittee w as ap
instigation o f N apoleon, Russia attacked Finland pointed, headed by Johan A lb ert Ehrenström ,
in February 1808, and the “G ibraltar o f the w ho developed the plan adopted in 1817. The
N orth,” Suom enlinna, fell ignom iniously after approach to the inner harbor is past Suom en
firing only a fe w shots. By the T reaty o f H am linna and a num ber o f islands, w ith one o f the
ina, Septem ber 17, 1809, Finland becam e a principal hills rising to the w est and another to
Grand D uchy o f the Russian Em pire.25 the north. Ehrenström planned a new church
C zar A lexander I m ade an initial good to dom inate the northern height, w ith a great
im pression by appointing a national legislature square before it and civic buildings on either
and declaring a G overnor-G eneral to represent side. In the m ore level portion betw een the
him in Finland. He and his successors w ere, northern and w estern heights he laid out the
however, disinclined to see this body in action Esplanade, linking the harbor w ith the old
and refused to exercise th eir sole right to as north-south road. The architect he and the
sem ble it until 1863. A lexander I also m oved com m ittee chose to carry out these plans w as
the capital to Helsinki in 1812. The to w n ’s Carl Ludw ig E n gel.26
population w as then only about 4,000, and it Engel w as born in G erm any and w as a stu
had suffered badly from a fire in 1808. The oc dent to geth er w ith Karl Friedrich Schinkel in
casion w as seized to m ake a new city as an Berlin. He also studied in Italy. In 1809 he w ent
expression o f the new regim e. to w o rk in Reval in Estonia and later w orked in
H elsinki had been founded by Gustavus Turku w here he m et Ehrenström in 1814. His
Vasa in 1550 to be the m aritim e and com m er first large civic building in H elsinki w as the Sen
cial center o f the G u lf o f Finland. The first site ate House, begun in 1818 (figure 5 .I6 ) .27 It w as

199 .


201 .
planned as a range o f four w ings around a cen

tral courtyard, and it w as not entirely com
pleted until after E n ge l’s death in 1840. The
east w ing facing the square set the tone o f 5 .18 Helsinki. Old Church.
m onum entality and authority th at Ehrenström ’s C. L. Engel. 1826. (Hel
plan dem anded. It is four stories high, the tw o sinki, National Mu
low er stories rusticated, the arched openings o f seum of Finland.)
the second level form ing a base for the square 5.19 Helsinki. Church of St.
Nicholas. C. L. Engel.
headed openings and the C orinthian order
Begun 1826.
above. The central pavilion is a projecting por
tico o f six colum ns, rising through the third and
fourth stories, w ith the Throne Room (now
the Senate C ham ber) d irectly behind it on the
third level. Four tw o -sto ry pilasters at either
end o f this façade enclose the w hole com posi
tion, w hich m ay reflect H ansen’s C hristiansborg ing before the gallery at the back. This room
II, begun fifteen years earlier. A notable feature w as badly dam aged by bom bing in W orld W ar
o f the interior is the great staircase, an ascend II and has been enlarged and altered in
ing series o f brick vaults supported by fluted reconstruction.
Doric columns. In 1824 Engel succeeded the Italian-born
W hile the Senate House w as under con but Sw edish-trained C arlo Francesco Bassi as
struction a disastrous fire occurred in Turku, C ontroller o f Public W orks, and through his d i
providing an excuse to m ove the University, rection, if not by his actual personal designs, a
founded in 1640, closer to the new adm inistra vigorous period o f N eoclassical construction
tion in Helsinki. Ehrenström ’s com m ittee had ensued, bringing churches, civic buildings, and
been disbanded in 1825, leaving Engel more d i houses to num erous tow ns in Finland. If some
rectly responsible to the Secretary o f State in exam ples w ere less sophisticated than others,
St. P etersburg and thus in a m ore independent nevertheless m any com m unities received a
position. His proposal to have the new U niver prom pt architectural expression o f the im perial
sity building in H elsinki com plem ent rather than regim e. A t H am ina, for exam ple, E n gel’s church
im itate the Senate House w as fortunately ac of 1837 is a round building w ith a dom e, set in
cepted (figure 5 .17).28 A gain w e see a long a w alled enclosure.29 Engel also built the Old
four-story building, the tw o low er stories rusti Church in H elsinki in 1826, the site chosen
cated, a central tw o -sto ry portico, and three being on Lönnrotinkatu, w hich runs diagonally
pilastered bays at either end. The differences southw est from the end o f the Esplanade. The
are subtle: square-headed openings at the m odest w ooden church, em bellished w ith pilas
low er levels, arched panels above the w indow s ters, is in a park in a residential district and lays
o f the third, and an Ionic rather than C orin no claim to a grand setting (figure 5 .18).30
thian portico. Behind the portico rises another E n gel’s m ost spectacular contribution to
o f E n ge l’s great staircases, and behind this the the new H elsinki w as the church o f St. N icho
Festival Hall, in sem icircular th eater form , w ith las, raised to cathedral status in 1959 (figure
a giant order o f fluted Corinthian colum ns ris- 5 .I9 ) .31 The Senate House and U niversity both

had essentially palace façades, a solution to d e

signing for large public buildings sim ilar to that
adopted by Hansen for the Råd-og-dom hus in
C openhagen. E n ge l’s oppo rtunity w as different,
and instead o f having to set his buildings into a
crow ded city he w as able to place them in a far
more cerem onial manner, flanking and defining
a large open square. N ow the civic pedestal
w as ready for a crow ning m onum ent.
O riginally yellow , it now rises to a new
w hite clim ax above the yello w buildings on ei
ther side below . The plan is a G reek cross,
w ith the principal liturgical axis east-w est and
the main entrance on the w est. The enorm ous
stair now leading up from the north side o f the
square replaced E n ge l’s colonnaded Main Guard
Building (begun in 1818) in the 1840s. The four
strong C orinthian porticoes stand before the
four apses form ing the arm s o f the cross, in
w hich the galleries are supported on Ionic co l
umns (figure 5.20).
En gel’s last great secular building w as the
U niversity Library, begun in 1833 (figure
21

203 .
5 .2 1).32 It is across the street from the C athe

dral, and its tw o -story order o f engaged C orin
thian colum ns and pilasters reflects the exterio r
o f the C athedral, though w ith an attic story 5.20 Helsinki. Church of St.
rather than pedim ents. The reading rooms on

Nicholas. Interior.
(Helsinki, National Mu
the north and south o f the dom ed central hall
seum of Finland.
m ay reflect the colonnaded A cadem y Library in
Photo: Istvan Rácz.)
St. P etersburg.33
5.21 Helsinki. University Li
The third Scandinavian city to experience
brary. C. L. Engel.
change and develo pm ent after the N apoleonic
1833-1844.
W ars w as O slo.34 By the T reaty o f Kiel in Jan u
5.22 Ulefoss, Telemark.
ary 1814 Frederik VI o f D enm ark w as forced
C. Collett. 18 0 2 -1807.
to cede N orw ay to Sw eden. A lthough the
(Oslo, Riksantikvaren.
N orw egian attem p t to elect the peo ple’s ow n
Photo: O. Vaering.)
king w as unsuccessful, the constitution adopted
May 17, 1814, w as agreed upon by Sw eden,
and it is in fact still the basis o f N o rw ay’s po lit
ical structure. Charles XIII o f Sw eden died in
1818 and w as succeeded by Karl X IV Johan,
w ho as N apoleon’s marshal Jean Bernadotte
had been elected heir in 1810. W hereas the
new king sponsored a num ber o f building proj
ects in Sw eden, the m ost dram atic im pact on
22

any Individual city during his reign cam e to

O slo.
Classical m otifs w ere already in use in
Norway. A t U lefoss in T elem ark a m anor house
had been built in 1802-1807 on the old estate
by C hristian C o llett.35 On the main façade a
tw o -story central block w ith portico projects
at the ground level, w ith pilasters betw een the
window s o f the second level, the w hole section
crow ned by a dom e. O ne-story extensions on
either side o f the central block are em bellished
w ith much shallow er Tuscan pilasters and entab
lature. Behind these extensions tw o w ings are
added at the back o f the house, also colon
naded (figure 5.22). The overall schem e is like a 23
Palladian villa, but the clear-cut geom etrical
form s and the severe D oric elem ents belong to
the new taste for the antique. w ith arcaded ground story and six-colum ned
The population o f O slo w as then w ell over Ionic tem ple-front rising through tw o stories
13,000, m ore than tw ice the size o f H elsinki. above. The colum ns and pedim ents w ere not
Akershus Castle dom inated the harbor from its added until 1848, and th ey are therefore not
com m anding height, and there w as already the visible in the lithograph o f 1840.
Cathedral beside the m arket place. N orw ay as W hile the palace w as under construction
a separate country under the Sw edish crow n Linstow traveled to D enm ark and G erm any in
w as in a d ifferent situation from Finland, w hich 1836-1837. It w as then tim e to finish the inte
had m erely been created a Grand Duchy. As riors, for w hich the funds w ere ready. He was
C row n Prince, Karl Johan chose the site for the much im pressed w ith w hat he saw in Germany,
necessary Royal Palace on the northern height. especially the w o rk o f Schinkel, w ho w as then
The palace w ould thus to w er over the city, bal in Berlin. O n his return to O slo, Linstow had as
ancing the fortress to the southeast (figure an assistant the young G erm an architect H ein
5.23).36 rich Schirm er. The w o rk o f finishing the interi
His choice w as applauded by the architect ors w as now carried forw ard w ith much stucco
Hans D. F. Linstow , w ho began w o rk on the and polychrom e in Sch in keľs “Pom peiian” m an
palace in 1823. The original plan was for a tw o ner. Much w as done by the theater painter
storied H -shaped building, w ith a cross-gabled P. C. F. W ergm ann, the effect closer to the
roof and tem ple fronts in the center. In addi Gustavian style in Sw eden than to the French
tion there w ere to be four pavilions connected N eoclassicism o f Hansen (figure 5.25). To the
by colonnades. This proved to be much too latter, how ever, there m ay have been som e
costly, and the resulting building has a main debt in the G reat Hall, w hich bears strong re
block w ith w ings to the north (figure 5.24). It sem blance to the G reat Hall at C hristiansborg,
has three principal stories, w ith basem ent and finished in 1831, and w hich Linstow m ust have
attic. On the south façade there is a portico seen (figure 5.26).

205 .
5.23 Oslo. Royal Palace.

H. D. F. Linstow. 1823
1848. Lithograph, c.
1840. (Oslo, City
Museum.)
Plan. (After Kavli,
N orwegian A rch itec
tu re, p. 96.)
The Dining Salon.
(Slottsforvaltn ingen
RA/S-4224/1/U/L0001/
0005; Slottet: Den
store spisesal (The
Dining Salon). Photo
graph byTeigens
Fotoatelier.)
The Great Hall.
(Slottsforvaltn ingen
RA/5-4224/1/U/L0001/
0002; Slottet: Den
store festsal (The
Great Hall). Photo
graph byTeigens
Fotoatelier.)


207.
The site o f the palace once chosen, in

1835 Linstow w as ready w ith a grand plan for
the city (figure 5.2 7 ).37 He kept the land
around the palace as a park covering the slopes
and a great open space in front. Then dow n
the hill tow ard the C athedral he planned a
boulevard, now Karl Johan G ate, w ith a plaza
for a university at the foo t o f the hill and a site
for a Parliam ent building farther south. He w as
not able to carry out all his ideas, but he cer
» 'V ' {
tainly capitalized on the planning opportunity
that palace builders in C openhagen never had,
and his basic schem e shapes the city still.
Linstow had a yo unger contem porary,
Christian H enrik Grosch, w ho had also been
born in D enm ark and had studied at the A cad
em y in C o penhagen.38 He began teaching in the 29
art school in O slo in 1827 and becam e the

state architect in 1828. His early w orks w ere
in the N eoclassical tradition, probably the most
severe being the Exchange o f 1822-1828 (fig
ure 5.28).39 The clear D oric colum ns o f its por
tico found another expression in the church 5.27 Oslo. Plan by H. D. F.
that Grosch designed for Halden in Ø stfold in Linstow. 1835. (Oslo,
1828.40 The sim ple ex terio r surfaces and square Riksantikvaren.)
to w er recall V or Frue Kirke in C openhagen, 5.28 Oslo. Exchange. C. H.
w hich w as being constructed w hen Grosch was Grosch. 1826-1828.
a student there in 1820-1824. A t Halden the 5.29 Halden, Østfold. Im
aisles w iden out to a transept, w ith a dom e manuel Church. C. H.
over the crossing, and there is a niche w ith a Grosch. 1828-1833. In
statue o f C hrist in the sanctuary (figure 5.29). terior. (Oslo,
The m ost am bitious project that Grosch Riksantikvaren.)
undertook w as building for the U niversity.41

The first plans w ere draw n up in the late
1820s, and by 1840 the final schem e w as
adopted and construction begun. The concep
tion w as more extensive than th at for the U ni
versity in H elsinki, perhaps partly because a
m ore spacious and level site w as available in
O slo. Three buildings w ere built facing an open
plaza on the north side o f Karl Johan G ate (fig
ure 5.30). On the w est w as placed a lecture

building, in the m iddle a m useum /collections

building to geth er w ith an anatom ical theater,
and on the east a library to which w as added a
5.30 Oslo. University. C. H.
Festival Hall. In 1838 G rosch’s original plans
Grosch. 1840-1852.
had been sent to Schinkel in Berlin, and the
Lithograph after draw
buildings as constructed bear som e m arks o f his
ing by J. Frich, c. 1850.
corrections and suggestions. The m ajestic vesti
bule and staircase are sim ilar to Schinkel’s vesti
5.31 Stockholm. Skepps
bule for the A ltes M useum in Berlin, begun in
holm Church. F. Blom.
1823. The Festival Hall, unlike that o f the U ni
1824-1842.
versity o f H elsinki, w as not placed on axis w ith
the principal entrance to the library building in
w hich it is located. It is built like a theater, the
decorations b eing supplied by W ergm ann, al
though for all th eir grandeur o f appearance
th ey w ere carried out in relatively inexpensive
materials.
W hereas C openhagen, Helsinki, and O slo
all had m ajor building and planning projects as a
direct result o f the N apoleonic W ars, Stock-
30

2 09 .
holm w as not so much affected. Karl X IV Johan The post-N apoleonic period in Scandina
did indeed see to the construction o f several vian architecture w as not, how ever, given over
m ilitary and adm inistrative buildings in Sto ck solely to the N eoclassical. Blom w as am ong the
holm and other cities, but no single architect m any Scandinavian architects w ho w ere explo r
seem s to have dom inated the period in Sw e ing other possible sources o f stylistic ideas. This
den.42 For a design in the N eoclassical m anner w as also a period o f gro w in g aw areness o f na
paralleling those w e have been exam ining in tional heritage. W e shall therefore turn our at
other countries w e m ay note one Sw edish e x tention to the m ajor traditions in vernacular
am ple by an architect w ho did not restrict him architecture and then to som e o f the other
se lf to the antique for inspiration during his eclectic styles.
career.
In Stockholm Fredrik Blom designed the
Skeppsholm C hurch, built 1824-1842 (figure
5 .3 1).43 This is a centralized building, octagonal
on the exterio r and circular on the interior,
entered through porches and covered by a low
dom e. The present cupola is a later addition.
On the interior an am bulatory is established by
paired Ionic colum ns carrying a spacious arcade,
rem iniscent o f Santa C ostanza in Rome.

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

б Vernacular Architecture in Scandinavia
W ith the years w hen Scandinavian architects

w ere draw ing upon antiquity and the M iddle
A ges for much inspiration, w e approach the
tim e w hen N ordic building traditions w ould
also be im portant sources for designers. For
the student o f vernacular architecture, as the
term has been devised in recent years, the five
Scandinavian countries o ffer an astonishing vari
ety o f building types, m aterials, and m ethods o f
construction and decoration. Lest this richness
becom e too bew ildering, the exam ples chosen
for this chapter w ill be organized in a generally
northw ard direction, beginning w ith the half
tim bered farm buildings o f D enm ark and south
ern Sw eden, proceeding to the notched log
buildings o f northern Sw eden, N orw ay, and Fin
land, and concluding w ith the stone and tu rf
buildings o f the A tlantic islands and Iceland.
There w ill also be som e discussion o f brick
used in farm and tow n buildings.
In m ost cases the exam ples chosen w ill
also be those found in the principal open air
m useum s o f the five national capitals. This is
partly because these buildings are m ore easily
accessible for study than those like them still

Vernacular Architecture
on their original and often rem ote sites. In ad

dition, there has been nearly a century o f inves
tigation and care o f these buildings, w ith the
6 .1 Karup Heath, Jutland developm ent o f expertise in m aintenance and
(Sorgenfri, Frilandsmu interpretation that is fundam ental to the study
seet). Farmstead, c. o f vernacular architecture. W e w ill therefore
1850. begin w ith a short review o f these five museum
6.2 Lath and plaster. Draw parks.
ing by Bjarne Stoklund. The idea o f an open air m useum for build
(Copenhagen, Dansk
ings seem s to have originated w ith A rtur Ha-
Historisk Faelles-
zelius, w ho began the collections o f Sw edish
forening.)
folk art in 1872 that led to the founding o f the
N ordic M useum in Stockholm in 1873. A l
though Skansen on D jurgården did not form ally
open until 1891, H azelius had planned all along
that there should be such a parklike setting for
public visits to buildings brought th e re .1 B egin
ning w ith seven or eigh t acres, the site ex
panded to seventy-five acres w ith 150 buildings
by 1982.
In C openhagen the m otivation for the first
efforts to found an open air museum w as d if
ferent. The Danish Folk M useum w as founded
by Bernhard O lsen in 1885, w ho had seen
Sw edish farm house interiors at the Paris Exhibi
tion o f 1878, arranged by H azelius.2 O lsen o b
tained a place in Kongens H ave, the royal
garden o f Rosenborg Palace, in 1897 and found
tw o buildings to place there: the dw elling
house o f the Halland farm stead and the loft
house from Sm åland. These did not com e from
D enm ark, but from areas w here he fe lt the
earliest building traditions w ere w ell preserved.
The location being clearly unsuitable for any
substantial develo pm ent o f an open air m u
seum , land w as purchased just north o f So rgen
fri Castle near Lyngby, thirteen kilom eters
north o f C openhagen. G row n to about thirty-
seven acres, Frilandsm useet now includes about
eigh ty buildings or groups o f buildings.3
The third national capital in w hich an open
air m useum w as founded is O slo.4 In 1867

213 .
some old farm buildings w ere m oved to a site the w alls, form ing a series o f sections or bays.
near the city. Then in 1881 O scar II had the These posts m ay be connected at the top by
stave church from Gol in H allingdal and some horizontal plates running the length and w idth
farm buildings m oved to a park site on his es o f the building and also across the breadth be
tate on Bygdøy, outside O slo. The N orw egian tw een the interm ediate posts. Rafters for the
Folk M useum opened here in 1902. A s at Skan roof m ay rest on the side plates. The wall areas
sen in Stockholm , there is an “old to w n ” sec may be subdivided by horizontal tim bers be
tion o f houses and shops as w ell as the farm tw een the posts and then filled in w ith brick
buildings, and there is also the building housing (figure 6.1). A no ther possibility is to subdivide
the m ajor fo lk collections. the w all spaces w ith vertical lath as a basis for
In 1909 about tw en ty-five acres w ere set entw ining thin w ithies or w attles to support an
aside on Seurasaari Island at H elsinki for a co l outer covering o f plaster, or daub (figure 6.2).
lection o f the rural buildings o f Finland.5 It was Still another possibility is to fill the w all spaces
founded by A xel O lai H eikel o f the Finnish A r w ith beach stones (figure 6.3). A variety o f final
chaeological Com m ission, w ho had hoped to in effects m ay result according to w h eth er the
clude som e buildings from related cultures, but tim bers and/or infill are left exposed, covered,
this has not m aterialized. or painted.
T here is a zoo at Skansen, but otherw ise
these four open air museum s have a num ber o f
features in com m on. T here are furnishings and
explanatory m aterials in m any o f the buildings,
som e anim als are present, som e typical gardens
have been developed, program s o f fo lk music
and dancing and festival occur, and there are
restaurants and book shops. A ll are visited by
thousands o f people every year, som e just to
enjoy the parks, but m any to see the exam ples
o f living and w o rking quarters o f people re
m ote in tim e or place.
Finally, there is the m ore recent Á rbaer
Folk M useum on a form er farm site, seven kilo
m eters from R eykjavik in Iceland.6 The original
buildings include the house and barns, a smithy,
and a small tu rf church. Houses have been
brought in from other places, and w hile there
are no railroads in Iceland, Iceland’s only loco
m otive is displayed here.
W e begin this survey w ith the half-tim
bered type o f building, dom inant in D enm ark
from the M iddle A ges fo r farm and tow n build
ings.7 This is based on vertical posts set at the
corners o f the building and at intervals along

In rural building in D enm ark there is also a

variety o f relationships betw een posts, horizon
tal m em bers, and rafters, w hich constitute the
elem ents o f the building fram e. The system o f
the fisherm an’s co ttage from A gge r in Jutland is
som etim es called the “ Friesian” type, since it is
also to be found in the Friesian region o f north
Holland (figure 6.4 ).8 Like the Iron A ge long-
house, the m ain roof here is supported by a
pair o f longitudinal beam s carried on tw o inner
rows o f posts. These posts are tied to geth er
w ith cross beam s w hich are m ortised through
the posts and secured w ith pegs (figure 6.5).
To the principal rafter is fastened a second
shorter rafter that rests on the longitudinal
beam carried on the o uter w all posts. W e have
then w hat is also som etim es called a “head
house,” the inner row o f posts being o f a con
venient low ceiling height. The pattern o f the
inner row o f posts and the slight change in the
slope o f the outer aisles or “outshots” can be
seen at the end o f the farm building. A t the
opposite end it can be seen that the outshot 3
w as om itted on the south side o f the house,
m aking it possible to w all up betw een the inner
row o f posts and provide m ore w indo w o pen (figure 6 .7 ).10 A chim ney now rises from the
ings fo r the d w elling. T here is as ye t no chim roof o f the d w ellin g over the raised hearth b e
ney, sm oke from the massive hearth escaping low. 11 From the outside the farm stead appears
through a louver in the roof. The A gge r co t som ew hat closed, w ith fe w door or w indow
tage is a single long building housing the fam ily openings. O ver a period o f years the four
and its livestock co m pactly under one roof w ings form ed a courtyard house, another fam il
against the w e ather o f the N orth Sea coast. iar type th at w as built in several m aterials in
A no ther m ajor typ e o f construction was D enm ark and Sw eden. The d w elling room,
the post house, in w hich posts in the center o f scullery, best room , servants’ room, stables for
the end w alls rise to carry a ridge, the rafters horses and sheep, cow barn, and threshing floor
here resting on the horizontal beams o f the surround the court, a busy arena o f farm and
outer w alls and on the ridge (figure 6.6). This fam ily life. C. W. Eckersberg caught the charac
type is found on Jutland, on the island o f Funen, teristic landscape in a d raw ing o f 1817 (figure
and on into parts o f Halland and Blekinge in 6.8).
Sw eden.9 The exam ple chosen here is the Lun The thatched roofs co vering these build
dager Farm stead from Funen, the d w elling ings w ere generally m ade o f reeds or straw
house dated 1747 and the latest w in g 1880 lashed to the purlins carried on the rafters. In a

215 .
clim ate notable for strong w inds, the “roof-

tre e s,” short pieces o f w ood pegged to geth er
and set along the ridge, w ere needed to hold
6.3 Agger, Jutland (Sorgen dow n the top o f the thatch (figure 6.9). W e
fri, Frilandsm useet). m ay recall the suggestion m ade for stabilizing
Fisherman’s cottage. thatched roofs w ith poles at the experim ental
19th century. Iron A ge village at Lejre. In the illustration w e
6.4 Agger, Jutland (Sorgen can also see an alternative m ethod o f fillin g the
fri, Frilandsm useet). gable ends, w ith vertical planks and batten
Fisherman’s cottage.
strips. The end o f the thatching is secured and
protected by barge boards. A n unusual m aterial
is seaw eed, attached to the low est laths in bun
dles, then piled up in layers and secured at the
tops w ith turfs (figure 6.10). A no ther possibil
ity is heather, like seaw eed useful in regions
w here there is less straw available from cereal
cro p s.12
In Skåne the half-tim bered courtyard farm
m ight also be found, such as the Ravlunda
Farm stead form erly at Skansen in Stockholm
(figure 6.1 I ) . 13 T his too w as built around a
court w ith barns, stables, w oodshed, and other

6.5 Agger, Jutland (Sorgen

fri, Frilandsmuseet).
Fisherman’s cottage.
Detail of fram e.
6.6 Lundager, Funen (Sor
genfri, Frilandsmuseet).
Farm stead. 1747. Detail
of fram e.
6.7 Lundager, Funen (Sor
Farm stead.
6.8 Farm stead on Mon.
Drawing by C. W. Eck-
ersberg, 1810. (Copen
hagen, S tate Museum of
A rt.)

217 .

6.9 Pebringe, Zealand (Sor

Farm stead. 17th cen
tury. Detail of gable.
6 .10 Laesø (Sorgenfri, Fri
landsm useet). Farm
stead. 1737.
6 .11 Ravlunda, Skåne (for
merly in Stockholm,
Skansen). Farm stead.
19th century.
6 .12 O ktorp, Halland
(Stockholm, Skansen).
Farm stead. 18th
century.

219 .

buildings to ge th e r w ith the dw elling, the w hole

com plex having a single entrance. Except for
w indow s in the dw elling, the Ravlunda Farm
6 .13 Halland Farm stead stead w as closed on the exterior, life centering
(Sorgenfri, Frilandsmu in the courtyard as at the Lundager
seet). Begun 17th
Farm stead.14
century.
From Halland in Sw eden com es the
6.14 Heimbare, Raumdal
O ktorp Farm stead, dating partly from the eigh
(Oslo, Norwegian Folk
teenth century (figure 6 . 12 ) .15 For the stable,
Museum). Loft. 17th
pigsty, and o ther farm buildings the bole-house
century. Corner
type o f construction w as used, consisting o f oak
notching.
posts into w hich pine boards are tongued and
6 .15 Mora, Dalarna (Stock
grooved. This m ethod w as w idely used in D en
holm, Skansen). Farm
m ark and the southern provinces o f Sw e d e n .16
stead. 16th century.
These buildings are also arranged around a
courtyard, entered at one corner. The d w elling
is a low building w ith chim neys, placed be
tw een higher buildings for storage and various
farm chores. The low pitch o f the roofs is an
aid to conserving snow for insulation. Know n as
the South Scandinavian house, this type o f
dw elling in a single room, w ith hearth (and in
earlier days no chim ney), built-in bedsteads and
benches, and a “pauper’s b eam ,” beyond w hich
beggars and other strangers w ere not perm it-

221 .
ted to advance, w as often decorated w ith

paintings on the w alls and hanging clo th s.17
A d ifferent kind o f construction w as also
used at the O ktorp Farm stead, that o f horizon
tal tim bers notched to geth er at the corners. As
it happened, the first building acquired for the
Danish O pen A ir M useum , in 1896 before the
rem oval to Sorgenfri, w as a house o f this type,
the farm stead from Stam hult in Halland, dating
from the seventeenth century (figure 6 .I 3 ) .18
The farm buildings th at now form the court
yard are o f plank construction and w ere
brought in later. The roof o f the dw elling is o f
turf, laid o ver a lining o f birchbark, surely one
o f the m ost picturesque o f roofing m aterials.19
The tim bers o f the dw elling are oval, w hereas
those o f the original outbuildings or “herbergs”
on either side are rectangular.
This brings us to the im m ense subject o f
notched log construction in Sw eden, N orway,
and Finland.20 The patterns seen here are rela
tive ly sim ple but could becom e much more
com plicated, both for the w ays o f cutting the
joints and for the decorative patterns (figure
6 .I4 ) .21
14

The first building to be brought to Skan ner posts set into sills, the w alls filled like the
sen, in 18 9 1, is the M ora Farm stead from D al stave churches w ith vertical planking.
arna, w hich H azelius had bought in 18 9 1.22 N ext to the loft is the dw elling house, or
From the outside it looks ve ry much like the stue, from Å m lid in V alle.25 H ere the notched
forts o f the A m erican frontier, w ith its log log house has a protective gallery o f stave con
buildings around a court and alm ost no o pen struction before it, much like the exterio r g al
ings to the outside. The main d w elling is on the leries on som e o f the stave churches. W ithin
north side o f the court, the internal division there are the tw o small rooms at the entrance
into a small entrance room w ith cham ber be end, as in the M ora Farm stead. The Å m lid stue,
hind and the m ain room w ith its hearth and how ever, has a central hearth in the m edieval
built-in beds being clearly defined by the pro manner, w ith a sm oke hole in the roof above
je cting tim bers on either side o f the door (fig and a long beam projecting from the w all to
ure 6 .15). O n the other sides o f the courtyard carry the cooking pot (figure 6 . 18). Benches
the farm buildings are placed close together. are fixed to the w alls and beds built in the cor
For protection against ro tting in the soil and ners o f the room. C him neys, w ooden floors,
against m arauding rodents the low est tim bers and m ore w indow s w ould characterize later
are raised w ell above the ground on heavy houses. A loft from O se and a stue from K jelle-
stones (figure 6 . 16). D ates carved on som e o f berg com plete the dw elling side o f the Setesdal
the buildings indicate a late sixteenth-century group, w ith barns and a stable across the nar
period o f construction, and for all the vulnera row road.
bility o f tim ber buildings to fire, the M ora
Farm stead bears w itness to the durability o f
such structures. Even earlier is the m ost fam ous
o f the M ora farm steads in its original location,
the thirteenth-century hom e o f A nders Zorn,
one o f Sw e de n’s m ost prom inent painters, w ho
incorporated the original house into his estate
and ultim ately the Zorn M useum .23
For another kind o f arrangem ent o f these
notched log farm steads w e m ay look to the
characteristic groups from Setesdal in N orway.
A t B ygdøy several structures have been
brought in and arranged in the local fashion
w ith d w ellings on one side o f a road and farm
buildings on the other (figure 6.17). A t left in
the illustration is the loft from B rottveit in
Valle, probably dating from the second half o f
the seventeenth century. The low er level w as
used for the storage o f food and the upper lev
els for clothing and valuables.24 W e observe the
low er level to be built w ith horizontal notched
logs and the tw o upper levels w ith heavy cor

223 .
17
e. 16 Mora, Dalarna (Stock

holm, Skansen). Farm
stead. Loft posts.
6 .17 Setesdal buildings
(Oslo, Norwegian Folk
Museum), c. 1700.
6 .18 A re stu e på Sogneskar I
Valle . Painting by
A. Tidemand, 1848.
(Oslo, N ational
Gallery.) 18

Like the stave churches, these buildings

could be decorated w ith carvings, such as
those on the uprights o f the K jelleberg stue
gallery, rem iniscent o f V ikin g carvings (figure
6 .19). For the eighteenth-century refurbishing
o f the fourteenth-century loft from V astveit in
Telem ark, now at Skansen, a more modern pat
tern o f acanthus w as chosen (figure 6.20). The
interior o f the stue m ight be brilliantly painted,
as for exam ple at the stue from Bjørnebergs-
tølen in H em sedal, dating from 1792 and attrib
uted to the painter Kristian H ulebak (figure
6.2 1).26
A no ther w ay to gro up the N orw egian
farm building is often found in N um edal. A t
B ygdø y the exam ples brought from this region
are set around an open space, w ith roads lead
ing in and out o f it from opposite corners.
A m o ng them is the Rauland stue, one o f the
oldest tim b er buildings in N orw ay (figure
6.2 2 ).27 The carvings on either side o f the door
and the runic inscription on the lintel suggest a
date in the second half o f the thirteenth cen
tury. The plan is sim ilar to th at o f the Å m lid
stue, three rooms w ith originally a central
hearth in the main room. A gallery across the
gable end once sheltered a stair to small bed
cham bers o ver the tw o sm aller rooms. In con
trast to the broad expanse o f Danish
farm steads draw n by C. W. Eckersberg is the
m ountainous landscape in w hich the N orw egian
farm steads huddle as painted by J. C. Dahl (fig
ure 6.23).
The N orw egian tim b er houses are not
solely built as separate structures. In w estern
N orw ay, especially in the coastal districts, a
type o f long building, or lån, has been used,
w hich consists o f tw o or m ore loft, stue, and
other units joined to geth er to form a single
building w ith several rooms (figure 6.24). These
m ay be built in either log or stave construction.
There is som e debate as to w hether this kind

225 .
б. 19 Kjelleberg, Valle (Oslo,

Norwegian Folk Mu
seum). Stue. Late 17th
century. Door
carvings.
6.20 V astveit, Telemark
Loft. 14th century.
Door carvings, 18th
century.
6.21 Bjørnebergstølen,
Hemsedal (Oslo, Nor
wegian Folk Museum).
Stue. 18th century. In
terio r. (Oslo, Norwe
gian Folk Museum.)
21
6.22 Rauland, Uvdal (Oslo,
Norwegian Folk Mu
seum). Stue. 13th cen
tury. (Oslo, Norwegian
Folk Museum.)
6.23 H ielle in Valdres .
Painting by J. C. Dahl,
1850. (Bergen, Fine
A rts Gallery.)
6.24 H abostad, Stranda
(Sunnemore Museum).
Stue. 19th century.
23 24

o f building developed in postm edieval tim es by

adding individual units to ge th e r or w hether it
continues the longhouse tradition from the Iron
A g e .28
It w ould not be right to leave considera
tion o f N orw egian construction in w ood w ith
out m entioning the saw m ills. D eveloped in
France in the sixteenth century, the w ater-
pow ered saw m ill w on acceptance in Holland
and N orw ay but w as stro ngly resisted in E n g
land.29 In the eigh teen th -cen tu ry N orw egian
saw m ill from Å k ra in H ardanger, the low er
part, resting on a stone foundation, is built o f
notched logs, w ith squared tim bers for the up
per portion (figure 6.25). Pow ered by a heavy
w aterw heel, w hich is geared to m ove the saw
blade up and dow n against the logs, this is a 25
very m odest forerunner o f the huge w ood
products factories th at w e shall see later. In be
tw een cam e the larger and m ore perm anent
saw m ills, such as the one at H ellefoss near
M odum , painted by J. C. Dahl (figure 6.26). 6.25 Å kra, Hardanger
In Finland there is also a strong tradition (Oslo, Norwegian Folk
o f using round or squared notched log con Museum). Sawmill.
struction for farm buildings. A n early view o f 18th century.
the Kortaniem i estate at K ittilä in Finnish Lap 6.26 H ellefoss near Modum .
land show s the buildings grouped neatly around Painting by J. C. Dahl,
the court, several o ther buildings scattered on 1838. (Oslo, National
the property, w ith plow ed fields and a hayrack Gallery.)
(figure 6.27). This w as m ore than an ordinary

6.27 K ittilä. Kortaniemi
Farm stead. Engraving
farm , for on the hilltop in the distance are lo
by R. Outhier, 1744.
cated tw o “observatories,” surely one o f the
(Copenhagen, Royal
northernm ost scientific establishm ents o f the
Library.)
day.30 The N iem elä farm from K onginkangas in
central Finland dates from the 1780s and w as
the first group o f buildings to be set up at Seu
rasaari, in 1909 (figure 6 .2 8 ).31 The arrange
m ent is less form al here. The first d w elling had
also the sauna, or bathhouse, so essential in Fin
nish culture. In tim e w ere added an enlarged
dw elling portion and dairy, cow shed, pigsty,
threshing floor, and also a boathouse, since Fin-

227.
26
a la fin du 20 Septembre . ___________________ P.uit ieo
Y U E D E L A jMa ISO N I)E C ü R T E N - N i EM I E T D E L A M ON T A G N E D E K lT T I S

A . Chambre des Observations dans la p ie lle elolt le P ilier d e p is tr e s . B . A u tre Chambre (fin servent d e S a lle a m aiu/er. C Catia.
D . Moulm a bras d a n s le b a s , au dessus d a r n e l e t au d essu s de ľE ntree e s t un Grenier a lfo in .
27

land is a country o f lakes and w ater transport.

Farms w ould also have one- and tw o -story loft
houses, sim ilar to the lofts o f N orway, for the
6.28 Konginkangas (Hel storage o f clothing and for sum m er sleeping
sinki, Seurasaari). Nie
quarters. M any o f these buildings are roofed
melä Farm. 18th
w ith rough boards, the ends projecting at the
century.
ridge, as at the M ora Farm stead.
6.29 Moiseinvaara, Karelia
Much o f the architecture o f Finland that
(Helsinki, Seurasaari).
w e have been observing has been close to
Farmstead. 1884. (Jay
Sw edish building traditions if not actually by
C. Henry.)
Sw edish builders. In southeastern Finland, how
6.30 Karuna (Helsinki, Seu
ever, there have been closer connections w ith
rasaari). Church.
Russia, and the province o f South Karelia w as
1685-1686.
ceded to Russia in 1944. In 1939 the M oisein
vaara farm house from Suojärvi in Karelia w as
acquired by the m useum at Seurasaari and is
therefore an easily accessible exam ple for study
by W estern observers (figure 6 .2 9 ).32 It may
rem ind us o f the Iron A ge longhouses in that it
w as built to shelter the fam ily and the cattle
under one roof. The farm stead is more sophis
ticated, in tw o stories, w ith living, storage, and
guest quarters on one side and a cow shed w ith

2 29 .
hayloft above on the other. The sauna, stable,

and storage barn are separate.
There was also a tradition o f church build
ing in w ood in rural areas, quite apart from the
stave churches o f N orw ay. A sim ple rectangular
building, w ith no division into nave and aisles,
and perhaps an entrance porch or bell to w er
w as a com m on type. The church from Karuna
now at Seurasaari w as built in 1685-1686 and
restored in 1772-1774 (figure 6 .3 0 ).33 It is cov
ered by vertical boarding, w ith an entrance
porch and a high steep roof. The interior is
dark and crow ded w ith pew s. The paintings
that once adorned it have partly been rem oved
to museum s in H elsinki. C haracteristic o f the
Scandinavian village churches is the separate
belfry (figure 6.31).
In Sw eden a small num ber o f w ooden
churches rem ain from the M iddle A ges. A t
G ranhult in Sm åland the church w as probably
begun at the end o f the Rom anesque period,
c. 1300 (figure 6 .3 2 ).34 It began as a sim ple
nave and chancel church, built o f horizontal
tim bers w ith dovetail joints. It has a steep roof,
and it o riginally had only ve ry small w indow
openings. Fragm ents o f the late G othic wall
paintings are still visible. A dditions w ere made
beginning in the seventeenth century, and a
second group o f paintings dates from 1745 30
1754. It is a rural church, for a tim e abandoned
and used as a granary, but then repaired be
tw een 1936 and 1950 and used for occasional
services. By no m eans all the know n early
Sw edish w ooden churches have survived, how
ever, and w e ow e considerable know ledge o f
those that have disappeared to the Sw edish
artist and antiquary N ils M ånsson M andelgren.
He did fo r Sw eden som ething com parable to
the w o rk o f J. C. Dahl in N orway, for he w ent
about in Sm åland particularly, m aking m easure
m ents, draw ings, and notes, such as those for
Bankeryd church in Sm åland (figure 6 .3 3 ).35

6 .3 1 Karuna (Helsinki, Seu

rasaari). Church belfry.
1767.
6.32 G ranhult, Småland.
Church. Begun c. 1300.
(Stockholm, A ntikvar
isk-Topografiska
A rkivet.)
6.33 Bankeryd, Småland.
Church. Drawing by
N. M. Mandelgren,
1863. (Lund,
Folksarkivet.)
31

231 .
33
These w ere the basis for his publications on are w hitew ashed, and the low curving ceiling
Sw edish cultural history. boards are painted w ith biblical scenes and
A m ore recent exam ple o f a Sw edish v il acanthus borders.
lage church is the one from Seglo ra in V äster A later church at Petäjävesi in Finland,
götland, now at Skansen in Stockholm , built in 1763-1764, is m ore elaborate and is built o f
1729-1730 (figure 6 .3 4 ).36 This too is undivided notched tim bers (figure 6 .3 5 ).37 It is cruciform
internally, but is m ore elaborate in plan, having in plan, w ith galleries in the north, south, and
a polygonal apse. T he ex terio r is covered w ith w est extensions. T he interior is not painted but
oak shingles painted red, as w as often the cus derives its character from the structural details
tom . T he bell to w er at the w est end and the so clearly exposed and from a m oderate
sacristy w ere added in 1780-1790. On the in am ount o f blocky carving on the altar rails and
side the heavy horizontal tim bers o f the w alls gallery fronts. The four w ings o f the building


233 .
are covered by w ooden barrel vaults, and the

crossing has a gored dom e. Like the houses o f
Halland and B lekinge, the interior is surprisingly
spacious in contrast to the ex terio r appearance. 6.34 Seglora, Västergötland
Before w e turn to farm buildings in brick, (Stockholm, Skansen).
w e should take note o f several distinctive types Church. 1729-1730.
o f small dw ellings, som e o f w hich are, or w ere,

6.3 S Petäjävesi. Church.
1763-1764.
used only seasonally. Prom inent am ong these
are the Lapp huts, such as the one from Frost
viken in Jäm tland (figure 6 .3 6 ).38 A fram e o f
tw o pairs o f curving poles joined at the top by
a thin ridgepole pushed through them can then
be subdivided by horizontal bars and then slant
ing poles o ver w hich can be laid a covering o f
birchbark and tu rf (figure 6.37). For further
protection another set o f poles can be laid
against the outside. In the m iddle o f this basi
cally circular building there is a hearth, marked
o ff by stones. W ith recent m ethods o f keeping
the reindeer herds these huts have generally
fallen into disuse, but w ere characteristic o f the
nom adic Lapps for hundreds o f years. The sto re
houses o f the Lapp cam ps w ere m ounted on
one or m ore high poles, reached by ladders
w hich w ould be set aw ay w hen not in use (fig
ure 6.38). Sim ilar storehouses are in use in
A laska today.
Then for other seasonal shelters there
w ere the fisherm en ’s huts, such as those from
N ym indegab on the w est coast o f Jutland (fig
ure 6 .39).39 In the late spring farm ers in this
region w ould m ove to these huts, placed in
groups o f three to accom m odate the six men
needed for a boat and th eir w ives. These huts,
also no longer in use, are built like A -fram e
buildings o f heavy slanting tim bers pegged to
cross-beam s and thatched, the ridges secured
w ith turfs. Beside the entrances are turf-built
chim neys. A fourth unheated hut w as used for
storage.
On the Faroe Islands the longhouse o f the
V iking period w as succeeded by a tw o-room

36
6.36 Frostviken, Jämtland

Lapp hut.
6.37 Lapp hut frame. (After
Manker, Lapsk k u ltu r,
figure 141, p. 139.)
6.38 Lapp storehouse
o i
37

235 .
house, probably early in the seventeenth cen

tury.40 O ne exam ple, w hich is now a house m u
seum , is D uvugarthur at Saksun on Streym oy
(figure 6.40). The original part o f the house
consists o f the røgkstue or sm oke room and the
glasstue o r w indo w room. In the røgkstue, the
center o f daily activity, there is a stone-fram ed
hearth against one w all, w ith louvre above but
no w indow s. The glasstu e has w indow s, ceiling,
and a stove connected through the w all w ith
the hearth, and w as used m ore as a “best
room .” Stone outer w alls shelter the character
istic Faroese vertical plank w alls, and the roof is
thatched.
T im ber w as, and is, scarce. Som e m ight be
im ported, som e found as driftw ood, and som e
38
from shipw recks. The latter m ay som etim es be
identified by w orm holes. A t Saksun a “priest’s
room ” w as added to the gla sstu e, the dark
w ooden w in g pro jecting from the w hitew ashed
røgkstue. Such a farm stead w ould include a
cow shed, storage sheds w ith dry stone w alls,
and possibly a splashm ill w ith horizontal w ate r
w heel (figure 6 .4 1).41
Certain m odes o f construction and ar
rangem ent give the Icelandic tu rf houses a spe
cial place in the group o f N orth A tlantic w as built o f rafters pegged to geth er at the top
vernacular buildings, ranging from the Scottish and resting on beam s laid on the w alls or sup
islands to G reenland. W e have already consid ported by posts.
ered the V ikin g foundations and the recon The characteristic plan o f the Icelandic
struction at Stöng, noting the scarcity o f w ood farm house developed over a long period o f
for building in Iceland. T w o main kinds o f build tim e, as the archaeological rem ains and the
ings w ith tu rf have been identified from later m anuscript illustrations indicate (figure 6.42).43
periods.42 O ne is the building entirely o f turfs, To the longhouse or sk a li o f the sagas w as
laid to form dom ed or barre I-vau Ited roofs. added a sittin g room or stofa for a w orkroom
The other is the house built o f tim b er and cov for w om en and also a gu est room, w hile the
ered w ith turf, the co m paratively thin layers o f sk a li w as still used for sleeping, as at Stöng.
the roof w idenin g out to form massive outer Then by the fourteenth century a passagew ay
walls. In this second group the roof m ight rest had been put betw een these tw o rooms, lead
on one, tw o , or three rafters laid o ver a ridge ing to the lavatory and bathroom , or badstofa,
pole that w ould be supported just by the w alls w hile ex tra room s w ere added at the ends o f
or by one or tw o posts. A n o th er type o f roof the sk a li and stofa, w ith gables facing outw ard

39
40

237 .
41
6.39 Nymindegab, Jutland

(Sorgenfri, Frilandsmu
seet). Fishermen’s
huts. 19th century.
6.40 Saksun, Faroes. Duvu-
garthur Farmstead.
18th century.
6.41 Mule, Bordø, Faroes
seet). Splashmill.
6.42 Farmstead. From the
Jónsbók manuscript
AM 345. (Reykjavik,
Stofnun Árna Magnús-
sonar á islandi.)
6.43 Laufás. Turf farm.
(Reykjavik, National
Museum. Photo: Gísli
Gestsson.)

and separate entrances. T hese gable ends m ight

be tim bered (figure 6.43). By the seventeenth
century the badstofa becam e the principal sit
6.44 Laufás. Turf farm. tin g and eating room, tak in g the place o f the
Plan. (Gísli Gestsson, in stofa, w hich w as left out o f all but the w e alth i
Ágústsson, “Develop est homes. This had to do w ith dim inishing sup
ment of the Icelandic plies o f firew o od and the need to m ake the
Farm,” figure 14, p.
best use o f w h at little heat there w as, and by
265. Courtesy Gudrun
the eighteenth century the badstofa w as used
Sigurthardottir.)
for sleeping as w ell. Then the sk a li and stofa
6.45 Turf wall. Drawing by
w ere turned so that th eir gab le ends faced out
Hörthur Ágústsson.
w ard, resulting in the ridge-farm house or b u r-
(Courtesy Hörthur
stabaer in northern Iceland (figure 6.44). In
Ágústsson.)
southern Iceland the badstofa w as brought to
the fro nt o f the house and the passagew ay
shortened.
A s for the tu rf w alls them selves, th ey
w ere built from turfs cut in several shapes and
sizes from the sedge m arshes w ith special tools.
T hey w ere built as double skin w alls o f various
com binations o f stone and turfs w ith a hard-
packed core o f earth betw een (figure 6.45).44
H erringbone patterns appearing by the fif
teenth century w ere considered particularly at
tractive and added to the stability o f the w alls.
These techniques w ere carried to G reenland by
Icelanders se ttlin g there.45 T he interiors w ere
lined w ith w ooden planks set vertically, joined
by tongue and gro ove much in the m anner o f
the w alls o f N orw egian stave churches.46
W hether the Icelandic tu rf houses are directly
related to the “black houses” o f the Scottish
H ebrides is still a m atter o f debate.47
Turfs w ere used not solely for houses but
for churches as w ell, though w e have to rely
on published accounts for descriptions o f those
th at are lost. The first church at R eykjavik w as
built o f turfs, to be replaced by the present
cathedral in 1796.48 W e have, how ever, a d e
scription and d raw ing o f the church at T hing-
ve llir as seen by th e English traveler John
45 Barrow, Jr., in 1835 (figure 6 .46).49 Barrow

239
6.46 Thingvellir. Church.

Drawing in The A m eri
can Magazine, 3, no. 12
(September 1837): 461.
(Eugene, University of
Oregon Library.)
6.47 Silfrastadir (Reykja
vik, Árbaer Museum).
Church. 1842.

a brick tradition on the Jutland peninsula. An

early exam ple is in its original location still, ac
tually on the island o f Røm ø o ff the w est coast
6.48 Røm ø. K om m andør o f Jutland. The K om m andørgård, or C om m and
gård e n. 1748.
e r’s Farm, is now the pro perty o f the Danish
6.49 Røm ø. Kom N ational M useum , w hich has restored the
m andø rgården. In te house and lets the land out for farm ing (figure
rior. (So rge nfri,
6.4 8 ).51 Begun probably in 1748, it is built o f
Frilan d sm u see t.)
brick that appears to be o f D utch rather than
local m anufacture. A t this tim e there w as con
tact w ith Friesland, w hence brickm aking began
to develop on the Jutland coast. The house at
thought it extrao rdinary enough to m easure Røm ø has undergone alterations and additions,
and record, saying that “the extrem e length and in the 1770s it w as ow ned by a w ealthy
w as tw enty-thre e feet, but o f this eigh t feet seafaring m erchant. In the course o f restoration
w ere devoted to the altar, w hich w as divided it w as found that the interior had been ex ten
o ff by a partition stretching across the church, sively decorated w ith paintings, the unknow n
and against w hich w as placed the pulpit. . . . painter probably com ing from the mainland (fig
The w idth o f the church w as ten feet, and the ure 6.49). The num erous biblical subjects su g
height o f the w alls about six fe e t.” He w en t on gest a church painter, such as the one w ho had
to say that the w alls “w ere w ainscotted, and w orked at M øgeltønder, nearby, or the Rococo
from them large w ooden beam s stretched from painter o f D am sholte C hurch on Møn.
side to side. . . . The interior o f the roof, the N ow m oved to the O pen A ir M useum at
rafters o f w hich also rested on the w alls, w as Sorgenfri but o riginally ve ry close to N ym inde-
also lined w ith w o o d .” The church w as th ere gab is the Lønnestak Farm stead (figure 6.5 0 ).52
fore finished in the sam e m anner as the Icelan It is a courtyard farm stead, built in 1803, but it
dic house, and Barrow found it furnished w ith is ve ry very different from the Lundager Farm
benches but ve ry crow ded and at that tim e stead (figure 6.7). Instead o f opening inw ard to
used for storage. the courtyard, the principal entrances to the
A later tu rf church th at has survived was dw elling, barn, and stable are on the exterior,
built in 1842 at Silfrastadir in northern Iceland and the d w ellin g is in the south rather than the
(figure 6.47).50 It too w e n t out o f use as a north w ing. This represents a change in fashion,
church, w as m oved to a nearby farm house, and and the building w as apparently the first to be
served for a num ber o f years as a badstofa. built o f brick this far north in Jutland. The tiles
Then in 1950 it w as m oved to the Á rbaer M u in the best room and the living room are also
seum and reconsecrated in 1961. The sheltering no tew orthy as being im ported from Holland.
function o f the th ick w alls surrounding the tim The plan allow s for access to the cow shed and
ber building is clearly seen here at the east stable from w ithin instead o f through the
end, and in this case the outer layer is o f stone. courtyard, another innovation.
W hile farm building in the Scandinavian W ith the Lønnestak Farm stead w e ap
countries w as alm ost en tirely carried out in proach the tim e w hen local and anonym ous tra
w ood in the earlier periods, there did develop ditions w ere to becom e codified and the

241 .

concern o f professional architects.53 Beginning

at the end o f the eighteenth century, proposals
for small farm s w ere draw n up, to be follow ed
6.50 Lønnestak, Jutland
by com petitions and publications o f designs up
to the present (figures 6 .5 1 and 6.52). N ew
seet). Farmstead.
m aterials and plans, developed according to
1803.
changes in agricultural practices, generally have
6.51 Proposal for a small
not altered the sense o f traditional appearance
farm. Late 18th cen
evident in these proposals, and there has even
tury. (Copenhagen,
been room for prefabricated nostalgia (figure
Academy of Art
6.53).
Library.)
6.52 Proposal for farm From the vernacular buildings o f rural
buildings. (Klein, Land Scandinavia w e should turn briefly to those o f
b ru gets bygninger, fig the tow ns. Som e o f the m ore fashionable tow n
ure I.) houses have already been noted, such as the
6.53 Copenhagen. Prefabri Peterschenka House in Stockholm and the Baur

cated house. 1972. House in A itona. The m ore m odest dw ellings,
built o f less expensive m aterials, are not p lenti
ful in the larger cities for the periods before
the nineteenth century and tend to be hidden
aw ay am ong m ore recent buildings. Parts o f

243 .
SI 52
53

som e o f the sm aller tow ns, how ever, retain sig

nificant num bers o f th eir early houses so that it
is possible to g e t som e idea o f their form er
character. 6.54 Køge, Zealand. Store
A t Køge on the east coast o f Zealand Kirkestraede 20. 1527.
there are several streets near the church o f St. 6.55 Køge, Zealand. Vester
N icholas w here old houses remain from the gade 14-16. 1644.
sixteenth century, the tow n having been known 6.56 Falun, Dalarna. Miners’
as a trading center since the eleventh century. houses. (Falun, Bergs
On Store Kirkestraede is the oldest dated tim lagets Museum.)
ber house in D enm ark, built in 1527 (figure
6.54).54 N ow only three bays w ide, it w as once
part o f a double house. It is half-tim bered w ith hang across the front and a high tiled roof. It
brick no gging and a steep tiled roof w ith pro w as built for a m erchant, and w hile his means
nounced eaves flare. Inside there is just one w ere evidently not sufficient for a grand house
room, w ith open hearth and a door leading out like that o f Jen s Bang in A lborg, he could fo l
to the garden at the back. A m o ng the larger low the fashion o f the day and adorn the half
houses in the tow n is the one on Vestergade tim bering w ith brackets and carvings.
built in 1644 (figure 6 .55).55 This is characteris A tow n o f a co m pletely different nature
tic o f seventeenth-century tow n houses all over that still has som e o f its early buildings is Falun
D enm ark. It is tw o stories high, w ith an over- in D alarna.56 The great Coppermine, run by the
Kopparberg M ining Com pany, had been d evel
oped since 1230, the charter o f the com pany
dating from 1347. A ton o f gold, fifteen tons o f
silver, and 500,000 tons o f copper have com e
from here, including the copper for the roof o f
Versailles. Som e o f the small row houses for
the m iners rem ain in the Old Tow n on the
w est bank o f the river (figure 6.56). The
houses are one story high, built o f notched
logs, w ith th eir gables tow ard the street. The
traveler Edw ard Clarke reported appalling con
ditions o f fum es in the air, saying that “the
tow n church is covered w ith copper; but a
m ore im proper m aterial can hardly be used; for
the sulphuric acid gas, w ith w hich the air is
pow erfully im pregnated, is rapidly dissolving
this copper co verin g.”57 In N orway, Røros in
Sør-T røndelag w as founded in 1644 as a copper
m ining tow n, and m iners’ houses remain from
the seventeenth through the nineteenth centu
ries (figure 6 .5 7 ).58

245 .
O ver in Finland a great fire in 1827 d e

stroyed much o f the form er capital o f Turku,
but a portion o f the city on the south side o f
V artiovuori Hill w as spared because it was shel
tered from the w in d.59 C. L E n ge l’s proposal
for the dem olition o f this area in connection
w ith his plans for rebuilding Turku fortunately
did not m aterialize, and by 1956 the old houses
w ere secure. T hey w ere taken over by the
Historical M useum o f Turku to form a handi
craft as w ell as an open air architectural m u
seum (figure 6.58). Called Luostarinm äki, this
museum site is different from som e in that the
buildings have not been brought in from else
w here but are in th eir original locations. A n
other interesting aspect is that the dw ellings
SS are accom panied by other buildings for the
household, alm ost like small “urbansteads” in
stead o f farm steads, each household devoted to
a particular craft: com bm aker, furrier, carpen
ter, shoem aker, printer, baker, and several o th
ers. The buildings are raised on stone
foundations and are built w ith corner posts and
horizontal or vertical siding, w ith som e hori
zontal log construction. The ro pew alk set up
dow n the m iddle o f one long street, visible in
the illustration, w as necessary in a seagoing
tow n to supply the ropes for rigging. It m ight
be in a long building or, as here, outside.
W hile Luostarinm äki is now m aintained as
a m useum , another tow n in Finland has a heri
tage o f old d w ellings th at are still in use as pri
vate homes. Porvoo is the second oldest tow n
in Finland, after Turku, and w as founded as
Borgå in 1346.60 The C athedral o f St. M ary is
the only m edieval building to survive the m any
tow n fires. In 1809 A lexander I here pro
claim ed Finland a Grand D uchy o f Russia, and
the tow n continued to flourish com m ercially. In
this old part o f tow n the streets w ind up and
dow n the hillside in irregular paths and are
lined w ith w ooden one- and tw o -sto ry houses


247 .
6.57 Røros, Sør-Trøndelag.

Miners’ houses. (James
A. Donnelly.)
6.58 Turku. Luostarinmäki.
Village street.
6.59 Porvoo. Village street.
6.60 Ålesund, Romsdal.
Apartment blocks.
59
set d irectly on the streets (figure 6.59). There

is a variety o f sidings, roofs, door and w indo w
headings, and gables, and one gets a strong
sense o f how these nineteenth-century houses
had to be crow ded onto the m edieval streets.
For a hom ogeneous com m unity o f d w ell
ings from the early tw en tieth century w e may
look to Ålesund on the w est coast o f N or
w ay.61 The tow n is an im portant fishing and
com m ercial center; here again w hat w e see
now is the result o f a gre at fire, this one in
1904. W hereas the tow n buildings w e have
been considering in this chapter have been o f
w ood or brick, Å lesund w as rebuilt largely in
stone. N ot strictly vernacular, m any o f the
buildings w ere architect-designed under a regu
latory com m ission headed by Fredrik Naeser.
The result is distinctive, how ever, for here are
rows o f houses and flats rich in Richardsonian
Rom anesque, D ragon Style, and Jugend stil detail
(figure 6.60). In Stavanger, on the other hand,
there are streets in the old part o f tow n lined

w ith w ooden houses that preserve the early

character o f this seaport (figure 6 .6 1).
W hile D enm ark, Sw eden, Finland, and
N orw ay have had sufficient tim b er for dom estic
Houses.
building, this has not been the case in Iceland!
6.62 Reykjavik. House at
For buildings m ore suited to the gro w in g
Laufasvegur 3 1. (Reyk
tow ns than the tu rf houses, ready-cut tim ber
javik, Árbaer
w as im ported from D enm ark late in the eigh
Museum.)
teenth century. Then tow ard the end o f the
nineteenth century, prefabricated tim ber houses
w ere brought from N orw ay. A ll tim b er build
ing w as still ve ry expensive, how ever, and an
effective solution w as found in corrugated iron
im ported from England.62 W hile at first this
m ight seem a dism al approach, the vertical w all
panels resem ble batten boarding, and the Ice
landers paint these buildings in bright colors
w ith contrasting trim (figure 6.62).

249 .
These rural and urban vernacular buildings

survive from co m paratively recent tim es. Farm
steads that are know n to have been repeatedly
rebuilt on the original foundations and remains
o f buildings that have been discovered in tow ns
are am ong the fragm en tary pieces o f evidence
for the centuries-old traditions o f som e o f the
house types described above. Much that has
been learned from them has been adopted and
transform ed by som e o f the leading Scandina
vian architects o f the nineteenth and tw entieth
centuries.

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

7 Eclectic and Early Modern Scandinavian Building
The century betw een the N apoleonic W ars and

W orld W ar I w as crow ded w ith opportunities
and dilem m as for the Scandinavian architects.
A t this tim e the em bellishm ent o f buildings w as
dependent on im itation o f adm ired structures
from the past. N eoclassicism w as one response
to the problem o f creating an official im age,
w hether leaning to the im perial im plications o f
Roman building or to the dem ocratic im plica
tions o f G reek, and there w ere o f course m od
els other than the classical to follow .
But this w as not to be the w hole story.
W hile Jardin w as at w o rk on Frederiks Church
and A delcrantz w as building the D rottningholm
theater, som e significant technological events
w ere taking place in England. Such inventions as
that o f the steam engine in 1768 and the
pow er spinning fram e in 1769, to say nothing
o f the sm elting o f iron ore by coke beginning
in the 1740s, set European industrial produc
tion on a new path. T ogether w ith the shifts in
the political alignm ents o f N orw ay and Finland
and the gro w in g tendency aw ay from absolu
tism tow ard dem ocracy, the rise o f m odern in
dustrial society brought new population

Eclectic and Early Modern Building
pressures on Scandinavian cities and new kinds

o f patrons o f buildings.
A fully detailed account o f w hat happened
7 .1 Copenhagen. University. architecturally cannot be attem pted here. From
P. Malling. 1831-1836. the 1830s up to about the turn o f the tw en
7.2 Oslo. Bazaar. C. H.
tieth century, leading Scandinavian architects
Grosch. 1845-1857.
turned to three other principal sources o f in
spiration for at least their ornam ental expres
sions: the m edieval, the Renaissance/Baroque,
and local traditions. The designs resulting from
their choices appeared, how ever, on some
buildings that w ere anything but traditional in
their functions. A m o ng these w ere the rapidly
gro w in g num ber o f industrial bu ildin gs.1
This chapter treats first som e o f the stylis
tic possibilities and the early factories, follow ed
by consideration o f three m ajor projects that
w ere begun betw een 1892 and 1911: the Tow n
Hall in C openhagen, the third C hristiansborg
Palace, and the Tow n Hall in Stockholm . It w ill
conclude w ith w orks contem porary w ith these
projects by certain strong artistic personalities
w hose individual interpretations o f possible tra
ditional sources m arked a turning point in Scan
dinavian architectural design.
In C openhagen, w hile C. F. H ansen’s C hris
tiansborg Palace w as under construction, there
w ere other projects afoot. A university, pri
m arily for the study o f theology, had been
founded under C hristian I in 1479 in the chapel
o f V or Frue Kirke, and w e have already noted
H oly T rinity Church and the Round Tow er
w ith its o bservatory built under Christian IV. A
separate building and later an anatom ical th e
ater w ere also added, and these w ere lost in
the fire o f 1728. R ebuilding w as undertaken by
J. C. Krieger, only to be destroyed in the
bom bing o f 1807. In 1831 Peder M alling, a stu
dent o f C. F. H ansen, began the present main
building, com pleted in 1836 (figure 7 . 1).2 M ail
ing departed from the m ore severe classical
style o f Hansen by incorporating som e m edieval

253 .
touches in his exterio r design. The tall central

entrance bay w ith recessed portal, w indow , and
lunette is capped by a gab le th at com bines the
Roman gable-and-arch m o tif w ith stepped ar-
chivolts in the Rom anesque manner. This portal
leads into a large vestibule, beyond w hich lies
the festival hall. T w o stories o f classroom s are
served by staircases in the vestibule and e x
pressed on the exterio r in three bays on either
side o f the portal. This arrangem ent is much
like the core o f C. F. H ansen’s Råd-og-dom hus,
but the division by pilasters, the large w indow s,
and the curious lunettes and gables above give
the U niversity a much busier appearance. M. G.
Bindesbøl I and the painter C onstantin Hansen
w ere called upon for the interior decorations,
w hich include scenes from classical m ythology
and Danish history.3

A much m ore ex p licit use o f Rom anesque

m otifs w as m ade by C. H. Grosch for the Ba
zaar in O slo, designed in 1839 but not entirely
com pleted until 1857 (figure 7.2).4 This w as 7.3 Steensgård, Langeland.
built to house the m arket and butcher stalls. G. F. Hetsch. 1836-1837.
The land slopes sharply dow n to the east back (Richardt and Secher,
o f the C athedral, and G rosch ringed the plaza Prospecter, n.p. Copen
w ith a half circle o f tw o -sto ry brick buildings

Library.)
containing the shops, w hich are connected o u t
7.4 Oslo. Oscarshall. J. H.
side and inside by sheltering arcades. In 1854
Nebelong. 1848. (Oslo,
he added a fire station at the southw est corner.
Riksantikvaren.)
H andsom ely executed w ith broad arcades be
7.5 “Raphael’s Villa.’’
low and d w arf arcades in the R heno-Lom bardic
Painting by J. Roed. c.
Rom anesque m anner, the result is a unique
1840. (Copenhagen, Ny
backdrop for the C athedral and still actively
Carlsberg Glyptotek.)
serves m any o f its original purposes. G rosch’s
prim ary interest in the classical m anner proba
bly led him to the Rom anesque in preference
to the G othic.
For an individual dw elling, large or small,
the prospective o w ner had these stylistic possi-

255 .
bi lities from w hich to choose according to

m eans, am bition, personal preference, and the
inclinations o f the architect.5 The G othic w as
favored m ore than the Rom anesque for dom es
tic buildings. A t Steensgård on Langeland a
m anor w as rebuilt in 1836-1 8 3 7 by G ustav
Friedrich Hetsch, a G erm an-born architect w ho
had studied in Paris (figure 7 .3 ).6 The building
already had an octagonal tow er, and w hen fin
ished w ith stringcourses, stepped gables, and
parapet it em erged as a som ew hat benign
Rygård.
Sim ilarly O scarshall on Bygdøy, outside
O slo, a private castle built for O scar I by Johan
H enrik N ebelong in 1848, w as designed to sat
isfy the k in g’s interest in N orw egian legend and
history (figure 7.4 ).7 It w as placed on a rocky
site o verlo o king the O slo Fjord and surrounded
w ith parkland. N ebelong w as a pupil o f Hetsch
in the A cadem y in C openhagen and w e n t to
O slo as an assistant to Linstow in 1840. A l-

though the com pact little castle w ith its h exag

onal corner to w er has been com pared to
contem porary G erm an exam ples, the north e l
evation is also rem iniscent o f the so-called “ Ra
p hael’s V illa” in the V illa Borghese gardens in
Rom e. Since the tim e o f Eckersberg this had
been popular w ith the Danish N eoclassical art
ists (figure 7 .5).8 N ebelong also had been in
Rom e and had m ade d raw ings o f the little
building, w hich for the N orw egian site he
translated into a little G othic castle. The inte
rior w as decorated w ith paintings by A dolph
T idem and and stucco reliefs by C hristopher
Borch show ing scenes o f N orw egian landscape
and legend.
6 W hile individual hom eow ners could satisfy
nostalgic desires to live in houses decked out
w ith G othic trappings, for the churches it w as
another m atter. Slender piers and pointed
arches evoked w hat w as perceived as the piety
o f the M iddle A ges, and som e church authori
ties m oved to rem odel in the G othic m anner as
7.6 Oslo. Cathedral. A. Cha- w ell as to build afresh.
teauneuf. 18 4 8 -18SO. O ne o f the m ore spectacular program s o f

Interior. (Oslo, rem odeling w as carried out by the H am burg
Riksantikvaren.) architect A lex is de c h â te a u neuf at the C athe
7.7 Oslo. Trinity Church. dral in O slo, 184 8 -1 8 5 0 (figure 7.6 ).9 The inte
A. châteauneuf. 1849 rior w as give n w ooden vaults w ith thin applied
1858. ribs, cast like a gian t net o ver the old nave and
transepts. Baroque and Rococo furnishings
w ere rem oved, and the gallery received a
screen o f late G othic pointed arches. c h â te a u
n e u f’s spire, added at the sam e tim e, remains,
but fashion w as to change, and the church w as
stripped o f its G othic revival fittin gs in the res
torations o f 1 948-1950.
c h â te a u n eu f w as m ore fortunate in the
survival o f T rinity Church in O slo, built from
his designs in 184 9 -1 8 5 8 (figure 7 .7 ).10 Placed
on a height on A kersbakken, it is now m ore
eclipsed by surrounding buildings than originally.
Here w as an o ppo rtunity to build from the be-

257 .
ginning, and c h â te a u n eu f chose a cruciform

plan w ith a large central dom ed octagon. The
latter probably reflects the octagon at N idaros
C athedral in T rondheim and perhaps even
m ore the Palatine C hapel at A achen. Traceried
w indow s, salient corner buttresses, and turrets
and pinnacles com plete the schem e. On the in
terior, clustered piers support the ribbed vaults
o f the aisles, and the central octagon opens out
to the exterio r w indow s. This created a far
m ore genuinely m edieval space than could be
accom plished by the application o f detail alone,
and it w as a pity th at c h â te a u neuf did not live
to see it built. It w as finished by his young as
sistant A ndreas von Hanno.
The m edieval revival in church architecture
continued to the end o f the century, but m ean
w hile certain other buildings w ere designed in
this style. In the days o f Christian IV the library
o f the U niversity o f C openhagen w as housed in

the attic o f H oly T rinity Church. In 1855 a

com petition w as held for a new building to be
built next to Peder M ailing’s main classroom
building. M. G. Bindesbøll subm itted an inter 7.8 Copenhagen. U niversity
esting design, but the com m ission w ent to Jo Library. J. D. H erholdt.
han Daniel H erholdt. The library w as built from 18 5 7 -1 8 6 1 .
1857 to 1861 (figure 7 .8 ).11 By this tim e Henri 7.9 Gothenburg. R a ilw a y
Labrouste had built his fam ous Bibliothèque Station. A . W. Edels-
Sainte-G eneviève in Paris, 1843-1850, using v ä rd . 1 8 5 6 -1 8 5 8 . (Go

then burg, City
stone and cast iron. H erholdt’s library follow ed
M useum .)
this m odel in som e w ays but had to be ar
ranged d ifferently because o f the site. Across
from V or Frue Kirke, the library begins w ith an
entrance building, w ith the entrance itself on
Fiolstraede. The m onum ental vestibule and
staircase give access to a suite o f offices, be
yond w hich stretches the long section for the
book stacks. The ex terio r w all arcades and tra-
ceried oculus w indo w s o f the entrance building
suggest N orth Italian Rom anesque models,

259 .
w hile the narrow vertical divisions o f the li betw een the islands o f D enm ark w ere sim ilarly
brary itself, w ith th eir painted m oldings over inhospitable to long-distance rail lines. The ear
the upper w indow s, are in sym pathy w ith the liest Scandinavian railw ay o f any considerable
façade o f the U niversity building. A s in m edie length w as built in Sw eden o ver the much
val construction, the ex terio r pattern o f w in more continuous level land route betw een
dow s separated by thin w all strips corresponds Stockholm and G othenburg from 1855 to 1862.
to the row s o f iron colum ns th at support the By this tim e a w hole generation o f railw ay sta
interior. The churchlike effect resulting on the tions had been constructed in England and on
interior is further em phasized by the B atty Lang the C ontinent.
le y-lik e G othic pattern o f the colum ns. The A s the w estern term inal for this line, d e
tw o university buildings to geth er have a certain signed by the Sw edish engineer N ils Ericson,
grandeur outside and in that sets the tone for A d o lf W. Ede Isvärd built the station in G othen
the autho rity o f the educational enterprise. burg in 185 6 -1 8 5 8 (figure 7 .9 ).14 The type was
An entirely d ifferent problem w as posed by now fam iliar, w ith the trains com pleting
by the com ing o f the railw ay. The first steam - their journey under a long shed w ith arching
pow ered locom otive for draw ing a passenger cast iron roof, long platform s betw een the
train w as put into service in England in 18 2 5 .12 tracks, loading platform s and w arehouse facili
The “iron horse” also introduced a new era in ties on either side, and a tick et o fflce/w aiting
the m oving o f goods, the earliest Danish use o f room to accom m odate passengers. The ques
the new m eans o f transport being a line from tion o f em bellishm ent w as being answ ered in a
A ito na to Kiel built in 1844, then in Danish te r variety o f ornam ental styles: G reek, Italian,
ritory. N orw ay in 1854 and Sw eden in 1856 Egyptian, G othic, and even M oorish. Edelsvärd
also began short rail lin es.13 The mountainous chose a rather thin late G othic set o f motifs.
terrain o f N orw ay scarcely lent itself to ease o f The station w as rem odeled in 1877 and re
rail construction, and the m any bodies o f w ater placed in 1916.

ersgata, w hich leads from Akershus park up the

hill to G am le A k e r Church. W ith Karl Johan
G ate leading on o ver the Parliam ent hill to the
7 .10 Sandvik, Vestfold. C athedral, the tw o principal axes o f the city
Railway Station. now had the seat o f the national legislative
G. Bull. 1873. (Die body at th eir intersection. Tall modern build
trich son and Munthe, ings now m ake this d ifficult to perceive, but on
H olzbaukunst, plate com pletion o f the Parliam ent in 1866 the city
13.)
scape must have been quite different. Langlet
7 .11 Oslo. Parliament. E. V.
chose an H -shaped plan, w ith the tw o assem bly
Langlet. I860.
rooms projecting east and w est from the cen
ter portion. The ex terio r is carried out in the
Lom bard Rom anesque style, the groups o f sin
gle, double, and trip le round-headed openings
played o ff against each other and against the
blind arcades and corbel tables. For the interior
Langlet turned to colorfully painted w ood fin
A station beside a track, rather than a te r ishes in a com bination o f G othic, “Sw iss,” and
minus, w ould be planned differently. For Sand ancient N orw egian m otifs.
vik in Vestfold a little station w as designed in A m o ng the later m edievalizing churches
1873 by G eorg A ndreas Bull, w ho had been one stands o ut as clearly im itative, King O scar’s
the state railw ay architect from 1863 to 1872 Chapel at G rense-Jacobselv in Finnm ark, built
(figure 7 .1 0 ).15 A central entrance w ith porch by Jacob W ilhelm N orden in 1869 (figure
and pinnacled gab le led into a vestibule w ith 7 . 12 ) . 17 It w as built at the northern tip o f N or
tick et office beyond and w aitin g rooms on e i way, just at the Russian border, in part to com
ther side. This w as an essentially dom estic d e mand respect from Russian fisherm en. Built o f
sign in outw ard appearance and characteristic local stone, w ith its single tow er, nave, short
o f the m any small stations th at w ere needed in choir, and polygonal apse it resem bles m edieval
the sm aller tow ns betw een the m ajor city Sw edish parish churches and takes its name
term inals. from a visit by O scar II in 1873.
In O slo the m iddle years o f nineteenth- Representative o f the larger city churches
century building w ere brought to a clim ax w ith in the G othic style is St. Jo h n ’s Church in Ber
the Sto rting (Parliam ent) (figure 7 .1 1).16 A fter gen, built by H erm an M. Backer in 1894 (figure
m ore than tw e n ty years o f proposals, a design 7.1 3 ) . 18 It is d ram atically placed, high on the hill
for the Sto rting building w as fin ally agreed up w hich clim bs V ester Torv G aten from the
upon, that o f the Sw edish architect Emil V icto r m arket square. T he vie w back dow n is as im
Langlet in 1866. B uilt o f ye llo w and gray brick pressive as the vie w up. The church has the
w ith granite trim , it rises boldly betw een Karl necessary pointed openings, steep gables, and
Johan G ate and Sto rtings G ata at the end o f pinnacles, but the use o f som e polychrom ed
the esplanade leading from the Royal Palace brick and a suggestion o f broad flat surfaces in
park. W hile not precisely in line w ith the Pal dicate that som e changes in fashion w ere taking
ace, the Parliam ent lies on the east side o f A k place.

261 .
10

In D enm ark a late expression o f m edieval

style in church building w as more Rom anesque
than G o th ic.19 The tw o great restoration proj
ects in N orw ay and Sw eden w ere for the
G othic cathedrals o f T rondheim and Uppsala. In
D enm ark the com parable effo rt w as for the re
building o f the Rom anesque V ib o rg cathedral,
and D enm ark, as w e have seen, had a w ealth o f
brick Rom anesque churches. M artin Borch
chose this tradition for the church o f St. A n
drew in C openhagen, built 1898-1901 (figure
7 .I4 ) .20
In the m eantim e som e im portant d evelo p
m ents had been tak in g place in thinking about
Protestant church architecture. Earlier Scandi
navian builders had approached the m atter
from the seventeenth century in such buildings
as H oly T rinity Church in Kristianstad, 1617
1628, A d o lf Fre drik’s Church in Stockholm ,
1768, and the Lutheran Church o f St. N icholas
in Helsinki, 1826. C onventional sym m etrical
plans had been chosen, w hether basilical or
centralized, and the outw ard appearance o f
these churches w as one o f regularity, how ever
richly ornam ented. A m ove aw ay from sym m e
try to geth er w ith efforts to place m ore em pha
sis on the pulpit w as already under w ay in
England and the U nited States, and this had
been described and illustrated by the Germ an
author K. E. O. Fritsch in 1893. The plan o f St.
A n d re w ’s C hurch appears to be based on a
“M odel o f a Rural C hurch” in th at book.21
The church is built o f red brick, w ith a
sparing use o f ornam ental m otifs except for the
fam iliar paneling. The main portal leads to the
nave, and there is o nly one aisle, on the south
side behind the to w e r th at rises south o f the
portal. This is the arrangem ent o f Fritsch’s “ru
ral church” plan. O n the interior the nave is
covered w ith dom ical vaults, and the south aisle
is separated by large round-headed arches at
the low er level. A b o ve the aisle is an open

263 .
7 .12 Grense-Jacobselv, Finn

mark. King Oscar’s
Chapel. J. W. Norden.
1869. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
7 .13 Bergen. St. John’s
Church. H. M. Backer.
1894. (Oslo,
Riksantikvaren.)
7 .14 Copenhagen. St.
Andrew’s Church.
M. Borch. 1899—1901 •
Museum.)
7 .15 Stockholm. Engelbrekt
Church. L. I. Wahlman.
1906-1914. Interior.
(Stockholm, City
Museum.)
vaulted gallery, the effect rem iniscent o f San

M arco in Venice or San t’ A m b ro gio in Milan.
A still later interpretation o f the m edieval
14
styles w as m ade for the church com m em orat
ing the Sw edish hero En gelb rekt Engelbrekts-
son, leader o f the popular uprising in the
1430s.22 Built from the designs o f Lars Israel
W ahlm an in 1906-1914, it has a com m anding
position on a high b lu ff above K arlavägen in
Stockholm . It is a cruciform building, w ith long
nave and transepts and a tall to w er at the
southw est corner. Its brick surfaces are broad
and sm ooth w ith an alm ost nervous delicacy o f
ornam ent at the top o f the w alls and the tall
slender tow er. D espite the conventional plan,
the effe ct o f the interior is unique, the granite
piers and parabolic arches carrying the w ooden
roof o ver the nave (figure 7 . 15). M ost striking

am ong the m any paintings in the church is that

o f C hrist C rucified above the altar, a much-
transform ed echo o f such paintings in the m edi
7 .16 Stockholm. National eval parish churches. The height o f the nave,
Museum. F. A. Stiller. nearly 100 feet, keeps the m assive proportions
1849-1866. (Stock o f piers and ribs from producing a cavelike
holm, National effect.
Museum.) A no ther possibility for historic style, that
7 .17 Copenhagen. Danish o f the Renaissance and Baroque era, also found
National Bank. J. D.
expression in m ajor w orks in the second half o f
Herholdt. 1866-1870.
the nineteenth century. If the university build
ings in H elsinki, O slo, and C openhagen w ere
Museum.)
intended to appear as im pressive halls o f learn
ing, so w ere the museum s and theaters
founded in increasing num bers in the Scandina
vian cities.23 In Stockholm the royal collections
o f painting and sculpture had been housed in a
w in g o f the Royal Palace since 1793, w hen a
plan for a separate m useum cam e to nothing.
By 1840 the m atter w as revived and by 1846 a

2 65 .
17
com m ittee appointed. Several proposals w ere m ent. The project w as for a m useum to house
made, approval go in g to th at o f the Germ an galleries for painting and sculpture and also a
architect Friedrich A u gu st Stüler. He had stud library. Stüler planned it to be in four w ings,
ied w ith Schinkel and w as becom ing w ell the court so created crossed by a central w ing.
know n as a m useum designer, having recently The grand vestibule and stair hall give access to
begun the Neues M useum in Berlin.24 For the galleries in the w ings. No corridors w ere
Stockholm the proposed N ational M useum w as included, circulation being through the larger
to be a m ajor national architectural event, the and sm aller galleries. Stüler had a strong sense
largest project, in fact, to be undertaken since that such a m useum should be a w o rk o f art
the com pletion o f the Royal Palace itself. itself, w hich he tried to achieve through the
The site finally chosen is on Blasieholm , richness o f red and gray lim estone and a Re
across the harbor from the Palace. Stü ler’s naissance ornam ental vocabulary.26 He also used
building, begun in 1849 and com pleted in 1866, iron in its construction. The interior designs
has a m ajestic w est façade that gives som e indi w ere supplied by Fredrik W ilhelm Scholander,
cation o f the inner disposition o f the building one o f Sw e d e n ’s leading architects (w hose pro
(figure 7 . 16).25 T he three-bay central portion, posal fo r the m useum itse lf had not been ac
divided by pilasters w ith tall round-headed w in cepted), and in 189 6 -1 9 0 8 the Sw edish painter
dow s betw een, is flanked by the north and Carl Larsson designed the great frescoes above
south w ings, three stories high above the base the staircase. This w as the first o f the major


267 .
7 .18 Copenhagen. Royal

Theater. V. Dahlerup
and O. Petersen. 1872—
1874. (Copenhagen,
National Museum.)
7 .19 Copenhagen. Panto
mime Theater. V. Dah
lerup. 1874.
7.20 Copenhagen. Frede-
rik’s Church. F. Mel-
dahl. 1876-1894.
20

Scandinavian museum s to be built as such, the

collections o f the Danish N ational M useum then
as now being housed in the Prince’s Palace in
C openhagen. 7 .2 1 R e y k ja v ik . Parliam ent.
In an eclectical age, an architect m ight F. M eldahl. 1881.
choose d ifferent historic styles for different 7.22 Oslo. N ational Gallery.
buildings. H aving used the Italian Rom anesque A . Schirmer. 1879
for his U niversity Library o f 1855, J. D. H er 1881. P rint, c. 1885.
holdt turned to the m odel o f a Florentine pal (O slo, N ational

G allery.)
ace for the Danish N ational Bank, begun in
1866 (figure 7 . 17).27 Here is a com pact and
regular th ree-sto ry building w ith rusticated
low er story and tw o levels o f broad arched
w indow s, all crow ned by a heavy cornice, an
approach that w as evid en tly thought appro pri
ate for a banking establishm ent. holm, is w ell suited to the th e ate r’s setting in
Much grand er w as the Royal T heater in the pleasure gardens. It also gave D ahlerup an
C openhagen, begun not far from the bank six o ppo rtunity to depart from the more form al
years later. It w as designed by V ilhelm D ahle- Renaissance manner.
rup and O ve Petersen to replace the one built O ne m ajor church project w as at last
by N iels Eigtved in 1748 (figure 7 . 18).28 The brought to a conclusion in this Renaissance/
grand façade, w ith its rusticated triple-arched Baroque group. W e left Frederik’s Church in
entrance belo w and arched balcony above w ith C openhagen unfinished at the tim e o f N. H.
double Ionic colum ns, is in the then established Jard in ’s dismissal in 17 7 1. Thanks to private
pattern for the European theater. Staircases funding the w o rk w as resum ed in 1876 and
lead to a fo yer behind the balcony, decorated com pleted in 1894 by Ferdinand M eldahl (figure
w ith C orinthian pilasters. The auditorium is 7 .2 0 ).30 N ow instead o f a ruin there is an im
U-shaped, w ith fo u r tiers o f boxes and galler posing church at the end o f Frederiksgade, the
ies, the royal box betw een the proscenium and dom e, based on that o f St. P e te r’s in Rome,
the first tie r on stage right. A n extensive pro sitting rather heavily on the centralized building
gram o f rem odeling fo r the stage and support below . The inner circular room is divided into
ing facilities w as carried out in 1983-1985. The tw elve parts along the w alls, arched at the
sim ple elegance o f the backstage and ballet main level and rectangular w indow s in the
quarters now contrasts w ith the exuberance o f drum o f the dom e above, all separated by pilas
the auditorium . ters, applied colonettes, and panels. The altar is
D ahlerup w as not solely interested in placed against the w all opposite the main en
stately projects. In 1874 he designed the Panto trance, flanked by the pulpit and baptism al font,
m im e T heater for the T ivoli Gardens, w hich w ith seats arranged theater-fashion facing them .
had been founded by G eorg C arstensen in The overall effe ct is heavy, and Jardin m ight not
1843 (figure 7 . 19).29 T he brilliant, exo tic use o f be alto geth er pleased w ith the result. The use
Chinese m otifs, so d ifferent from the Rococo o f m arble and m arbelized w ood has given the
elegance o f the Chinese Pavilion at D rottning- church its o ther name o f “The M arble C hurch.”

269 .
21
22

7.23 Stockholm. Royal Op

era House. A. Ander
berg. 1891-1898.

271 .
W hile w o rk on Frederik’s Church w as in sions. In Stockholm the O pera House that

progress, M eldahl had another unique assign A delcrantz had built for G ustavus III in 1777—
m ent. In N orw ay the Parliam ent, the Storting, 1782 w as dem olished in 1891 and replaced by
had existed until the constitution o f 1814. Ice the present Royal O pera from the designs o f
land’s Parliam ent, the A lthing, on the other A xel A nderberg by 1898 (figure 7 .2 3 ).32 Som e
hand, w as first assem bled c. 930 at the dram atic parts o f the old foundations and w alls w ere
site o f T hingvellir. The A lthing, only briefly in used, and the main entrance w as again put on
terrupted, m et there w itho ut perm anent shel the square. Sw edish granite w as used to finish
ter until greate r independence w as w on from the w alls at ground level, w hile the m ore eco
D enm ark by the constitution o f 1874. In 1881 nomical rose-tinted stucco w as used above. D e
the Parliam ent building w as built beside the tails w ere carried out in Sw edish lim estone.
lake in Reykjavik, according to M eldahl’s design A nderberg planned the building in the tra
(figure 7.21). It is like an Italian palazzo, seven ditional manner, w ith the axis o f auditorium
bays w ide and tw o stories high, w ith large and stage in line w ith the main entrance. A s it
round-headed w indo w s in both levels. The m a is now, there is a grand staircase beyond the
terial is the dark Icelandic basalt. The central vestibule, flan kin g staircases, and a richly deco
entrance, w ith its traditional balcony for official rated fo yer above the vestibule. Since this is a
appearances, leads to a central staircase w ith royal theater, there is a royal staircase on the
handsom e iron balusters. The legislative cham north side leading to a suite o f rooms including
bers are on the second level, w ith the larger the royal foyer, w hich has paintings by Prince
for the low er house on the north, overlooking Eugen. The royal box is here on stage left, just
Parliam ent Square. The sm aller cham ber is on before the proscenium . This departure from
the w est, and offices o ccupy the east end. A the m ore frequent location, as in the C open
recent addition on the south provides a sitting hagen theater, put the royal quarters on the
room for m em bers o f the assembly. side facing the Royal Palace. The auditorium is
A much less sober palazzo design was U-shaped, w ith three tiers o f boxes and
made for the contem porary N ational G allery in galleries.
O slo. A s early as 1836 the N orw egian Parlia A t the same tim e, the N ational T heater in
m ent had w anted a national art collection, and O slo w as being built from the designs o f H en
indeed Linstow had draw n up a proposal for rik Bull (figure 7 .2 4 ).33 In 1891 N orw ay w as
housing it. It w as not until 1879 th at a building still under the Sw edish King O scar II, and Bull
to house the sculpture collections w as finally undoubtedly knew the plans for the theater
begun by A d o lf Schirm er (figure 7 .2 2 ).31 The then under construction in Stockholm . The
original building w as designed as a palazzo, tw o main entrance is again a th ree-p art system , w ith
stories high, w ith a th ree-b ay central portion an arcade below and an Ionic tem ple-front
projecting sligh tly and an attic story finished above. A ltho ugh the original intention w as to
w ith guardian griffins. The fine tex tu re o f the face the building w ith stone, econom y dictated
brickw ork w as repeated in the additions o f the that gran ite could be used only for the ground
south w ing, 1905-1907, and the north w ing, level, w ith brick for the upper parts. On the
1918-1924, both by Ingvar M. O. Hjorth. interior Bull put the m ajor staircases on either
Sho rtly thereafter cam e a series o f national side o f the vestibule, and as in A n d erb erg’s
theaters give n much grander palatial expres Royal O pera the royal staircase, apartm ents,

24
and box are on stage left. The auditorium , 7.24 Oslo. National The
how ever, is horseshoe-shaped w ith tw o tiers o f ater. H. Bull. 1891—
galleries and boxes. The perform ing and service 1899.
areas w ere rebuilt in 1979-1985. 7.25 Stockholm. Royal Dra
The com bination o f stone and stucco or matic Theater. J. F. Lil
brick in these tw o theaters illustrates the d i jekvist. 1901-1908.
lem m a facing N ordic architects in the late nine
teenth century. A desire for “truth in
m aterials” led som e to assert th at native m ate
rials alone should be used for buildings o f na
tional significance, and stone w as heavily
favored. Problem s o f cost led to com prom ises
such as those just described. In O slo, in fact,
the first project for the N ational G allery in
1876 by H einrich Ernst Schirm er, father o f
A d o lf Schirm er, called for a stone façade. The

273 .
25
elder Schirm er resigned from the project w hen line.35 In the Scandinavian countries this style
his choice o f m aterial w as turned dow n. A n w as not universally adopted, but found som e
other problem w as that o f durability, since instances o f eloquent expression.36 For exam
som e stones proved not to w eather w ell: the ple, the Royal D ram atic T heater in Stockholm ,
lim estone o f the N ational M useum in Sto ck built in 1 901-1908 by Johan Fredrik Liljekvist,
holm very soon began to crum ble. Such prob is planned in the traditional m anner (figure
lems presented d ifficulties for those seeking to 7 .2 5 ).37 The façade, how ever, w hile perpetuat
settle on the use o f m aterials in order to d e ing the central elem ents th at w e have observed
velop a “national style .”34 on the earlier Scandinavian theaters, does not
A t the beginning o f the tw entieth century have the arcaded gallery in the second story. It
Scandinavian architects w ere explo ring ye t an depends for its effect on the enrichm ent o f the
other possibility fo r ornam ental vocabulary. m arble surfaces w ith sculpture by Carl M illes
Early identified as the “A rt N ouveau” or “Ju and A rt N ouveau m otifs. The same is true o f
ge n d stil,” its proponents w ere rejecting histori the N ational T heater in Bergen, 19 0 6 - 1909,
cal styles for a program o f original m otifs, designed by Einer O scar Schou (figure 7 .2 6 ).38
depending fo r their success on references to C learly o w in g much to the Stockholm theater
natural form s and flu id ity and sensitivity o f then being com pleted, Scho u’s com petition de-

sign proposed richer surfaces than w ere ac

tually built; but placed on a rise o f ground in a
park setting, the Bergen theater achieves a cer
tain grandeur.
Perhaps m ore than the other Scandinavian
countries, Finland seized upon the A rt N ou
veau, w ell represented in num erous houses and
apartm ent blocks. O ne o f the m ost interesting
nonresidential buildings is the Valtion (N ational)
Hotel at Im atra, built in 1903 by Usko N y
ström (figure 7 .2 7 ).39 The w hole setting is dra
matic, as it is placed on the go rge form ed by
the Vuoksi River, w here the steep rapids have
been lessened by a large pow er station built in
the 1920s. The view dow nw ard into the rocks
remains spectacular, and N yström ’s hotel w ith
its irregularly ju ttin g tow ers and asym m etrical
w indow openings suits its location adm irably. 26
O ne other m ajor source o f inspiration for
design in the late nineteenth century remains
to be considered, the rural N ordic traditions
that evoked even m ore nostalgia than the m e
dieval or the Renaissance and Baroque. A nota
ble exam ple for its use for a single d w elling is
the D unker V illa, designed for a w ealthy law yer 7.26 Bergen. National The
by H. E. Schirm er and built in 1848 or 1851 on ater. E. O. Schou.
M alm øya near O slo (figure 7.28).40 The illustra 1906-1909. (Oslo,
tion by D ietrichson and M unthe show s a com Riksantikvaren.)
pact w ooden building, tw o stories high, w ith a 7.27 Imatra. Valtion Hotel.
veranda on tw o sides and carved detail to give U. Nyström. 1903.
it a “N ordic” air. In N orw ay the inspiration is

thought to have com e not so much from trad i
tional N orw egian rural building as from G er
m any and A ustria, hence the popular
classification o f these buildings as “Swiss
Sty le .”41 A num ber o f small w ooden churches
w ere also built in N orw ay at this tim e.42
The restaurant becam e a place in addition
to the theater w here those w ho could afford it
could be seen and entertained in splendid sur
roundings. In the city a palatial approach m ight
be taken, as at B ern ’s Restaurant in Stockholm ,

275.
27

29

277.
7.28 Oslo. Dunker Villa.

H. E. Schirmer. 1848 or
1851. (Dietrichson and
Munthe, Holzbau-
ku n st, plate 12.)
7.29 Oslo. Frognerseteren.
H. Munthe. 1890. (Die
trichson and Munthe,
H olzbaukunst, plate
8.)
7.30 Dalen, Telemark. Ho
tel. H. L. Børve. 1894.
(Bergen, University
Library. Photo:
K. Knudsen.)
7.31 Stockholm. Nordic Mu
seum. I. G. Clason.
1892-1907.

built in 1862 by Johan Fredrik Å bom . Those w ith gray sandstone trim . The building is four
seeking enjoym ent in a m ore nostalgic setting stories high, decked out w ith the tow ers, g a
m ight dine at a restaurant built in th e “D ragon bles, pinnacles, and surface patterns characteris
Sty le ,” such as Frognerseteren, built by Holm tic o f the N orthern Renaissance. The main
M unthe in 1890 (figure 7 .29).43 The horizontal vestibule is dark, but the three main exhibition
log w alls and porches w ith open arcades w ere floors rise around a central open court that
further rom anticized by the Viking-inspired gives light. C irculation is through the galleries,
dragon heads at the roof peaks. w ith stairs in the entrance portion and in the
European efforts to provide hotels for the four corner tow ers. The court is the largest
safety, com fort, and pleasure o f travelers form interior space am ong the Scandinavian museums
a w hole study in them selves.44 M any grand o f this period, and its effect is to unite, not
buildings in Renaissance or Baroque style w ere separate, the exhibition w ings.
constructed in the late nineteenth century, Up to this point w e have taken the use o f
som e in connection w ith railw ay stations. But iron in building construction m ore or less for
there was also a gro w in g desire to enjoy a re granted. In the early years o f the nineteenth
sort hotel vacation, for w hich a ram bling century a num ber o f th eater roofs had been
w ooden structure adorned in the D ragon Style built w ith iron, largely in hopes o f preventing
was an appealing solution. O ne o f the m ost fa tragic fires, and later som e o f the great interna
mous exam ples w as the Dalen Hotel in T ele tional exposition buildings w ere to display its
mark, built in 1894 by H aldor Larsen Børve potential in design. Train sheds w ere also ideal
(figure 7 .3 0 ) 45 Verandas and open porches w ith subjects for iron roofs. W ith these w e com e
steeply pitched gables m ade for an informal airy closer to industrial buildings than to “p o lite”
appearance. architecture, and to the philosophical rift be
The N ordic M useum in Stockholm m ight tw een “arch itectu re” and “en gin e erin g.”47
properly be included in discussions o f buildings A no ther appropriate use o f iron w as in
in the Renaissance/Baroque manner. It w as, facto ry construction 48 In spite o f ideological
how ever, founded in 1872 by A rtur H azelius, problem s, factories have engaged the attention
the founder o f Skansen, and is devoted to the o f Scandinavian architects for nearly 150 years.
life o f the Sw edish people. Further, the aspect The English tex tile industry had led the w ay in
o f the Renaissance chosen w as not that o f the facto ry design for a century w hen N orw egian
palaces o f Italy and France but rather the N eth m anufacturers began such com plexes as d evel
erlandish style o f the early seventeenth century, oped at A kerselva in the 1840s (figure 7.32).49
a less form al and stately approach. C om petition The plain blocklike buildings o f tw o to four
for the design began in 1883 and w as finally stories rose in contrast to the tum bling w aters
w on by Isak G ustaf Clason, under w hom the o f the stream s needed for th eir w ater power,
museum w as built from 1892 to 1907 (figure establishing a new aspect o f the urban land
7.31) 46 A much larger establishm ent w as in scape. Because o f its fire-resistant and load
tended, w ith four w ings around a courtyard and bearing advantages, iron cam e to be used for
corner tow ers to resem ble a castle, but the som e o f the beam s and pillars o f construction,
w estern main hall portion w as the only part and also fo r w indo w fram es and bars. Histori-
built. Brick w as o riginally proposed for the e x cism w as pro m ptly felt, as show n by C. H.
terior, but this w as changed to red sandstone G rosch’s design for the canvas facto ry in O slo

279 .
7.32 Akerselva, Akershus.

Textile factories. Be
gun 1835. Lithograph,
1857. (Oslo, City
Museum.)
7.33 Oslo. Canvas factory.
C. H. Grosch. 1856. Xy
lograph, c. 1860. (Oslo,
City Museum.)
7.34 Copenhagen. Carlsberg
Brewery. H. C. Stilling.
1847.
32
33

in 1856, w ith its echo o f Lom bard Rom anesque dow s at the ground level on either side, and
pilaster strips and corbel tables (figure 7.3 3 ).50 end bays w ith narrow closely spaced w indow s
In D enm ark tw o im portant industries w ere in all four stories. The building w as dem olished
develo ping and needed factories. For J. C. Ja in 1976, but it show s how an industrial building
cobsen’s brew ery in C openhagen, built 1847, could be elo quent in appearance, even in the
his ow n draw ing w as the basis for the buildings early years o f industrial architectural design.
by Harald C. Stillin g. T w o and three stories The other industry then develo ping in
high, w ith attic vents, its long w alls w ere re D enm ark w as the m aking o f glass. A fte r 1814
lieved by panels fram ing the w indo w bays (fig D enm ark, w hose glass had been made in N or
ure 7.34).51 A no ther brew ery, M arstrands way, sought her ow n m eans o f production in
M altm ølle (later K ongens Bryghus), w as built in order to avoid paying heavy duties on im ports.
1865, this tim e from draw ings by H enning A source o f fuel w as found in the peat bogs at
W olff (figure 7 .35 ).52 T his w as given even H olm e-O lstrup on Z ealand, and a glassw orks
greate r expression, w ith a broad arched door w as begun in 1825. The oldest rem aining build
in the central bay, four bays w ith arched w in ing, from 1874, w as give n none o f the stylistic

281 .
7.35 Copenhagen. Mar vocabulary o f the tw o brew eries: not all m anu
strands Maltmølle. facturing establishm ents in nineteenth-century
H. Wolff. 1865. (Copen Scandinavia w ere architect-designed (figure
hagen, Academy of Art 7.3 6 ).53
Library.) The 1890s brought the first o f the three
7.36 Holme-Olstrup, Zea great Scandinavian tow n halls that are as much
land. Glassworks. national as civic structures. Rapid gro w th o f the
1874. (Copenhagen,
population in C openhagen had rendered C. F.
Academy of Art Li
H ansen’s Råd-og-dom hus too sm all, and o f
brary. Photo: Jørgen
course its serene classicism w as no longer in
Sestoft.)
fashion. In 1852 the m ilitary authorities had
abandoned the old ram parts, leaving the w ay
open for th eir dem olition and new uses for the
land, badly needed because o f overcro w ding in
the old city. The resulting rapid expansion be-

37
yond the ram parts and m oats w as controversial

and disorderly, w ith som e park areas created
but also w ith som e poor-quality new tenem ent
housing. The old H alm torv, or straw m arket,
had lain inside V esterport, the w est gate
through the ram parts, and here w as found the
site for a new Tow n H all.54 The T ivoli Gardens
had been laid out in 1843, and J. D. H erholdt’s
C entral Railw ay Station had been built in 1863—
I8 6 4 .55 The new Tow n Hall w ould therefore
be placed betw een the busiest centers o f the
old city and its m ajor railw ay.
A fte r com petitions, M artin N yrop was
chosen to be the architect. W ork w as begun
prom ptly, and the building w as com pleted in
1905 (figure 7 .3 7 ).56 Built o f red brick, the
main block facing the Tow n Hall Square rises in

283 .
three stories above a basem ent and is finished

w ith an attic story and battlem ented roof. The
main entrance is not em phasized by a project
ing bay or portico, but is a broad arched open 7.37 Copenhagen. Town
ing, above w hich is a statue o f Bishop Absalon, Hall. M. Nyrop. 1892
founder o f C openhagen. The resem blance to 190S. (Janies A.

Donnelly.)
the Tow n Hall o f Siena is heightened by the
7.38 Copenhagen. Town
brick to w er rising 326 feet on the northeast
Hall. Plan. (Hansen,
corner o f the main block. The full plan involves
M artin N yrop, p. 39.)
tw o inner courts, one roofed and the other
7.39 Copenhagen. Town
open to the sky (figure 7.38). The main en
Hall. Assembly Hall.
trance leads through a vaulted vestibule to the
(Copenhagen, Academy
A ssem bly Hall, w hich is roofed but otherw ise
of Art Library.)
resem bles the inner court o f an Italian palazzo
(figure 7.39). The cross w ing on the east
houses the Council C ham ber in the second
story. The Banqueting Hall, much like a Riddar-
sal, is also on the second floor, occupying the
nine central bays o f the front w ing. Reception
rooms are reached by corridors surrounding
39

suffered d isfigurem ent and em barrassm ent. Fire

broke out in the south w in g o f C. F. H ansen’s
C hristiansborg on O ctober 3, 1884, and by the
next day the main building w as in ruins. H eroic
tiansborg III.
efforts saved the art collections and prevented
T. Jørgensen. 1907
the destruction o f the Riding School, the
1928.
Chapel, and T horvaldsen’s M useum. N ot only
w ere the royal State Rooms gone, but so w ere
tiansborg III. Portal.
the cham bers for Parliam ent and the Suprem e
C ourt. The constitution o f 1848 established the
the A ssem bly Hall, and the offices in the east, Landsting, nom inated by the king, and the Folk
south, and w e st w ings o f the second part o f eting, elected by the people. If the palace was
the building surround the open court. The plan to be reconstructed, therefore, a great m any
therefore is sim ilar to th at o f a great palace, people instead o f just the king w ould be decid
w ith its state spaces, corridors, grand staircase, ing how it w as to be rebuilt and by w hom .
and service rooms. T w enty years, ten legislative bills, and sixty-
N yrop did not restrict his use o f historic three proposals later, the choice fell on T hor
m aterials to im itations o f Italian palaces. In the vald Jørgensen in 1906, and the new building
details o f w oo dw o rk, mosaics, and fresco deco w as more or less com plete by 1928 (figure
rations there are num erous references to trad i 7.4 0 ).59
tional Danish m otifs, such as the patterns from The foundations o f the previous building
Bronze A ge lurs used on lighting fixtures. determ ined the plan, w ith the State Rooms, in
Paintings and sculptures thro ugho ut the building cluding D ining Room and G reat Hall on the
refer to all o f D enm ark, not just to C open north o f the first floor, the Throne Room in
hagen. The w ho le w o rk celebrated Danish life the center o f the east w in g overlooking the
and culture and w as com pleted by a great many Palace Square, and the legislative cham bers in
o f her finest craftsm en.57 the south w ing. A s the new building w ent up,
N yrop’s interest in D enm ark’s heritage in m any details w ere changed from the original
the arts and crafts w as not an isolated phenom plans so th at it becam e a Baroque palace, as
enon. His brother C am ille w as a trades histo exem plified by the main east portal and balcony
rian w ho had participated in early proposals for from w hich the Danish monarchs are pro
a Danish m useum o f decorative arts, w hich w as claim ed (figure 7 .4 1). Jørgensen too k advantage
finally accom plished in I8 8 5 .58 This w as not the o f the new availability o f reinforced concrete
first such undertaking in the Scandinavian coun for the ro o f and the 342-foot to w er and spire.
tries and w as largely inspired by the N ordic He also had much o f the low er portions faced
Museum in Stockholm . Schools and associations w ith granite, m ore durable than the plaster
for the enco uragem ent o f native handicrafts had covering o f the earlier palace. The old Slots
already been founded as early as the 1840s in holm o f Bishop A bsalon’s tim e had now grow n
response to w hat w ere view ed as threats to to an elaborate cerem onial and adm inistrative
quality from m ass-produced industrial designs. com plex, still held som ew hat alo of from the
W hile all this w o rk for a new Tow n Hall com m ercial and residential parts o f the city by
w as m oving forw ard, elsew here C openhagen the surrounding canal.

40
41

The academ ic Baroque w as clearly not yet

dead in Scandinavia, nor w as N ational R om anti
cism. A new Tow n Hall w as built for Sto ck
holm in 1 9 0 9-1923 by Ragnar Ö stberg (figures
7.42 and 7.4 3 ).60 A fte r ten years o f discussions
and com petitions it was placed to com m and
the w aters o f Lake M älar across from the Old
Tow n. Like the Tow n Hall in C openhagen it is
com posed o f traditional elem ents. The Sto ck
holm building is brick w ith obvious references
to Italian palazzo designs, an open and a co v
ered courtyard, and a high to w er placed in one
corner, but there the resem blances stop.
The Tow n Hall is entered at the northeast
corner through an archw ay that leads into the
open courtyard, but this entrance is not a cen
42 tral focal point as is the entrance to the Tow n

Hall in C openhagen. Ö stberg had a different
concept for the most im portant aspect o f the
building: “The m ain façade o f the Tow n Hall,
7.42 Stockholm. Town Hall. w hich faces east, and tow ards the old city, had
R. Östberg. 1909— been treated d ifferen tly from the other façades,
1923. (Stockholm, City and is on a m onum ental scale. It is intended to
Museum.) represent the governm ent o f the C ity from the
7.43 Stockholm. Town Hall. M iddle A ges dow n to the present day. . . . The
Plan. (Stockholm, City main façade, w ith its en tirely vertical articula
Museum.)
tion and its row o f high w indow s, is the ex ter
7.44 Stockholm. Town Hall.
nal facing o f the Council C ham ber (the big hall
Blue Hall. (Stockholm,
w here the M unicipal Council m eets), which
City Museum.)
corresponds to it in height and breadth.”61
From the north entrance one looks across
the courtyard to arcades that open out to a
terraced garden beside the w ater. A broad
fligh t o f stairs, su ggestin g use by large num bers
o f people, leads up to a vestibule through the
center w ing. This in turn leads to the large en
closed courtyard, called the “Blue H all,” w hich
is palatial w ith its m arble flo or and red tile
w alls. The name com es from the original inten
tion to have the brick stuccoed in blue. W hen
built, how ever, the hall w as so effective in
color w ith the w alls o f m achine-m ade brick

287 .
43

C openhagen Tow n Hall w as under construc

tion, in 1896, three architecture students at the
T echnological Institute in H elsinki form ed a
partnership: Herm an G esellius, Arm as Lindgren,
Eliel Saarinen.64
Three years later th ey w on the co m peti
tion for the Finnish Pavilion at the Paris Exposi
tion o f 1900. W ith their prize m oney th ey built
the studio -dw elling com plex at H vitträsk, a
rugged lakeside site w est o f Helsinki, beginning
in 1901 (figure 7 .45).65 As one approaches from
H elsinki, the buildings are concealed by trees
bordering level farm land. It is not until one has
entered the co m plex and explored the e x te
that the plan was changed to hand-chiseling the rior and garden that the precipitous character
bricks to give a rougher texture (figure 7 .44).62 o f the planning becom es apparent. The w ooded
The staircase is grandly cerem onial although w est side o f the site falls steeply to the lake
not placed sym m etrically. It leads up to a bal below, and the dw elling rises from the rocky
cony overlooking the Blue Hall and to the en hillside as if it w ere a m iniature fortress. The
trance to the m ajor parts o f the eastern com bination o f stone, w ood, and the steep
portion o f the building. The principal adm inis roofs gives the original building a nostalgic ap
trative offices are on the north side, and the pearance that is not borne out by the plan (fig
Council C ham ber on the east. The long recep ure 7.46). The living room and sitting room are
tion room, w ith paintings by Prince Eugen, is dark and cavelike, the bedcham bers lighter and
on the south, its tall w indow s affording view s arranged seem ingly at random , and the long
o f the city across the lake. The largest room is light studio seem s in great contrast. The visitor,
the G reat Hall, or the “G olden H all,” in the for H vitträsk is now a m useum , experiences
central w ing, covered w ith gilded mosaics d e
picting the history o f Stockholm . The sum p
tuous furnishings and decorations throughout
are the w o rk o f m any craftm en, so that Sto ck
holm ’s Tow n Hall is a national as w ell as a civic
m onum ent. For Ö stberg a vital part o f the
w hole enterprise w as the placing o f the studios
and w orkshops for architects, sculptors, tex tile
designers, m etalw orkers, etc., on the prem ises
as the building w as under construction, thereby
facilitating continual review o f w orks in the lo
cations for w hich th ey w ere being prepared.63
This was also a tim e w hen som e Scandina
vian architects w ere taking the ideas o f N a
tional Rom anticism a step further. W hile the

289 .
narrow corridors and constant changes in d i

rection and level. T here is also a w ealth o f fu r
nishings designed by A kseli G allen-K allela and
others associated w ith the three architects.
H aving caught public attention w ith the
Paris pavilion in 1900, the architects also w on a
com petition for the N ational M useum in H el
sinki, built 1 905-1912 (figure 7.4 7 ).66 Plans for
such a museum w ere begun in the 1880s, the
first site chosen being on a hill near the O bser
vatory, w here a standard neo -Renaissance m u
seum building w as proposed. A fte r several
years o f discussion, the present site was se
lected and a new architectural com petition
opened in March 1901. The w inning design re
flected new thinking about museum planning
and contem porary desire for strong expres
sions o f Finnish national character. Significantly,
tw o leaders o f N ational Rom anticism in other
Scandinavian countries w ere on the jury, Isak
G ustaf Clason o f Sw eden and M artin N yrop o f
D enm ark.
The museum consists o f tw o irregular,
nearly square buildings, each w ith an interior
courtyard, linked by the large square entrance
hall. Around one courtyard are the w ings for
the several collections, w ith the offices in the
other. The exterio r reflects but does not im i
tate the historic architecture o f Finland. The
7.45 Hvitträsk. Studio main entrance, on the south side, is through
dwelling. H. Gesellíus, the base o f the tall churchlike tow er. The south
A. Lindgren, and w ing, housing the collections o f religious antiq
E. Saarinen. Begun uities, has a paneled gab le like that o f a church.
1901. The w ings projecting east and w est recall Re
7.46 Hvitträsk. Studio naissance castles, w ith the great round tow er
dwelling. Plan. (After sim ilar to those o f O lavlinna. Square rubble m a
Richards, 800 Years, p. sonry and brick w ere chosen as characteristic
119.) Finnish m aterials fo r the exterior.
On the interior the entrance hall is dom i
nated by the four heavy colum ns supporting the
ceiling, o riginally closed but now w ith a small
dom ed opening. A kseli G allen-K allela repeated

7.47 Helsinki. National Mu

seum. H. Gesellius,
A. Lindgren, and E.
Saarinen. 1905-1912.
7.48 Helsinki. Railway Sta
tion. E. Saarinen.
1910-1920.

291 .
here the striking paintings o f subjects from the flanked by tw o pairs o f sculptured figures
Kalevala that he had done for the Paris pavilion. carrying lights. The tw o side halls for ticket
Throughout, the decorative m otifs are designed rooms and restaurant as w ell as the main hall
in the stylization o f the A rt N ouveau. are roofed w ith vaults in reinforced concrete,
W hen in 1904 it cam e tim e to build the an innovation for a m ajor public building in Fin
Railw ay Station in H elsinki, the com petition land. The broad w indow s in tw o stories are
was w on by Gesellius, Lindgren, and Saarinen. separated by narrow granite w alls running the
Lindgren left the partnership in 1905, however, full height o f the building w ith a unifying effect.
follow ed by G esellius in 1907. A s built from Specific use o f traditional Finnish detail w as
1910 to 1920, the building is the w o rk o f Saari dim inished, but the design w as still too much in
nen alone (figure 7.4 8 ).67 As a term inal building the spirit o f N ational Rom anticism for one o f
its halls are perpendicular to the tracks, w ith the losers o f the com petition, Sigurd Frosterus.
the service facilities on either side o f the Stro ngly influenced by the w o rk o f H enry van
tracks. It fronts on Kaivokatu on the northern de V elde in H olland, he had becom e a rational
side o f the business district, but there is no av ist in his approach to planning and the use o f
enue leading d irectly tow ard it. C onsequently the new m aterials that industrial technology
the oblique view s obtained from m ost ap w as m aking available. A fte r losing the Railw ay
proaches to geth er w ith the tall eastern clock Station com m ission, Frosterus, to geth er w ith
tow er suggest that the building is more asym like-m inded architect, G ustav Strengell, w rote a
metrical than it is. pam phlet bitterly denouncing the N ational Ro
The projecting vestibule has a huge arched m antics and calling for w hat he believed to be a
w indow above the actual entrances and is more “honest” architecture.68

49
7.49 Helsinki. National The A com bination o f N ational Rom antic use
ater. O. Tarjanne. o f Finnish granite and reference to the style o f
1902. the A m erican architect H. H. Richardson is evi
7.50 Turku. St. Michael’s dent in the N ational T heater in Helsinki by
Church. L. Sonck. O nni Tarjanne, 1902 (figure 7 .49).69 Like the
1894-1904. (Helsinki, theaters in C openhagen, Stockholm , and Oslo
Museum off Finnish Ar already noted, the theater in H elsinki is in the
chitecture. Photo: tradition o f a sym m etrical façade w ith triple en
A. Salokorpi.) trance on the ground level and an arcaded bal
cony above. The tw in tow ers o f the façade give
an alm ost fortresslike appearance. The Baroque
o f the earlier Scandinavian theaters is replaced
by a Rom anesque schem e, w ith w alls o f granite
and arcading in the m edieval Finnish manner.
C arvings on the capitals o f the piers m ay show
influence o f Richardsonian designs, appearing by
then in English and C ontinental publications.
H aving begun this chapter w ith m edieval
m otifs used for the C openhagen University, w e

293 .
may close it w ith the w o rk o f a Finnish archi

tect w ho used m edieval principles in a different
manner, Lars Sonck.70 He w as born on the
w estern coast o f Finland and w hen later living
in the Åland Islands attended the Polytechnical
Institute in Helsinki. He knew the stone and
brick m edieval churches o f Sw edish Finland and
later saw the Karelian farm houses o f eastern
Finland. D raw ing upon these traditions, he d e
veloped a strong and distinctive personal style
for his churches, public buildings, and villas.
Sonck w as still a student in 1893 w hen a
com petition w as announced for a major new
church in Turku. His entry w on first prize in
May 1894, and the church, St. M ichael’s, w as
com pleted by the end o f 1904 (figure 7 .50).71 It
is basilical in plan, w ith a high square to w er on
the south side o f the w est façade and low er
round tow ers flanking the polygonal apse.
Sonck was clearly indebted to the brick G othic
churches o f north Germ any, w hich he saw dur
ing his travels. A large round w indow fills the
w est façade above the triple-arched portal. A t
first glance these portal openings appear to be
conventional neo-G othic arches. But Sonck
here introduced a m o tif th at w as to character
ize m any o f his designs: a stilted triangle, w ith
so
sides only sligh tly curved if at all, w hich gives
the effect o f an arch w itho ut being one.
On the interior the nave is covered by
dom ical vaults in the G erm an manner, w hile the
aisles are separated from the nave by short
m assive colum ns on the first level, repeated at
the gallery level. The colum ns are w idely
spaced and the openings into the aisles low,
givin g the aisles a cavelike quality.
Then in 1899, w hile St. M ichael’s w as un
der construction, a com petition w as announced
for a church to be built in a new ly planned e x
tension o f T am pere. Sonck w on this, calling his
entry “A e te rnitas.” W hen his plans w ere ap
proved in 1902, the church w as named St.

Jo h n ’s, and it becam e the Cathedral o f Tam pere

in 1923 (figure 7 .5 1).72 Sonck had earlier made
sketches for a “country church,” apparently in
spired by the draw ings o f Protestant churches 7.5 I Tampere. Cathedral.
in England and A m erica by K. E. O. Fritsch.73 L. Sonck. 1902-1907.
From these m ay have com e the broad m assive (Helsinki, Museum of
body o f the church w ith its m ajor to w er placed Finnish Architecture.
at the northw est corner. The English and Photo: Iffland.)
A m erican churches w ere built w ith round

headed or pointed arches, w hereas Sonck used
his distinctive triangular “arch” at Tam pere. For
the exterio r he used rubble granite in tones o f
red and gray to provide an appropriately Fin
nish m aterial. In plan the church is basically
square, w ith a central nave rising to a high and
broad ribbed vault. G alleries on three sides are
carried on heavy colum ns sim ilar to those o f St.
M ichael’s. Paintings, carvings, and furnishings are
the w o rk o f several Finnish artists.
W hile St. Jo h n ’s in T am pere w as nearing
com pletion, Sonck successfully entered the
com petition for a church to be built in the Kal
lio suburb o f H elsinki. Superbly sited at the
high end o f U nionkatu, it w as built in 1909—
19 12 o f granite, but now w ith axial sym m etry
and a far m ore restrained surface (figure
7.52).74 On the interior the G othic vaults o f
the earlier churches give w ay to a high sem icir
cular barrel vault, the arcades o f the gallery are
broad, and the light beige color o f the interior
is d elicately ornam ented w ith stenciled designs.
The clim ax o f this m ove tow ard clarity in
So nck’s w o rk cam e w ith the M ikael A grico la
Church in H elsinki, w hich w e shall consider in
the next chapter.
Sonck designed villas in the Karelian style
and engaged in som e city planning projects. He
also designed som e office buildings, in w hich
changes in his style can be clearly seen.
The Telephone Building in H elsinki, 1901
1905, like St. Jo h n ’s has an asym m etrical façade,
the four strong levels o f the main building set

295
SI

o ff by the left, or north, tow er, sim ilar to those

o f T arjanne’s N ational T heater (figure 7 .5 3).75
The granite o f the T elephone Building is bolder
than that o f the theater, w ith large rough-hew n
stones that Sonck chose to be in varying colors.
He used his characteristic “arch” for the open
ings o f the second level and an oculus for the
fourth level o f the south projection, the rest o f
the w indow s having lintels or shallow arches.
The sense o f this façade is Rom anesque, but in
a highly personal manner.
For the Finnish M ortgage Society in 1908
Sonck again provided a granite façade, but this
tim e he chose a sym m etrical schem e that
echoes the façade o f the N ational T heater.76
The w ide blocks o f the triple-arched entrance
are sm ooth, and the tw o -story colonnade
above suggests Egyptian rather than Rom an
esque prototypes. The flanking sections on e i
ther side are also o f sm ooth-cut granite, the
irregularity o f the ashlar the only suggestion o f
m edieval quality.
Still m ore austere on the surface and al
m ost like an organ façade w ith its colum ns is
the Stock Exchange in H elsinki that Sonck built
in 19 1 1,77 Perhaps the central colum ned por
52 tion w as intended to establish the building as a
tem ple o f com m erce. It is rather a pity that
these three buildings, like the Railw ay Station,
are so placed that their full im pact as urban façade
s is difficult to appreciate fully. For the in
terior o f the Sto ck Exchange Sonck designed a
court rising through four stories, served by
staircases and balconies (figure 7.54). Here is
the palazzo once more, but w itho ut the histori-
cizing m otifs o f the reception hall in the Tow n
Hall in C openhagen. Even m ore than on the
exterior, the broad surfaces and sharply defined
openings w ere prophetic o f w hat w as to come.
A notable building, and a w o rth y successor to
the exchanges in C openhagen o f 1619, Sto ck
holm o f 1767, and O slo o f 1826.

297.
7.52 Helsinki. Kallio

Church. L. Sonck.
1909—1912.
7.53 Helsinki. Telephone
Building. L. Sonck.
1905. (Helsinki, Mu
seum of Finnish Archi
tecture. Photo:
H. Havas.)
7.54 Helsinki. Stock Ex
change. L. Sonck. 1911.
Interior. (Helsinki, Mu
seum of Finnish Archi
tecture. Photo:
H. Havas.)
54

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

8 Scandinavian Architecture since World War I
Three years after Lars Sonck designed the

Stock Exchange in H elsinki, W orld W ar I broke
out in Ju ly 1914. For the next four years until
the A rm istice w as signed in N ovem ber 1918,
the Scandinavian countries m anaged to stay out
o f d irect m ilitary conflict. D enm ark, N orway,
and Sw eden w ere, how ever, profoundly af
fected, to som e ex ten t w ith prosperity through
the production o f w ar m aterials, but increas
ingly w ith difficu lty in food and supplies. In the
w ake o f revolution in Russia, Finland declared
independence in D ecem ber 1917, and in D e
cem ber 1918 Iceland becam e an independent
state under the Danish crow n, com plete inde
pendence not com ing until 19 4 4 .1
The tensions and unrest that culm inated in
the w ar w ere not unlike the unrest w e have
observed in Scandinavian architecture during
the fifteen or tw e n ty years before 1914. A ca
dem ic H istoricism , N ational Rom anticism , the
A rt N ouveau, and International Rationalism all
had th eir advocates and exem plars, but in the
political and social w orld o f the early tw entieth
century there w as no absolute standard o f
taste. A fte r the war, architects w ere still seek-

Architecture since World War I
ing appropriate expressions o f contem porary

life in their buildings, and w e m ay consider
three m ajor directions taken: some continuing
sentim ents o f N ational Rom anticism , a second
N eoclassical interlude, and the increasing lead
ership o f International Functionalism . By the
outbreak o f W orld W ar II much o f significance
had been built.
The gro w in g desire for buildings free o f
direct historical references had its effect on
those architects w ho still w ere using som e tra
ditional form s. Three churches built betw een
the tw o w orld w ars show how these form s
could still be regarded as appropriate for indi
vidual projects if used in innovative rather than
m erely im itative ways. Perhaps the m ost aston
ishing o f these is the G rundtvig Church in C o
penhagen, built in 1 920-1940 from the designs
o f P. V. Jen sen -K lin t (figure 8 . 1).2 Bishop N iko
laj F. S. G rundtvig (1 7 8 3 -1 8 7 2 ) w as a poet and
educational leader, founder o f the Folk High
Schools. The church w as built as a m em orial to
him w ith funds raised by national subscription.
The façade has a broad paneled and stepped g a
ble covering three entrances, then a high w all
w ith oculus and a paneled and stepped screen
gable, alm ost like an organ façade. Sim ilar g a
I
bles are used o ver the side bays, as at St. P e
te r’s Church in M alm ö or the Cathedral in
Å rhus. The apse, how ever, w as designed w ith
heavy buttresses such as those that by that
tim e had been applied to Ø sterlars Church on
Bornholm . This is all carried out in yello w
brick, and the church w as m ade to loom up
over the nearby houses, also designed by Jen -
sen-K lint, as if in a village. The interior is a d i
rect reference to high G othic churches, such as
St. Knud’s C hurch in O dense. A gain finely
crafted ye llo w brick w as used, but even full
sunlight does not com pensate for the chilling
effect o f the unarticulated shafts o f the piers
and the built-in brick furniture.

301 .
W hile the G rundtvig Church w as under

construction, Lars Sonck designed tw o churches
that reveal a turn tow ard Functionalism but still
retain close ties to tradition. His fam ily had 8 .1 Copenhagen. Grundt-
m oved to the Å land Islands w hen he w as a vig’s Church. P. V. Jen-

sen-Klint. 1920-1940.
young boy, and he had built a villa in the style
o f a Karelian farm house at Finström . A lthough
Museum.)
settled from Sw eden, the islands had been
8.2 Mariehamn, Åland Is
ceded to Finland in 1809, and this w as upheld
lands. Church. L. Sonck.
by the League o f N ations in 1921. In that year
1927-1929.
the islands w ere granted self-go vernm ent under
8.3 Helsinki. Mikael Agri
the so vereignty o f Finland, w ith th eir ow n Leg
cola Church. L. Sonck.
islative A ssem bly and a representative to the
1933-1935. (Helsinki,
Parliam ent in Helsinki. The capital, M arieham n,
Museum of Finnish Ar
had been founded by C zar A lexander II in
chitecture. Photo:
1861, and w hen in 1921 it becam e appropriate
Saurén.)
to build a new church there, Sonck provided
the draw ings. The church, built in 1927-1929,
is basilical in plan, w ith north and south

porches, a shallow east apse, and a spire rising

above the roof o f the w estern vestibule (figure
8 .2 ).3 It is built o f red brick on a granite foun
dation, w ith broad plain surfaces co m pletely d if
8.4 Copenhagen, Bellahoj.
ferent from the Rom anesque form ulas o f
Bakkehusene. T. Hen-
Tam pere C athedral. The interior is divided into
ningsen and I. Bentsen.
nave and aisles by heavy piers and is covered
1922.
8.5 Svinninge, Zealand. w ith a painted w ooden roof. A tellin g detail is
Power station. I. Bent- the shape o f the arch into the w estern bay,
sen. 1913. (Copenhagen, w hich appears to im itate that o f St. M ikael’s
Academy of Art Church at Finström , w hich Sonck knew w ell.
Library.) This is more curved than the “arch” that Sonck

had used at St. M ichael’s in Turku, and w e may
ask w hether it w as this m edieval form that
Sonck had m odified in the earlier church. In the
church at M arieham n, Sonck gave his beloved
Aland Islands a church o f considerable dignity as

303 .
w ell as a continuation o f th eir strong traditions. broad tree-lined esplanade, givin g the effect o f
Then in 1932 Sonck w on the com petition a small tow n.
for the Mikael A grico la Church in H elsinki, Functionalism w as not yet universally
built in 1933-1935 (figure 8 .3 ).4 The exam ple seized upon as the m ost appropriate architec
o f G rund tvig’s Church in C openhagen m ay have tural expression o f tw en tieth -cen tu ry society
inspired this building, w hich w as also con and technology. For a brief period, from about
structed in honor o f an early national religious 1910 to 1930, architects in the Scandinavian
and intellectual leader. Bishop M ikael A grico la countries reexam ined the principles o f classical
(c. 1510-1557) had been responsible for the antiquity in search o f form ulas for clarity and
first books published in Finnish, an A B C book, a m onum entality o f design. T hat this search was
prayer book, and the N ew T estam ent. The sin not confined to the draw ing boards but was
gle tow er, nave, and sanctuary are clear shapes also a m atter o f lively theoretical discussion is
in unadorned red brick, the only accent being attested by num erous articles in contem porary
the m etal belfry and spire.5 The sim plicity o f Scandinavian architectural periodicals. The o ut
the exterio r is balanced by the grandeur o f the com e w as a gro up o f buildings that has been
interior, w ith cylindrical piers carrying the soar designated as “N ordic C lassicism ” and that fifty
ing parabolic arches o f the nave. W hile the years later has been the subject o f fresh
painted ornam ent o f the capitals has an ancient appraisal.7
M editerranean flavor, the paintings on the ceil The lead seem s to have been taken in
ings o f the aisles are biblical, after the m anner D enm ark w ith Carl Petersen’s Fåborg Museum
o f m edieval Finnish painting. Structural refer o f 1912 - 1 9 15.8 Its unassum ing exterio r belies
ences to m edieval building details are sm oothed the variation o f the succession o f brightly co l
dow n here in So n ck’s response to Functional ored rooms behind it. Ex p licit classical refer
ism. The result is less rom antic than in the M ar ences are in the coffered ceilings o f the
iehamn church, and perhaps this is more vestibule and the octagonal hall and the Ionic
suitable in the m ore form al urban situation. colum ns o f the entrance to the latter. O ther
V illage traditions also found some expres w ise Petersen w as much concerned that the
sion in contem porary housing, notably at Bak
kehusene, Bellahøj, in C openhagen, built by
Thorkind H enningsen and Ivar Bentsen in 1922
(figure 8.4).6 The principle o f such row or te r
race houses w as not new, as w e have seen at
N yboder in C openhagen and the houses in
M øgeltønder. H enningsen and Bentsen reintro
duced the principle for m odern urban d w ellings
in these sto ry-and-a-half houses o f yello w
stone, set back from the streets w ith small
front gardens and larger private gardens at the
back. The high w ide roofs w ith ridges parallel
to the streets unify the individual houses and
help in the appearance o f nostalgic com fort.
The tw o sets o f row s are on either side o f a

Surfaces w ere also reduced for the Police

H eadquarters in C openhagen, begun by H ack
Kam pm ann in 19 1 8 .12 Kam pm ann w as collabo
rating w ith his sons C hristian and Hans Jø rge n
and w ith A age Rafn. Rafn becam e the leading
m em ber o f the group, especially after H ack
K am pm ann’s death, w hen H olger Jacobsen and
A nton Frederiksen joined the project. T he ir
regular site resulted in a nearly triangular plan,
w ith a portico on the shortest side and long
narrow w ings enclosing courtyards and cross
w ings (figure 8.6). The purpose o f the building
w as to provide a new police facility, since C. F.
H ansen’s d etention part o f the Råd-og-dom hus
o f 1 805-1815 w as now inadequate. The plan of
6
the latter, how ever, the vestibule w ith D oric
colum ns and the courtroom on the sam e axis
term inating in the m agistrate’s niche, m ay have
had som ething to do w ith the plan o f the Po
geom etrical aspects o f the building should pre lice H eadquarters. U rged by A age Rafn, Hack
sent a clear, rational im age. In a fam ous essay in Kam pm ann planned his building w ith a large cir
1920 he said, “A facto r o f the utm ost im por cular courtyard fillin g the south section and
tance in architecture is proportioning. . . . To three courts on the north. W hile the courts o f
achieve m onum entality, it is alw ays best that the Kam pm ann building are open to the sky,
the elem ents w hich establish the scale for the there is an axis from the portico across the
w hole are o f sufficient size in them selves.”9 large circular court to a sm aller court that also
A ltho ugh it is not dom inant in Petersen’s term inates in an apse. T he circular court is
pioneering m useum , the colum nar support is nearly as large as the Pantheon in Rom e, and is
essential to w hat D em etri Porphyrios has called surrounded by a colonnade o f coupled D oric
“Scandinavian D oricism .” 10 For the buildings o f colum ns based on C. F. H ansen’s colum ns for
the pow er station at Svinninge on Zealand in C hristiansborg. The austere exterio r has little
1913, Ivar Bentsen used the echo o f the co l to relieve its plain w alls ex cep t for the strin g
umn, the pilaster, in a very individual m anner courses m arking the ground and upperm ost
(figure 8 .5 ).11 He turned the narrow brick w alls stories. T he façad e, w ith a seven-arched portico
betw een the w ide w indow s into pilaster strips and sim ple w indo w s above, m ay contain an
that articulate the low er w alls and are contin other Roman reference, for it recalls the Tabu
ued into the attic levels or gables in defiance o f larium (figure 8.7). The ex terio r is fortresslike
the integrity o f the classical pedim ent. A voiding and forbidding, and if the courtyards w ere to
surface ornam ent, but using the standard base- provide grace and sensitivity o f proportions,
shaft-capital system o f the norm al pilaster, B en these w ould not be evident in the open land
tsen d ignified this industrial building w ith som e scape o f the city.
thing o f a tem ple front.

305 .
A d istinctive early project in Sw eden w as

for the W oodland C em etery in Stockholm ,
w here landscape and buildings w ere developed
8.6 Copenhagen. Police in an unusually w ell reasoned m ortuary pro
Headquarters. gram . In 1 9 1 2 a tract o f 75 acres in the
H. Kampmann and oth Enskede district o f south Stockholm w as set
ers. 1918. Plan. (Copen aside for a new cem etery, and a com petition
hagen, Academy of Art for its design w as held in 1914. The first prize
Library.) w ent to the Sw edish architects G unnar Asplund
8.7 Copenhagen. Police and Sigurd L e w e re n tz.13 O ver the next tw en ty
Headquarters. years the site w as developed w ith burial
grounds, chapels, crem atorium , and supporting
buildings. For the landscape itself, perhaps the
m ost co m pelling feature is the approach from
the portals to the cross erected before the
Chapel o f the H oly Cross (figure 8.8). Lew er
entz, w ho w as to design other notable cem e
teries, left an open space at the top o f the rise


307.
so that the visitor is under the “dom e o f

heaven” m ore tru ly than in any dom ed building.
A com parison w ith such ancient burial sites as
Troldkirken and Lindholm Høje seem s 8.8 Stockholm. Woodland
inescapable. Cemetery. G. Asplund
A m o ng the buildings o f the cem etery, the and S. Lewerentz. Begun
W oodland Chapel by A splund, built 1918-1920, 1915.
has draw n much attention (figure 8 .9 ).14 The

8.9 Stockholm. Woodland
Cemetery, Woodland
deep colum ned portico and the chapel itself are
Chapel. G. Asplund.
covered to geth er w ith a high hipped roof. A s
1918-1920.
plund saw K irkerup’s Liselund on Møn, w hich
he greatly adm ired. C ertainly the great roof o f
the chapel suggests those o f south Scandinavian
farm steads. The colum ns o f Liselund, how ever,
w rap around the rear extension o f a T-shaped
house, this extension being roofed separately
from the main house. The colum ns o f the
chapel, on the other hand, form a portico, four space is given w arm th by the frescoes by Sven
colum ns w ide and three deep, before the Erixon.
chapel itself. G iven A sp lu n d ’s interest in antiq A no ther w ay in w hich classical principles
uity, the Tuscan tem p le as described by V itru m ight be sought w as in predom inant em phasis
vius w ould seem to be an additional obvious on mass rather than on detail. Earlier in his ca
prototype. The overall proportions o f the reer G unnar A splund had m oved in this direc
W oodland Chapel do not correspond to those tion, notably w ith the C entral Library in
stipulated for the Tuscan tem ple, but those o f Stockholm , 1924-1 9 2 8 (figure 8 . 11), perhaps
the cella o f the chapel are very close to the 6:5 inspired by Fischer von Erlach’s view o f the
proportions o f the tem p le plan. On the interior Tom b o f Hadrian in R o m e.16 A bo ve terraces
eight D oric colum ns support a “dom e o f containing shops he placed a cubical building
heaven,” ornam ental vocabulary is avoided, and w ith a circular unit above. U nadorned w indow s
the im pression o f the entire building is o f sim pierce the flat w alls, w ith concession to orna
ple support and shelter, dignified and tim eless. m ent in the surrounds o f the doorw ays and the
Later, in 1935-1940, A splund’s Chapel o f shallow terracotta frieze below the second
the H oly Cross at the W oodland C em etery set range o f w indow s. The w o rk o f Ledoux and
a much m ore prom inent colonnaded porch in Boullée also com es to mind here, as w ell as
the landscape (figure 8 .1 0 ).15 Classical ornam en C. L. E n g e l’s U niversity Library in H elsinki.
tal vocabulary w as again om itted and m onu W hen one enters the circular main reading
m entality w as achieved by the w ide spacing o f room, how ever, the impression is entirely d if
the square colum ns, w hich provides a broad ferent from E n ge l’s interior. A sp lu n d ’s room is
shelter sw ept w ith light and air. W ithin the a high soaring space, bookshelves lining the
chapel is a broad basilica in form , its shallow w alls only part o f the w ay, w ith blank w alls
dom e carried on eigh t round colum ns w ith sim above pierced w ith w indow s and then the
ple cubical capitals. T he otherw ise austere dom e flo atin g above.

A m ajor exam ple o f N ordic Classicism in

N orw ay is the Tow n Hall at H augesund, built in
1922-1931 by G udolf Blakstad and Herman
M unthe-Kaas, using colum ns more ex p licitly
(figure 8 . 12 ) .17 The tow n is a fishing and export
center on the w est coast o f N orw ay betw een
Stavanger and Bergen. A hillside site was
chosen for the Tow n Hall, w ith a park adjacent.
A rusticated gray granite low er story w ith
small arched openings fills out the slope, and
the tw o w ings for offices rise above, finished
som ew hat astonishingly in pink stucco. The
Council Hall is not centralized but occupies the
corner uniting the tw o w ings. On the park side
its location is dram atized by three large rusti
cated arches at the ground level and four pairs
o f D oric colum ns rising through both principal
stories, w ith an attic story covered by a saucer
dom e above. The nature o f the site w ould
cause the traditional tow n hall form ula, sym
m etrical w ith central tow er, to look lopsided.
The centrality o f the Council Hall is retained by
its corner location, but the traditional axial
view across an urban open space is not
attained.

309 .
II
8 .10 Stockholm. Woodland

Cemetery, Chapel of
the Holy Cross. G. As
plund. 1935-1940.
8 .11 Stockholm. Central Li
brary. G. Asplund.
1924-1928.
8 .12 Haugesund, Rogaland.
Town Hall. G. Blakstad
and H. Hunthe-Kaas.
1922-1931. (Oslo, Nor
wegian Museum of
Architecture.)

For another w ay in w hich the N orw egian

architects attem pted to put classical principles
to w o rk w e m ay look b riefly at Torvalm ennin-
gen Square in Bergen by Finn Berner, 1922
1929 (figure 8 . 13 ).18 A fte r a destructive fire in
the center o f tow n in 1916, V ester Torv Gatu
w as w idened in the business district, creating a
broad open space w ith regular business build
ings rising on either side. W ith som e arcades
8.13 Bergen. Torvalmennin- on the ground level and stringcourses givin g
gen Square. F. Berner. classical ho rizontality to the stories above, this
1922-1929. part o f the old m erchant city too k on an aspect
8.14 Helsinki. Parliament. quite different from that o f B ryggen on the
J. S. Sirén. 1927-1931. w ater front. The broadened vista increased the
dom inance o f St. Jo h n ’s Church on the hill
above.
In Finland the site o f the Parliam ent build
ing in H elsinki, on the w est side o f M anner
heim intie, also precludes a grand vista (figures

311 .
8.14 and 8 . 15 ).19 Johan Sigfred Sirén w on the late Roman m o tif o f an arch penetrating the
com petition for this building in 1924. O f red pedim ent. The plain w hite w alls o f the church
granite, it sits like a palace above a high fligh t are m arked by a stringcourse below the w in
o f stairs. Behind the C orinthian colonnade is a dow level, and the belfy atop the to w er is set
long vestibule w ith stairs at either end. In the o ff w ith sim ilar m oldings. The overall im pres
central w in g is the D elegates’ Cham ber, a high sion com es from the mass o f the church itself
circular hall w ith tall niches for statuary in the w ith to w er rising above.
sm ooth w alls and a low dom ed ceiling above. This second N eoclassical m om ent in Scan
The niches make one th in k o f C. F. H ansen’s dinavian architecture found expression in a very
V or Frue Kirke. T here is a large form al recep different m anner from the first. Those devoted
tion hall above the entrance hall and three to eclecticism did o f course continue to pick
w ings for offices, each level designed in a d iffer and choose am ong the historical styles. But
ent color. A s in the C openhagen and Sto ck some w ho w ere leaders o f the N ordic Classi
holm tow n halls, leading Finnish artists cism m ovem ent, teaching and w ritin g as w ell as
contributed to the interior details and furnish designing buildings, found their efforts to un
ings, using som e references to traditional Fin derstand the principles o f classicism leading in
nish motifs. another direction. Em phasis on proportion, the
Som e o f the other Finnish architects o f im portance o f surfaces, and sim ple statem ents
this generation w ere traveling to Italy, and o f support and shelter w ere all factors that
their interest in local Italian building types is re brought the turn to Functionalism in the
flected in their approach to com posing in term s 1920s.21
o f mass. A sim ple blocky church building w ith Lars Backer w as one o f the earliest to ad
contrasting high bell tow er, such as the one vocate the new style o f W right, Le Corbusier,
that A lvar A alto designed for the church at and M ies van der Rohe, w ritin g in 1923 that
M uuram e in 1929, for exam ple, satisfied the “w e w ill shape an architecture in contact w ith
desire for classical M editerranean inspiration the tim e w e live in, natural for the m aterials
and w as also sym pathetic to the long Finnish w e build w ith .”22 For the Ekeberg Restaurant
tradition o f the church and bell to w er group in O slo, 1927-1929, he used broad w all sur
(figure 8 . 16).20 H ere the façade is based on the faces pierced by plain w indow s, som e large e x
panses o f glass, and w ide W rightian eaves
(figure 8.17). If som e vestiges o f classicist detail
appear on the interior, the building as a w hole
speaks o f a change in direction.
In like m anner A lvar A alto m oved to Func
tionalism . His tuberculosis sanatorium at Paim io,
east o f Turku, 1 9 29-1933, w as m arked not
only by the adoption o f reinforced concrete as
a m eans o f aesthetic expression as w ell as
structure but also by a significant departure
from standard hospital design (figure 8 . 18).23 A
goo dly num ber o f hospitals had been built in
14 the Scandinavian cities, carried out in the var-


313 .
17
18
8 .15 Helsinki. Parliament.
Plan. (Helsinki, Mu
seum of Finnish
Architecture.)
8 .16 Muurame. Church.
A. Aalto. 1929.
8 .17 Oslo. Ekeberg Restau
rant. L. Backer. 1927
1929. (Oslo, Norwegian
Museum of Architec
ture. Photo: Teigens.)
8 .18 Paimio. Sanatorium.
A. Aalto. 1929-1933.
Finnish Architecture.)
8 .19 Oslo, Blindern. Univer
sity. F. Bryn and J. El-
lefsen. 1929-1935.
(Oslo, Norwegian Mu
seum of Architecture.
Photo: Teigens.)

ious historical styles. T hey tended to be m as

sive, sym m etrical buildings, in som e cases hardly
distinguishable from school or hotel buildings,
and indeed there w ere certain sim ilarities o f
function betw een these building types.24 A t Pai
mio, the rem ote forested site w as chosen ac
cording to then current practices in the
treatm ent o f tuberculosis. Instead o f a blocky
mass, A alto built the sanatorium w ith long tall
w ings, asym m etrically placed, for p atients’
rooms and for social areas, connected by the
adm inistrative offices. W hile the exterio r is se
vere, it is closely surrounded by the natural
forest, a relationship th at w as to becom e a hall
m ark o f A a lto ’s w ork. On the interior he also
characteristically planned m any details for circu
20
lation, lighting, heating, and ventilation w ith an
ingenuity that rem inds one o f Thom as Jefferson.
A no ther institution to have a building pro
gram in the early days o f Functionalism w as the
U niversity o f O slo, w hich built a new cam pus
at Blindern, on the edge o f the city, in 1929
1935 (figure 8 . 19).25 The buildings designed by
Finn Bryn and Johan Ellefsen show the classicist
details o f the first designs givin g w ay to more
severity as the w o rk progressed, still w ith sym
m etrical planning. The plain brick w alls are
pierced w ith row s or groups o f w indow s that
furnish all the ex terio r pattern except for dis
creet stringcourses at the basem ent and attic
levels. If these façades are com pared w ith those
o f the H augesund Tow n Hall, for exam ple, w e
can see that even w ithin the decade, architects
w ere taking bolder approaches to the use o f
fenestration for the total aesthetic effect.
W hile all these approaches to a N ordic
Classicism w ere being undertaken, a very seri
ous problem w as being addressed in the Scandi
navian countries, that o f housing, especially
low -cost urban housing. The Sw edish go vern
m ent, for exam ple, sent a delegation to the In
terallied H ousing and Tow n Planning C ongress

315 .
in London in 1920. The published report stated

the case firm ly: “there has been a real shortage
o f d w ellings since the W ar— a shortage which
it becom es m ore necessary every day to make 8.20 Stockholm . E xhibition.
good if the industrial productive pow er o f Sw e G. A sp lu n d . 1930.
den is again to be restored to its full capac (Stockholm , City

M useum .)
ity.”26 State and m unicipal subsidies for housing
w ere already in effect in Sw eden, and in D en
m ark a G overnm ent H ousing Fund was estab
lished in 1922.
The dem and in the cities w as for large
blocks o f flats that w ould be econom ical to
build, provided w ith develo ping system s o f in
door plum bing and central heating, and prefera
bly grouped around open spaces. The long
m ultistoried blocks by Povl Baum ann and Kay
Fisker depended for th eir aesthetic effect on
the rhythm s and proportions o f doors and w in a m odest scale.29 In Sw eden Hakon A hlberg d e
dow s, but m onotony w as difficult to avoid.27 veloped the “lam ella” block for w orkers in the
Then ten years after the London congress came Stockholm gas w orks at H jorthagen (figure
the Stockholm Exhibition o f 1930. 8 .2 1).30 In this a long narrow building was
Planned to display industrial art, crafts for planned so that all room s in each unit could
the hom e, and new designs for houses and have d irect sunlight, the blocks being only 23
apartm ents, it w as proposed by the Sw edish feet w ide. A gain a certain m onotony was inevi
Crafts Council in 1927. G unnar A splund was on table in groups o f such buildings, w hich Povl
the original co m m ittee and in 1928 becam e the Baumann and Knud Hansen tried to relieve
principal architect.28 A w aterside location had w ith the balconies o f th eir Storgården in C o
been chosen on D jurgårdsbrunnviken, east o f penhagen, 1935 (figure 8 .2 2 ).31 These balconies
the center o f the city. For the exh ib it areas w ere also in response to fire regulations. T hey
Asplund departed from the usual form at o f sep are indeed repetitious w hen seen from a dis
arate halls and created a series o f w ide and nar tance, but on closer vie w m any such buildings
row spaces, using slender supports and w ill reveal the variety o f th eir residents’ tastes
generous w alls o f glass. Festive colors w ere en in colorful aw nings and flo w er boxes.
hanced by flags and balloons. K now ing the M eanw hile in Finland A lvar A alto had also
w o rk o f the C ontinental leaders o f Functional designed housing for the w orkers at the Sunila
ism, especially that o f Le Corbusier, Asplund facto ry (figure 8 .2 3 ).32 H ere the blocks are not
set forth this new international style in Scandi parallel to each other, as at H jorthagen, but are
navia so that it could not be, and w as not, ig placed at sligh tly different angles. The site
nored (figure 8.20). chosen is a forested hillside, w ith the buildings
In the decade before the outbreak o f scattered here and there am ong the abundant
W orld W ar II the Scandinavian architects con trees. A alto also broke up the south façades o f
tinued their efforts to devise b etter housing on m ost o f the blocks w ith terraces form ed by

8.21 Stockholm, Hjort

hagen. “Lamella”
houses. H. Ahlberg.
1930s. Plan. (After
Paulsson, Scandinavian
A rch itectu re, figure
74, p. 223.)
8.22 Copenhagen.
Storgården. P. Bau
mann and K. Hansen.
1935.
8.23 Kotka. Sunila housing
21 estate. A. Aalto.
1936-1939.
8.24 Copenhagen, Gentofte.
Lassen House. M. Las
sen. 1934. (Copen
Library.)

317 .
23
24

setting back the upper floors. This solution to

m ultiple housing seem s m ore personal because
the blocks are co m paratively small and appear
m ore like row houses than apartm ent buildings.
In its report o f 1920 the Sw edish d ele ga
tion to London acknow ledged that individual in
dustrial w orkers w ere unlikely to be able to
afford their ow n houses. Those more affluent,
however, also applied the principles o f Func
tionalism to individual d w ellings. In D enm ark,
M ogens Lassen had clearly been thinking about
the w o rk o f Le C orbusier w hen he designed
several villas, including his ow n in the G entofte
suburb o f C openhagen in 1935 (figure 8 .2 4 ).33
Built o f ferro-concrete, it is w hitew ashed to
set o ff the clear planes o f the w alls and the
sharp w indo w openings. It is four stories high, 25
the top being a roof garden, open to the sky.
Sim ilarly O ve Bang developed the ideas o f
Le C orbusier in N orw ay, as for exam ple in the
villa at U llern in O slo, built in 1937-1938 for
the shipow ner D itlev-Sim onsen (figure 8 .2 5 ).34
The glazed areas o f the low er level are re
cessed in a sheltering, alm ost cavelike way,
w hile the severity o f the upper wall is offset by
the stone w all o f the terrace. Behind the prin
8.25 Oslo, Ullern. Villa Dit
cipal block, seen in the illustration, extends a
lev-Simonsen. O. Bang.
bedroom w ing. The plan is convenient, and
1937-1938. (Oslo, Nor
sym m etry has been avoided.
wegian Museum of Ar
Even m ore personal is V illa M airea at
chitecture. Photo:
N oorm arkku in Finland, designed by A lvar and
Teigen s.)
A ino A alto in 1939 (figure 8 .2 6 ).35 This is one
8.26 Noormarkku. Villa
o f the m ost fam ous recent exam ples o f a co l
Mairea. A. and
laboration betw een architect and client. The
A. Aalto. 1938-1939.
villa w as built for H arry G ullichsen, head o f the 8.27 Århus, Jutland. Uni
A hlström industrial group, to w hich the Sunila versity. K. Fisker, C. F.
facto ry belongs. N am ed for M airea G ullichsen, Møller, and P. Steg-
it is the third residence on the A hlström es mann. 1931-1946. (Co
tate, w hich includes the old saw m ill. Three pur penhagen, Academy of
poses w ere fused into the final design: a fam ily Art Library.)
hom e, a gallery for a gro w in g art collection,
and a m eeting place for cultural gatherings.

3 19 .
26

G enerous use o f glass w alls and o f supporting

posts on the first level creates a flo w o f space
w itho ut and w ithin, and a w arm personal atm o
8.28 Oslo. City Hall. A. Ar-
sphere is achieved in the use o f m any contrast
neberg and M. Pouls-
ing and co m plem entary kinds o f stone, tile, and
son. 1931-1950.
w ood. M any experim ental details and refine
8.29 Oslo. City Hall. Plan.
m ents w ere included here, m ade possible by
(After Kavli, N orwe
the w ealth o f the ow ners, but the architects
gian A rch itectu re, p.
expressed hope that som e o f these could be
117.)
adopted at reasonable cost for the benefit o f all
hom es.36
Principles o f Functionalism w ere o f course
w idely applied in m ajor projects other than
housing. In 1931 Kay Fisker, to geth er w ith
C. F. M øller and Povl Stegm ann, w on the com
petition for the U niversity at Å rhus.37 The ir
regular site w as designed into a park by C. Th.
Sørensen, into w hich the individual buildings are
set w itho ut form ality. U nity w as sought by hav
ing the principal buildings aligned north-south,
w ith their roofs pitched at 30 degrees (figure
8.27). C onstruction w en t on over a period o f

321 .
several /e a rs until the professors’ houses, stu

dent residences, and classroom buildings w ere
com pleted by 1946. In this unpretentious group
o f buildings im portant accents are given by the
octagonal assem bly hall and the tow er o f the
library. A lto geth er the university m ight be
called an “academ ical park” in the spirit o f
Thom as Je ffe rso n ’s “academ ical village .”
A t the sam e tim e the fourth great m unici-
pal/national building in Scandinavia w as under
construction. The C ity Hall in O slo, designed
by A rnestein A rn eb e rg and M agnus Poulsson,
w as begun in 1931 and com pleted in 1950 (fig
ure 8 .2 8 ).38 Its tw in tow ers rise high o ver the
w aters o f the P ip ervik at the head o f the O slo
Fjord, a com m anding position like that o f the
Tow n Hall in Stockholm . The im m ediately sur
rounding area o f the city w as redesigned to re g
ularize som e o f the streets and clear the
building site. N ew buildings w ere restricted to
six stories in heigh t so th at the C ity Hall has
no nearby co m petition for attention. The plain
red brick w alls m ake a background for foun
tains and o ther sculptures by N orw egian artists.
The patterns o f w indow s and stringcourses em
phasize the ho rizo ntality o f the low er south
block and the v e r t ic a lly o f the office w ings. In
its external appearance the C ity Hall has none
o f the palazzo-like historical references o f its
counterparts in C openhagen and Stockholm .
The o rganization o f the interior is sim ilar
to those tw o buildings in the inclusion o f a
large Festival Hall rising in tw o stories in the
lo w er portion (figure 8.29). A grand staircase
leads to the second level containing the Ban
queting H all, gallery, registry rooms, and board
room . T he Council C ham ber occupies the
north w ing co nnecting the o ffice tow ers. A s is
the case in the other tw o N ordic capitals, the
O slo C ity Hall is richly furnished w ith paintings,
sculptures, tapestries, and other w orks by the
co untry’s leading artists, m aking it a m onum ent

to national as w ell as civic artistic pride. long clean lines, considerable fle x ib ility in plan
For an industrial building w e m ay consider ning o f the interior spaces, and am ple use o f
the Sunila w ood pulp facto ry near K otka on glass.
the G ulf o f Finland (figures 8.30 and 8 .3 1).39 W ith the o utbreak o f W orld W ar II in
D esigned by A lvar A alto in 1936-1939 and en Septem ber 1939, much th at w as being hoped
larged in 1951-1954, the entire com plex in and planned in the Scandinavian countries cam e
cluded the w o rk ers’ housing that w e have to be delayed by the m any effects o f the war,
already noted. For the facto ry itself A alto made including invasion and occupation. The uneasy
use o f a rocky site w ith a good deep harbor. peace in 1945 did not en tirely restore the
From the storage pond for logs from the great status quo. The G erm an occupation o f D en
system o f lakes in Finland to the docks, the var m ark was o f course ended, but Iceland, w hich
ious sections o f the facto ry descend the slopes. had been under the Danish crow n since 1380,
The bold masses o f the brick or concrete build established its independence as the Iceland Re
ings rise d irectly from the rocks and the native public in Ju n e 1944. The territories o f N orw ay
vegetatio n. The Sunila facto ry w as a pow erful w ere not affected, but Finland lost Karelia in
declaration that industrial architecture need no the southeast and also Petsam o on the A rctic
longer depend on even the m ost stylized his coast to Russia.41
torical references, as at Svinninge, but could Much rebuilding and new building follow ed
exhibit its ow n authority. upon the cessation o f hostilities. Several devel
A final exam ple from the 1930s is the d e opm ents are especially notable in response to
sign for the C openhagen A irpo rt at Kastrup, the new challenges. A m o ng the architects m ov
the com petition having been w on by Vilhelm ing aw ay from strict Functionalism , for exam
Lauritzen in 1936 (figure 8.3 2 ).40 In the first ple, w as Knut Knutsen, w ho built the
days o f air travel a term inal had been built here N orw egian Em bassy in Stockholm in 1952 (fig
in 1925, but the rapid develo pm ent o f this new ure 8.33).42 A t first glance it appears to be a
means o f transportation m ade a new facility spacious, irregularly planned residence set into
necessary a decade later. Like the railw ay sta a gen tle slope. It is in fact the home o f the
tion, the airport presented a new challenge to A m bassador as w ell as the official office build
architects. A long narrow building, such as ing. The dom estic quarters have their principal
Lauritzen designed, seem ed then a reasonable rooms looking across the bay tow ard the park
solution, m aking a relatively short distance for on D jurgården, w hile the o ffice w ing is set far
passengers to cross betw een the entrance to ther back from the main boulevard. The open
the term inal and the aircraft, and vice versa. planning and provision for large gatherings o f
W hereas trains w ere entered by num erous people recall the V illa M airea w ith its special
doors from long platform s, aircraft w ere en purposes, w hile the studied proportions o f the
tered through single doors and could be lined w indow s, heavily fram ed in w ood, and the pro
up on the departure side o f the term inal. M any nounced cornices recall the Prairie Style in
changes in the technologies o f air travel have A m erican building. Knutsen him self, follo w ing
taken place since the 1930s, and indeed Laur som e o f the principles o f Frank Lloyd W right
itzen w as called upon for the rem odeling o f his and A lvar A alto , w rote o f closeness to nature
building into the present one in the 1950s. His in m aterials and o f spaces organized so that
original building w as lightly constructed, w ith buildings m ight be harm onious and w ith a hu
m anistic co ntent.43

323 .
8.30 Kotka. Sunila Cellulose

Factory. A. Aalto. Be
gun 1936. Site plan.
Finnish Architecture.)
8.31 Kotka. Sunila Cellulose
Factory.
31

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33

325 .
Sim ilarly the Danish architect Jørn U tzon

sought a closer relation o f his buildings to the
natural environm ent than had characterized
Functionalism . A particularly notable project
was the Kingohusene housing estate near H el
singør, developed in 1957-1960. Econom ically
built houses o f ye llo w brick are here grouped
around irregular courtyards on a hilly site so
that w ide glass areas look out onto a landscape
view .44
A n even m ore decisive effo rt to deal w ith
forces o f the environm ent w as m ade by the En
glish-born Ralph Erskine in Sw eden. In the
1960s he experim ented w ith designs for hous
ing in the subarctic conditions o f northern Sw e
den. His recom m endation for “tow n plans
w hich allow considerable south exposure o f
8.32 Copenhagen. Kastrup
buildings and w indo w s to encourage positive
Airport. V. Lauritzen.
solar g a in ” rem inds us o f the characteristic
1937-1939. Plan. (Co
south porch o f the m edieval Sw edish church,
placed on the w arm est and m ost sheltered side.
Art Library.)
Erskine also noted th at “w hile buildings have to
8.33 Stockholm. Norwegian
be heated in the cold th ey have to be cooled in
Embassy. K. Knutsen.
the heat,” saying th at certain techniques could
1952.
be used in both extrem es o f clim ate.45
The search for a hum ane approach e x
tended to several o f the m u ltiple-dw elling proj
ects in postw ar Scandinavia. A n early exam ple
in D enm ark is the Bel lahøj com m unity in C o
penhagen, for w hich a com petition w as w on by
M ogens Irm ing and T age N ielsen in 1945 (fig
ure 8 .3 4 ) 46 The apartm ent blocks, begun in
1950 and designed by several different archi
tects, w ere built as much sm aller units than the
lam ella blocks and placed fo r the m axim um use
o f sunlight. The w hole com m unity includes tw o
groups o f these “point houses,” as th ey are
called, separated by a park containing an open
air th eater and a restaurant. A lake at the
south end is balanced by the com m unity center
on the north, w here the church, school, library,
and th eater are gro uped together, reflecting

the em phasis on com m unal life that w as in

tended. A m ple space betw een the housing
blocks and considerable planting help to create
8.34 Copenhagen, Bellahøj.
a parklike setting, and the w hole project was
Housing estate.
designed w ith fam ilies w ith small children in
M. Irming and T. Niel
mind.
sen. 19 4 5 -1956. Site
Bellahøj is a residential suburb o f C open
plan. (Copenhagen,
hagen. In Finland in 1952 several housing and
Academy of Art
w elfare organizations founded the H ousing
Library.)
Foundation, a building society for a new satel
8.35 Helsinki, Tapiola.
lite tow n as a w estern suburb o f Helsinki. The
Apartment blocks.
result w as Tapiola, already planned in part, for
V. Revell. 1958. (Hel
w hich A arne Ervi w on the com petition for fu r
sinki, Museum of Fin
ther planning.47 The purpose w as to create a
nish Architecture.
Photo: H. Havas.) nonprofit com m unity w ith an adm inistrative,
shopping, and cultural center (also designed by
Ervi), and groups o f housing o f different types:
single residences, terrace houses, and flats (fig
ure 8.35). T hree groups w ere planned, sepa
rated by natural forested areas, each to have its
ow n school and shopping facilities. W hat makes
the T apiola project different from m any others
is the gro uping o f the buildings in a com m unity
deliberately planned to house people o f w idely
varying occupations and incomes.
By the tim e these com m unities w ere being
built, the “garden c ity ” idea as such w as already
34

327 .
35
half a century old. In 1898 Ebenezer Howard turned out, m ost o f the residents have com e to
published Tom orrow : A Pea cefu l Path to R eal R e w o rk elsew here, usually in the city o f Sto ck
formi, reissued in 1902, slightly revised, as G ar holm, m aking this attem pt less successful than
den C itie s o f Tom orrow.48 Controversial and slow the first “garden c ity ” at Letchw orth, England,
to exert w ide influence, H ow ard’s fundam ental o f I9 0 3 .51
concept w as that o f a tow n surrounded by ag O ne o f the m ost adm ired com m unity com
ricultural land and having its hom es and sim ple plexes is the civic center at Säynätsalo in south
gardens supported by its ow n local industries. central Finland, built by A lvar A alto in 1950—
This is o f course different from the “garden 1952 (figure 8 .3 7 ).52 The tow n, on an island in
suburbs” just described. Planning for better ur Lake Päijänne, w as founded by the Enzo-G ut-
ban housing w as also o f concern in Sw eden, as zeit w ood products com pany, and A alto w on
w e have seen, and Lew is M um ford’s C ulture o f the 1949 com petition for a center to house
C itie s aroused enough interest to w arrant a Council Cham ber, tow n offices, library, and
Sw edish edition in 1942.49 An attem pt in 1955 som e staff residences. The buildings are
at such a subcom m unity is at V ällin gb y outside grouped around a court, all on a sloping site.
Stockholm , designed by Sven Backström and The court is raised to the second level by fill
Leif Reinius (figure 8.3 6 ).50 Here business and from the excavations and m ay be reached by a
industries w ere included w ith the residential conventional stair at the southeast corner or a
quarters and com m unity facilities. As it has dram atic boarded earth set o f steps at the

36
8.36 Stockholm. Vällingby.

S. Backström and
L. Reinius. 1955. Air
view. (Stockholm, City
Museum. Photo: Oscar
Bladh.)
8.37 Säynätsalo. Civic Cen
ter. A. Aalto. 1950
1952.
8.38 Otaniemi. Technical
University. A. Aalto.
Begun 1949.

329 .

39
8.39 Roskilde, Zealand. Vi southw est corner. A t this tim e A alto w as build
king Ship Museum. ing in brick, and the com bination o f the broad
C. T. Sørensen. 1966— expanse o f w alls and the glass and w ood e le
1968. m ents o f w indo w w alls and pergolas creates
8.40 Bergen. Bryggens Mu seem ingly countless view s, all closely linked to
seum. O. Maurseth. the surrounding forest. W ood and brick are
1974. boldly juxtaposed in the Council Chamber,
w here the great tim ber trusses are left e x
posed. The Säynätsalo center is small but m on
um ental, as if it w ere the urban version o f a
Finnish courtyard farm stead.
W e have already looked at tw o tw en tieth -
century university projects, those at Å rhus and
Blindern. A third exam ple th at has attracted
much attention is the Technical U niversity at
O taniem i, w est o f Helsinki. For this a co m peti
tion w as announced late in 1948, w hen A lvar
A alto w as in the United States in connection

331 .
40
w ith his designs for the Baker D orm itory at w as form erly a private estate, w ith broad park
MIT.53 Since 1942 he had been involved w ith lands already partly landscaped. A s the project
plans for the tow n o f Säynätsalo, and the proj w as fin ally developed, the auditorium dom inates
ects for O taniem i and Säynätsalo w ere closely the high area, w ith the classroom buildings d e
linked to events in A alto ’s personal life. His scending in terrace fashion (figure 8.38). The
first w ife, A ino, w ho collaborated w ith him, auditorium , also planned for conferences, was
w as able during her last illness to contribute to o riginally intended to be w edge-shaped, but as
the com petition designs for O taniem i. The first built it is a quadrant and resem bles a G reek
prize, aw arded several m onths after her death theater outside because o f the terraced w in
early in 1949, w as m ade in both their names. dow s lighting the sim ple but striking interior.
Then w hen A alto turned his attention once A s at Säynätsalo, the w arm th o f red brick pre
m ore to Säynätsalo in 1949 he w as assisted by vails, ex cep t in the School o f A rchitecture for
Elissa M äkiniem i, a yo ung architect in his office, w hich A alto used a thin cladding o f Carrara
w ho becam e his second w ife in 1952. m arble. The student dorm itories, designed by
A t O taniem i the plans w ere for the main other architects, are placed in a m ore w ooded
auditorium and adjacent buildings for the ge n area to the east o f the main com plex, and the
eral departm ents, the G eodetic Institute, and library, a long rectangular block, is in a gro ve o f
the School o f A rch itectu re.54 The site chosen trees on the w est. This leaves the w ide open

8.41 Reykjavik. Hallgrims

Church. G. Samuelsson.
1946-1986.
8.42 Otaniemi. Chapel.
K. and H. Siren. 1954
1957. (Photo: Jay C.
Henry.)
41
42

333 .
terraces betw een, givin g a sense o f breadth and posed o f clear geo m etrical elem ents o f w alls
expansion unusual in A a lto ’s w ork. and w indow s, but here o f brick, and w ith the
In addition to the universities as educa internal sections clearly marked by vertical pro
tional institutions, a num ber o f museum s have jections on the exterior. The site includes an
been built in the Scandinavian countries since outdoor area w here m asonry foundations o f
W orld W ar II. A m o n g those built for quite spe the m edieval buildings are exposed. W ood pre
cial purposes are the V ikin g Ship M useum in dom inates fo r the interior, w here the visitor is
Roskilde and the B ryggens M useum in Bergen. led by a series o f ram ps to the rear portion
Both are planned so th at the visitor sees a housing reconstructed w ooden dw ellin g re
“w o rk in g” facility, in contrast to earlier m u mains and thence to the area for the display o f
seums in w hich collections w ere sim ply dis artifacts.
played on w alls or in cases. Scandinavian churches built since W orld
T hat the Roskilde Fjord had been blocked W ar II show som e striking transform ations o f
at Skuldelev had long been know n, but it w as traditional elem ents to geth er w ith innovative
not until 1957 and 1959 that the Danish N a designs. Perhaps the one longest in building and
tional M useum underw ater excavations re certainly the one m aking the m ost im pact on
vealed five V iking ships as the cause o f the the landscape is H allgrim skirkja in Reykjavik
blockage. A fte r th ey w ere salvaged, in thou (figure 8 .4 1).58 From the beginning in 1946 it
sands o f pieces, in 1962 a closed com petition has dom inated the height o f Skólavörduhaed
was held for a m useum , and the w inning design and can be seen from nearly everyw here in the
was by Erik Chr. Sørensen.55 The building w as city. The to w er and transepts w ere com pleted
constructed from 1966 to 1968 and is a long in 1974, and the church w as fin ally consecrated
low structure set at the edge o f the water. in 1986. The State A rch itect Gudjón Sam úels-
Built o f glass and concrete, it is a distinctive son sought to evoke Iceland’s glaciers and co l
landm ark in the low er part o f the city (figure umns o f basalt w hile providing a traditional
8.39) . W indow w alls on the north and south setting fo r Christian w orship. C uriously enough,
light the exhibition area, w here the fragm ents even w itho ut the projected stained glass w in
o f the ships are being m ounted on full scale dow s the severe interior is w arm er than that
metal fram es. From w alkw ays at different levels o f G ru n d tvig’s Church in C openhagen. The
the visitor can see the w o rk being done and church is named fo r the Reverend H allgrim Pé-
gain im pressions o f the size and shape o f the tursson, the seventeenth-century religious poet.
ships. Sørensen h im self spoke o f his concern If w e reflect on the other churches honoring
that the regularity and broad surfaces o f the national leaders, E ngelbrekt in Stockholm ,
building should set them o ff effectively.56 G rundtvig in C openhagen, and M ikael A grico la
A no ther special case developed in Bergen, in Helsinki, it is o nly fittin g that Iceland should
w here excavations from 1955 to 1972 revealed have chosen to so honor a figu re from her
extensive rem ains o f the tw elfth -cen tu ry tow n great literary tradition.
on the sloping land south o f St. M ary’s Church. For an entirely d ifferen t approach, at
To shelter the reconstructed rem ains o f several O taniem i w e find the Chapel o f the Technical
buildings on the site, the B ryggens Museum w as U niversity set on a forested hill near the stu
built by O ivind M aurseth in 1974 (figure dent d w ellin g quarters (figure 8 .4 2 ).59 Built by
8.4 0 ) .57 Like the V ik in g Ship M useum it is com Kaija and H eikki Siren in 1 954-1957, it is a

8.43 Randers, Jutland. St.

Clement’s Church.
I. and J. Exner and K.
E. Larsen. 1963.
(Photo: T. and P.
Pedersen.)
8.44 Bodø, Sør-Hälogoland.
Church. G. Blakstad
and H. Munthe-Kaas.
1956.
8.45 Tromsdalen, Nord-Häl-
ogaland. Church. J. I.
Hovig. 1959-1966.
(Oslo, Norwegian Mu
seum of Architecture.
Photo: Teigens.)

335 .
44
sim ple rectangular building o f red brick, w ith a

high upper w indo w w all on the w est and the
roof sloping to a w indo w w all on the east. Slat
ted screens and bell to w er em phasize the
w oodland setting. The entire east wall o f glass
m eans that the w oods outside serve as an ever-
changing backdrop for the altar, according to
season and w eather. A lthough expressed in a
different architectural idiom , the setting, the
small size, the sim plicity o f its means, and the
sense it gives o f personal quiet all give this lit
tle building much in com m on w ith A splund’s
W oodland Chapel.
A no ther use o f a glazed east w all w as
m ade at St. C lem e n t’s Church in Randers on
Jutland in 1963 (figure 8.4 3 ).60 This is built dra
m atically on a hillside, the main auditorium en-

tered from the higher ground. The parish

rooms are in the level below , and the tall w in
dow s o f the east w all serve bothr levels. A gain a
view over a park landscape form s a backdrop 8.46 Tampere. Kaleva
to the altar. The three architects Inger Exner, Church. R. Paatelainen
Johannes Exner, and Knud Erik Larsen chose a and R. Pietilä. 1964
w edge-shaped plan so that the interior o f the 1966.
church w idens out to the altar. M ost o f the li 8.47 Copenhagen. SAS-
turgical furnishings w ere designed especially for Royal Hotel. A. Jacob
this place. The organ is by the Danish builder sen. 1959-1960.
Frobenius, built by deal, as are the other

w ooden furnishings. The altar is o f N orw egian
m arble, and like the organ case is com posed o f
straight lines and flat surfaces, far rem oved
from the Baroque and Rococo furnishings o f
earlier churches. The Rom anesque baptism al
font is m ounted on a plain stainless steel base.
Certain parts o f Scandinavia suffered more
dam age than others during W orld W ar II.
A m o ng them w ere the N orw egian port tow ns
that w ere attacked by G erm an bom bers w hile
they w ere centers for A llied shipping. Bodø in
Sør-H alogoland, above the A rctic C ircle, thus
lost its church on M ay 27, 1940. The present
one was finally begun in 1956, designed by Gu-
d o lf Blakstad and Herm an M unthe-Kaas (figure
8.44).61 M ore than th irty years after designing
the H augesund Tow n Hall, th ey again used fa
m iliar patterns, but this tim e in the overall con
ception o f the building rather than in surface
detail. The church on the ex terio r appears to
be a five-aisled basilica, to geth er w ith the trad i
tional separate belfry, carried out w ith m odern
m aterials in alm ost stark sim plicity. The interior,
w ith a high barre I-vaulted ceiling and no inter
nal posts, is sim ilarly uncluttered.
A nother N orw egian church draw ing on
tradition in a different w ay w as built by Inge
H ovig at Trom sdalen in N ord-H älogaland in
1959-1966 (figure 8.4 5 ).62 This building is trian
gular in cross section, w ith a cross rising to the
peak o f the w est gable. The nave roof de-

337.
creases in height in several stages, and then the

apse rises behind it. The spaces betw een the
slanting roof-w all panels are glazed. The tw o
steep masses o f nave and apse remind one o f
the steep shapes o f the stave churches, here
reduced to a ve ry sim ple statem ent, like a
piece o f architectural sculpture. Stairs in the
w est gable lead up to a gallery and dow n to a
low er level for the parish rooms. In spite o f
acoustical difficulties com ing from its length and
height, the church has attracted much atten
tion. It is also called the Ishavkatedral, or the
cathedral o f the icy sea, appropriate to its
northern location.63
A no ther sculptural shape is the Kaleva
Church in T am pere, built by Reim a Pietilä and
Raili Paatelainen in 1 964-1966 (figure 8 .46).64
Its w hite tiled w alls rise boldly from the
ground, w ith dram atic contrasts in sunlight and
artificial light at night. The plan, basically an ir
regular pentagon like that o f St. C lem ent’s
Church in Randers, is said to represent a fish,
an im portant Christian sym bol. The interior has
the sam e soaring quality, lighted by tall narrow
w indow s on the sides. U nlike St. C lem ent’s the
church does not term inate in a large w indow
47
w all, but rather has a single tall narrow w in
dow, filled w ith a sculpture by P ietilä called The
Shattered C ane. The interior fittin gs, including
the organ case, are o f Finnish pine, left in its
natural color.
The num ber o f distinctive com m ercial and
industrial buildings constructed since 1945 is
equally form idable. The few exam ples to be in
troduced here have been chosen for the con
trasts th ey o ffer to earlier buildings w ith sim ilar
purposes. O ne very great contrast is that be
tw een the rom antic w ooden hotel in a small
com m unity, such as the Dalen Hotel in T ele
m ark o f 1894, and the concrete and glass city
skyscraper such as the SA S-R oyal Hotel in C o
penhagen. D esigned by A rne Jacobsen and built

48
in 1959-1960, the latter is a major landm ark Scandinavian architects in the decorative arts.
(figure 8.47).65 It consists o f tw o parts, a long V ilhelm D ahlerup, J. H. N ebelong, G. F. Hetsch,
horizontal tw o -sto ry building, faced w ith gray- P. V. Jensen-K lint, Kay Fisker, A lvar A alto, and
green enam eled steel plates, and an eighteen- others have m ade notable contributions in fu r
story hotel to w er w ith gray-green glass and niture, glass, m etalw ork, ceram ics, and textiles,
alum inum panels. W hat m ight seem too severe from the historically inspired objects o f the
is m odified by the play o f reflections from adja nineteenth century to the “Scandinavian M od
cent buildings and the sky. The low er section, ern ” o f w ares popular all o ver the w orld
w hich was built first, w as designed to house today.66
the dow ntow n SA S term inal as w ell as the ho By the sam e architect w e have another
tel lobby and a series o f shops surrounding it at m ajor business building in C openhagen, the
the street level. W ithin the lobby the black Danish N ational Bank, for w hich Jacobsen w on
m arble w alls set o ff the spiral staircase to the the com petition in 1961 (figure 8 .48).67 It w as
restaurant, w hile light and the relief o f plants begun in 1965 and finished after his death by
w ere given by a conservatory. The latter was his associates Hans D issing and O tto W eitling
o f course in the best tradition o f the grand ho in 1978. Six stories high, w ith tw o basem ent
tels. The long series o f w indow s gives the levels, its ex terio r rises in long m arble slabs be
guest rooms panoram ic view s over the city. hind a high w all th at surrounds the w hole site.
T hroughout, the carpets, furniture, curtains, There is only one entrance, an unpretentious
and accessories w ere also designed by Jacobsen, one on H avnegade. T w o m ajor surprises aw ait
continuing a distinguished tradition o f w o rk by the person entering for the first tim e, how ever.

339 .
A huge vestibule rises w ith tall w indow s on the

street side, an open stair partly fillin g the wall
opposite the door; and a high blank w all stands
8.48 Copenhagen. Danish on the interior side, through w hich there is a
National Bank. A. Ja passage to the banking offices. From this alm ost
cobsen. 1964-1978. grim introduction one passes to the center o f
8.49 Lesjöfors, Värmland. the bank, w hich is built around a patio filled
Rope yard. L. Berg w ith planting.
ström. 1960. (Photo:
The vestibule was intended to have its
Lennart Olsson/TTO.)
decorative schem e restricted to the architec
tural elem ents. By 1977, how ever, it w as ap
parent that as built the hall seem ed too cold
and severe. The Danish w e aver Kim N aver de
signed five red and gold tapestries for the deep
niches o f the first level, having the sections o f
gold increasing tow ard the stair wall to
heighten the effect o f opening light and
perspective.68
Finally, three recent designs for factories
involve products for w hich w e have noted ear
lier facilities. The first is the rope yard at Lesjö
fors in Sw eden, built by Lennart Bergström in
I9 6 0 (figure 8 .4 9 ).69 For a seafaring nation rope
is still as essential as it w as in the heyday o f
Luostarinm äki at Turku. Bergström designed
the necessary long building like a tent, w ith five
49

8.50 Copenhagen. Carlsberg

Bottling Works. S. E.
Kristensen. 1967
1969. (Photo: S. E.
Kristensen.)
8.51 Holme-OI st rup, Zea
land. Holmegård Glass
works. S. E.
Kristensen. 1971
1972.

341 .
m ajor bays m arked by posts supporting the

roof and w ith eleven glazed peaks as skylights.
The building stretches across the landscape in a
dram atic manner.
Then it becam e necessary to build an e x
tension o f the bo ttling plant at the C arlsberg
brew ery, carried out by Svenn Eske Kristensen
in 1967-1969 (figure 8.5 0 ).70 The site to be
used posed a special dilem m a: it sits next to
the garden o f the J. C. Jacobsen house, now
used as a “mansion o f honor” for distinguished
scholars. To avoid placing w indow s overlooking
the garden and also to avoid m onotony, Kris
tensen designed the side facing the garden w ith
four curving terraces, each w ith a w alkw ay o ut
side the w indow s and outer brick w alls to
shield the view tow ard the garden. Planting
was included to enhance the view s o f the te r
races from the w o rking areas. ity. Fragm ents o f tools and w eapons, made o f
H aving provided the C arlsberg brew eries less perishable m aterials than w as clothing, indi
w ith a new bo ttling w orks, Kristensen turned cate the production o f goods for use at the
his attention to a facto ry to supply the bottles. very outset o f human habitation in this region.
For the H olm egård glassw orks an addition was To the shelters for m eeting individual physical
needed, and K ristensen’s designs resulted in the needs w ere added shelters for individual and
new buildings o f 1971-1972 (figure 8 .5 1).71 com m unal social and spiritual needs, and these
Steel fram es and outer cladding m ade for w ide fundam ental human requirem ents have not
interior spaces, fle x ib ility in planning, and dra changed over 10,000 years.
m atic exterio r shapes. The contrasts o f shapes A ccording to m any factors, builders in the
and surfaces on the exterio r is matched by the Scandinavian countries have found numerous
contrasts o f sound w ithin. (Like m any Scandina w ays in w hich to m eet these needs. Som e have
vian m anufacturing plants, the H olm egård been indigenous, som e im itative, and som e in
w orks is open to visitors.) The characteristic novative. A sko Salokorpi has pointed out the
crash tinkle o f rejected pieces in the art glass d ifficulty in defining w hat is “Finnish” about ar
area is mild com pared to the thunderous racket chitecture in tw entieth-century Finland.72 This
o f beverage bottles descending through the review o f building in the N ordic countries since
processing racks o f the com m ercial area. prehistoric tim es should indicate that “Scandina
Perhaps it m ay seem surprising that a his vian architecture” as a w hole is difficult to d e
tory o f architecture in the Scandinavian coun fine if one is seeking a com m on stylistic
tries should conclude w ith a factory. Let us approach. W e do better, I think, to use “Scan
rem em ber, however, th at building in the dinavian architecture” as a regional designation
N ordic countries began, as at Ulkestrup, w ith and then enjoy and learn from the great
the m ost elem entary shelters for human activ breadth o f building activity th at it represents.

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

Note on Alphabetizing
In the appendix, bibliography, and index, the extra

letters in Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are
treated alphabetically as if spelled out: ô as aa, ä as
a e, and ø and ö as oe. These letters normally appear
at the end of the alphabet in Scandinavian dictionar
ies, encyclopedias, bibliographies, and the like. En
glish-speaking readers should bear this in mind when
consulting sources in the Scandinavian languages.
Conversely, readers in the Nordic countries will find
names of persons and places listed here as indicated
above, instead of in the arrangement more familiar
to them.

© 1991 MIT
License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

Appendix: Architects and Builders
This list covers architects and builders of the Scandi Åbom, Johan Fredrik, 18 17 - 1900
navian buildings included in the text, with their dates Aalto, Aino, 1894-1949
if known. Citations are to dictionary and encyclope Aalto, Alvar, 1899-1976
dia articles and principal monographs that treat their MEA 1:1-13; TBV 1:1; WWA 131-136; Pearson
work. Dictionaries and encyclopedias are abbreviated 1978; Miller 1984; Schildt 1984
as follows: Adelcrantz, Carl Fredrik, 1716-1796
M EA Adolf K. Placzek, ed., M a cm illa n E n cyclo MEA 1:34; SK 1:24-25; TB 1:80-81; Fogelmarck
p ed ia o f A rc h ite c ts , 4 vois. (New York: 1957
The Free Press, 1982) Ahlberg, Hakon, 1891-1984
NK Leif Østby, et al., eds., N o rsk ku n stn ere MEA 1:36-37; TBV 1:16
le k sik o n , 3 vois. (Oslo: Universitetsforla Ahrenberg, Jakob, 1847-1914
get, 1982-1987) TB 1:143-144; TBV 1:18
SK Gösta Lilja, Bror Olsson, and S. Artur Anderberg, Axel, 1860-1937
Svensson, eds., S ve n sk t ko n stn ä rs lexikon, 5 Arndt, J. C.
vois. (Malmö: Allhems Förlag, 1952-1967) Arneberg, Arnstein, 1882-1961
TB Ulrich Thieme and Felix Becker, A llg e - NK 1:76-79; TBV 1:66
m e in e s Lexicon d e s b ild e n d en K u n stle r ..., Aspaas, Sven, 1736-1816
37 vois. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1907 NK 1:91-92; TB 2:184
1950) Asplund, Erik Gunnar, 1885-1940
TBV Hans Vollmer, ed., A llg e m e in e s Lexicon d e r MEA 1:110-112; TBV 1:73; WWA 26-27; Maré
b ild e n d en K u n stle r d e s XX. Ja h rh u n d e rts, 6 1955; Wrede 1980; Caldenby and Hultin 1986
vois. (Leipzig: E. A. Seemann, 1953-1962)
Backer, Herman Major, 1856-1932
WK Merete Bodelsen and Povl Engelstoft,
NK 1:125; TBV 1:90
eds., W e ilb a c h ’s k o n stn erlex iko n , 3 vois.
Backer, Lars, 1892-1930
(Copenhagen: Aschehoug, 1947-1952)
TBV 1:90
WWA James M. Richards, ed., W h o 's W h o in A r
Backström, Sven, b. 1903
c h itectu re (London: Weidenfeld and N koi
TBV 1:91
son, 1977)

Appendix
Bang, Ove, 1895-1942 châteauneuf, Alexis de, 1799-1853

NK 1:147-149; Blakstad and Munthe-Kaas 1943 MEA 1:410; NK 1:395-396; TB 6:425-426; Lange
Bassi, Carlo Francesco, 1772-1840 1965
TB 3:13; WWA 30-31 Cicignon, Johan Caspar von, d. 1698
Baumann, Povl, 1878-1963 NK 1:413-415
MEA 1:156; TBV 1:135; WK 1:60 Clason, Isak Gustav, 1856-1930
Bentsen, Ivar, 1876-1943 MEA 1:422-423; SK 1:310; TB 7:57; TBV 1:448;
TBV 1:173; WK 1:82-83 WWA 74; Edestrand and Lundberg 1968
Berg, Axel, 1856-1929 Cöllen, Heinrich von, fl. 1512-1592
WK 1:86-87 TB 7:304
Bergström, Lennart Collett, Christian Ancher, 1771-1833
Berner, Finn, 1891-1947 NK 1:419-420
Binck, Jakob, fl. c. 1560-1569 Coucheron, Wyllem, d. 1689
SK 1:181; TB 4:36-37; WK 1:98-100 NK 1:427-428
Bindesbøll, Michael Gottlieb Cronstedt, Carl Johan, 1709-1799
MEA 1:21 1-212; TB 4:38; WK 1:100-102; SK 1:323-324; TB 8:161
Wanscher 1903; Bramsen 1959
Blakstad, Gudolf, 1893-1985 Dahlberg, Erik, 1625-1703
NK 1:247-250; TBV 1:225 SK 2:16-20; TB 8:276-277
Blasius, Leonhard, fl. 1640-1644 Dahlerup, Vilhelm, 1836-1907
TB 4:104; WK 1:116-117 TB 8:278-279
Blom, Fredrik, 1781-1851 Desprez, Louis Jean, 1737-1804
SK 1:107; TB 4:130 SK 2:50-53; TB 9:147-149
Børve, Haldor Larsen, 1857-1933 Dieskau, Hans von, fl. 1541-1563
NK 1:374-375 WK 1:254
Bonneuil, Etienne de Dieussart, François, d. 1711
SK 1:216; TB 4:313 WK 1:252
Borch, Martin, 1852-1937 Dissing, Hans, b. 1926
TB 4:338-339; WK 1:134-137 Döteber, Christian Julius
Boy, William, c. 1520-1592 SK 2:67; TB 9:378
SK 1:228-229; TB 4:490-491 Donatus
Brandenburgén Ernst, d. 1713 SK 2:59-60; TB 9:431
WK 1:143 Diiren, Adam von
Brockam, Heinrich, fl. 1690 TB 10:60
Bryggman, Erik, 1891-1955
MEA 1:318; TBV 1:339; WWA 58 Edelsvärd, Adolf Wilhelm, 18 2 4 -1 9 19
Bryn, Finn, 1890-1975 SK 2:72; TB 10:338
NK 1:337-338; TBV 1:339 Ehrensvärd, Augustin, 17 10 - 1772
Bull, Georg Andreas, 1829-1917 SK 2:86-88
NK 1:349-351; TB 5:215 Eigtved, Niels, 1701-1754
Bull, Henrik, 1864-1953 MEA 2:19; TB 10:416-417; WK 1:283-285
NK 1:351-352; TB 5:215 Ellefsen, Johan, 1895-1969
Bussert, Morten, d. 1552 TBV 2:30
SK 1:256; WK 1:171 Engel, Johan Carl Ludwig, 1778-1840
MEA 2:26-27; TB 10:529; Meissner 1937; Wick-
berg 1970

345 .
Ernst, Johan Conrad, 1666-1750 Hovig, Jan Inge, 1920-1977

TB I 1:7; WK 1:296 NK 2:287
Erskine, Ralph, b. 1914
MEA 2:30; TBV 5:454 Irming, Mogens, b. 1915
Ervi, Aarne, 1910-1977 WK 2:6-7
MEA 2:30 Isaeus, Per Magnus Reinhold, 1841-1890
Exner, Inger, b. 1926 SK 3:242
Exner, Johannes, b. 1926
Jacobsen, Arne, 19 0 2 -19 7 1
Fisker, Kay, 1893-1965 MEA 2:474-475; TBV 2:578; WK 2:14-15; WWA
MEA 2:86-87; TBV 2:1 16; WK 1:319-320; Lang 155-156; Pedersen 1957; Faber 1964; Kastholm
kilde I960 1968; Dyssegaard 1971
Förster, Hans, d. c. 1653 Janssen, Evert, fl. 1665-1690
WK 2:25-26
Gesellius, Herman, 1874-1916 Jardin, Nicolas-Henri, 1726-1799
MEA 2 :188; TB 13:492-493 MEA 2:479; TB 18:428-429; WK 2:27-29; WWA
Grosch, Christian Heinrich, 1801-1865 156
NK 1:784-789; TB 15:93 Jensen-Klint, Peder Vilhelm, 1853-1930
MEA 2:496; TB 18:520; WK 2:57-60; WWA 167
Hårleman, Carl, 1700-1753 Jørgensen, Thorvald, 1867-1946
MEA 2:317-318; SK 3:210-212; WWA 137-138; MEA 2:515; TBV 2:552; WK 2:104-105
Stavenow 1927 Jørgensen, Valdemar, b. 1893
Häusser, Elias David, 1687-1745 TBV 2:552; WK 2:106
WK 2:203-204
Hanno, Andreas Friedrich Wilhelm von, 1826-1882 Kampmann, Christian, 1890-1955
NK 2:52-55; TB 15:594-595 Kampmann, Hack, 1856-1920
Hansen, Christian Frederik, 1756-1845 MEA 2:552; TB 19:511; WK 2:1 10-111
MEA 2:301-303; TB 16:3; WK 1:441-446; WWA Kampmann, Hans Jørgen, 1889-1966
133-134; Rubovv 1936; Jakstein 1937; Lund and Kirkerup, Andreas, 1749-1810
Küster 1968 TB 20:371; WK 2:124-125
Hansen, Knud, 1898-1964 Klein, Vilhelm, 1835-1913
TBV 2:371; WK 1:406 TBV 2:447-448; WK 2 :13 l - l 33
Harsdorff, Caspar Frederik, 1735-1799 Klint, Kaare, 1888-1954
TB 16:66; WK 1:482-484; Weilbach 1928 MEA 2:571; TBV 3:65; WK 2:136-137
Haven, Lambert von, 1630-1695 Knutsen, Knut, 1903-1969
TB 16:159-160; WK 1:492-493 MEA 2:576; WK 2:144
Henningsen, Thorkild, 1884-1931 Krieger, Johan Cornelius, 1688-1755
TBV 2:421; WK 1:518 TB 21:532; WK 2:174
Herholdt, Johan Daniel, 18 18 - 1902 Kristensen, Svenn Eske, b. 1905
MEA 2:359; TB 16:464; WK 1:525-526 MEA 2:584; WK 2:175
Hetsch, Gustav Friedrich, 1788-1864 Kristler, Hans Jacob, d. 1645
MEA 2:370; TB 16:599; WK 1:531-532 TB 21:544-545
Hjorth, Ingvar Magnus Olsen, 1862-1927
TB 17:121-122 Lange, Bertel, d. 1619
Hjorth, Ragnar, 1887-1971 TB 22:324
SK 3:153; TBV 2:449

Appendix
Lange, Philip de, 1704-1766 Nielsen, Tage, b. 1914

TB 22:329; WK 2:214-215 WK 2:467
Langlet, Emil Victor, 1824-1898 Norden, Jacob Wilhelm, 1824-1892
NK 2:708-710; SK 3:456; TB 22:346-347 NK 2:266
Larsen, Knud Erik, b. 1929 Nyrop, Martin, 1849-1921
Lassen, Mogens, 1901-1987 MEA 3:309-310; TB 25:545; WK 2:483-486;
WK 2:241 WWA 235; Beckett 1919
Lauritzen, Vilhelm, 1894-1984 Nyström, Per Axel, 1793-1868
TBV 3:185-186; WK 2:245-246 SK 4:290-291; TB 25:546
La Vallée, Jean de, 1620-1696 Nyström, Usko, 1861-1923
TB 22:471-472; WWA 84 TB 25:546
La Vallée, Simon de, d. 1642
Lewerentz, Sigurd, 18 8 5 -1975 Östberg, Ragnar, 1866-1945
MEA 2:698-699; SK 3:503; TBV 2:223; WWA MEA 4:329-330; SK 5:812-813; TB 25:573-574;
184-187; Ahlin 1987 TBV 3:508; WWA 238-239
Liljeqvist, Johan Fredrik, 1863-1932 Opbergen, Antonius van, 1543-161 I
SK 3:515; TBV 3:231 TB 25:547; WK 2:507-508
Lindgren, Armas, 1874-1929
MEA 3:12; TB 23:245; TBV 3:236; Nikula 1988 Paatelainen, Raili, b. 1926
Linstow, Hans Ditlev F., 1787-1851 Paeschen, Hans von, fl. 1561-1582
NK 2:774-780; TB 23:158 TB 26:112; WK 2:520-521
Pahr, Domenicus
Malling, Peder, 1781-1865 SK 4:348; WWA 242
TB 23:597; WK 2:332-333 Pahr, Franciscus
Markelius, Sven Gottfrid, 1889-1972 SK 4:348; WWA 242
MEA 3:107-108; SK 4:85; TBV 3:327; WWA 201 Palmstedt, Erik, 1741-1803
Mathiesen, Albertus, d. 1668 SK 4:363; TB 26:186; WWA 247; Setterwall 1945
TB 24:264 Petersen, Carl, 1874-1923
Maurseth, Oivind, b. 1928 MEA 3:407; TB 26:482
NK 2:804-805 Petersen, Ove, 1830-1892
Meldahl, Ferdinand, 1827-1908 TB 26:485; WK 2:565-566
TB 24:357; WK 2:365-367; Stemann 1926 Pietilä, Reima, b. 1923
Møller, Carl Oscar, 1857-1933 Piper, Fredrik Magnus, 1746-1824
SK 4:163; TB 25:8 MEA 3:420; SK 4:430; TB 27:77
Møller, Christian Friedrich, 1898-1988 Poulsson, Magnus, 1881-1958
SK 4:163; TB 25:8 NK 3:231-239; TBV 3:618
Møller, Erik, b. 1909
TBV 3:405; WK 2:419-420 Rafn, Aage, 1890-1953
Munthe, Holm, 1848-1898 TB 27:565; TBV 4:12; WK 3:11-12
NK 2:1017-1019 Rawert, Jørgen Henrik, 1751-1823
Munthe-Kaas, Herman, 1890-1977 N K 2:228; TB 28:55-56; WK 3:29-30
NK 2:1022-1023; TBV 3:449 Rehn, Jean Eric, 1717-1793
TB 28:95-96; Wahlberg 1983
Nebelong, Johan Henrik, 1817-1871 Reinius, Leif, b. 1907
MEA 3:272; NK 3:21-24; TB 25:371; WK 2:438 TBV 4:42
439

347 .
RevelI, Viljo, 1910-1964 Stüler, Friedrich August, 1800-1865

MEA 3:553; TBV 4:53; WVVA 267-268 MEA 4:147-148; TB 32:238-239; WWA 310
Rüse, Henrik, 1624-1679 Sundvall, Carl Fredrik, 1754-1831
TB 29:222-223; WK 3:99 SK 5:321; TB 32:294
Saarinen, Eliel, 1873-1950 Tarjanne, Onni, 1864-1946

MEA 3:625-633; TBV 4:139; WVVA 278-281; Tempelman, Olof, 1745-1816
Christ-Janer 1948; Hausen, Mikkola, and Amberg TB 32:515; WWA 318
1984 Tengbom, Ivar, 1878-1968
Samúelsson, Gudjón, 1887-1950 MEA 4:192-193; TB 32:525-526; WWA 318-319
TBV 4:152 Tessenow, Heinrich, 1876-1950
Schirmer, Adolf, 1850-1930 MEA 4:196-197; TB 32:552-553; TBV 4:429-430
NK 3:466-467; TB 30:87 Tessin, Nicodemus I, 1615-1681
Schirmer, Heinrich Ernst, 1814-1887 MEA 4:197-199; TB 32:554; WWA 318
NK 3:468; TB 30:268 Tessin, Nicodemus II, 1654-1728
Scholander, Fredrik Wilhelm, 1816-1881 MEA 4:197-199; SK 5:410-414; TB 32:555; WWA
MEA 4:4; SK 5:77-79; TB 30:241 319-321
Schou, Einar Oscar, 1877-1966 Thurah, Lauritz de, 1706-1759
NK 3:495-497; TB 30:268 TB 33:116-1 18; WK 3:399-401; WWA 323; Weil-
Schütz, Paül, d. 1576 bach 1924
SK 5 :102; TB 30:318 Tuscher, Marcus, 1705-1751
Siren, Heikki, b. 1918 MEA 4:232; TB 33:503-504; WK 3:427-430
MEA 4:74; TBV 4:291; WWA 300
Sirén, Johan Sigfred, 1889-1961 Utzon, Jørn, b. 1918
MEA 4:74; TBV 4:291; WWA 299-300 MEA 4:246; TBV 6:458; WWA 326-327
Siren, Kaija, b. 1920
MEA 4:75; TBV 4:291; WWA 300 Vinckeboons, Justus, fl. 16 5 1- 1670
Sørensen, Carl Theodore, 1893-1985 MEA 4:324; TB 34:388-389
MEA 4:105-106; TBV 4:310
Sonck, Lars, 1870-1956 Wahlman, Lars Israel, 1870-1952
MEA 4:104-105; TBV 4:317; WWA 306-307; Ki MEA 4:361-362; SK 5:548-549; TB 35:59-60
vinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi 1977 Weitling, Otto, b. 1930
Steenwinckel, Hans van I, c. 1550-1601 Wolff, Henning, 1828-1880
TB 31:517-519; WK 3:269-271; Allgulin 1932 TB 36:200; WK 3:558-559
Steenwinckel, Hans van II, 1587-1639
TB 31:519-520; WK 3:270-272; WWA 308-309
Steenwinckel, Hans van III, 1639-1700
TB 31:520; WK 3:270-272
Steenwinckel, Lorenz van, 1585-1619
TB 31:521; WK 3:272-273
Stegmann, Povl, 1888-1944
MEA 4:121-122; TBV 4:351; WK 3:277-278
Stilling, Harald Conrad, 1815-1865
TB 32:53; WK 3:386-387
Stuckenbrock, Joachim Andreas, 1698-1756
TB 32:234

© 1991 MIT
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N o te s
I Prehistoric Scandinavia Finally, since archaeological sites are perhaps not as

I . The brief historical summaries given in this chap easy for the would-be visitor to find as extant build
ter are based on a vast literature of prehistoric stud ings in town or countryside, the reader is referred
ies. For general discussions of European prehistory to two guidebooks for Denmark. Munksgaard, D en
the following may be consulted: Renfrew, B efore C ivi m a rk : A n A rc h e o lo g ic a l G u ide, is in English. Thorvild-
liza tio n ; Clark, W o rld P re histo ry; and Phillips, P rehistory sen and Kehler, M e d A rk a e o lo g e n D a n m a rk rundt, is in
o f Europe. The detailed accounts of archaeological in Danish. Both are supplied with maps and organized
vestigations in Scandinavia are generally to be found and indexed so as to be easy to use.
in reports and journals in the Scandinavian languages.
2. Becker, “Late Paleolithic Finds.”
Useful introductory summaries in English, with bibli
ography, may be found in Stenberger, S w ed en ; Hagen, 3. Becker, “En 8000-Årig stenalder boplads,” and
N o rw a y; Kivikoski, Finla n d ; and Klindt-Jensen, D en Clark, E a rlie r Stone A g e S e ttle m e n ts, pp. 102-105.
m a rk before the V ik in g s.
4. See Skaarup, S te n g a d e ; Brogaard, Lund, and
As for the dates in this chapter on prehistoric ar
Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. L a nd b ru ge ts
chitecture, the traditional “BC” has been adopted,
huse, p. 16; Iwar Anderson, “Contribution”; and
the dates themselves being those used by the Na
Drury, ed., S tructu ra l R eco nstruction, pp. 1-5.
tional Museum in Copenhagen. This is admittedly an
arbitrary choice, but it has been taken in order to 5. Winther, T ro ld b jerg, and Klindt-Jensen, D en m a rk,
spare the reader the complexities of what is in fact pp. 45-46.
an enormous controversy. Consulting Renfrew, Clark,
and Phillips on the subject of carbon-14 dating alone 6. Stenberger, S w ed en , pp. 40-42. For fuller ac
will reveal the extent of the problem. For a discus counts see Florin, “Bauernhöfe und Fischerdörfer,”
sion of the Danish chronology see Tauber, “Radiocar and Florin, V rå ku ltu re n.
bon Chronology,” which predates the recalibration

7. Hagen, N orw ay, p. 60, and Reimers and Anker,
discussions of the later 1970s. A more recent sum
“Trearkitektur,” pp. 357-359.
mary of the whole matter is to be found in Ottaway,
Archa eo lo gy, D end ro chro n o lo g y a n d the R adiocarbon 8. Gjessing, C ircu m p o la r Stone A g e , pp. 46-54, and
C alibration Curve. Hagen, N orw ay, pp. 370-371.

Notes to Pages 5-2 6
9. Ibid., pp. 73-74 and figure 22. 26. Hagen, S tu d ie r i je rn a ld e re n s g å rd ssa m fu n n , pp.
136-139, and Hagen, N orw ay, pp. 138-139.
10. Kivikoski, Finla nd , pp. 36-37. For discussion of
the later pyramidal tents of the Lapps, see Manker, 27. Clark, W o rld P rehistory, figure 68, p. 140; and
L a p sk kultur, pp. 106-1 19, and Erixon, S ve n sk b y g g Meist and Paasche, H a n n o v e risch e s W en d la n d , pp. 32
n a d s kultur, pp. 36-47. 35.
11. The earlier view is set forth in Glob, “Barkaer,” 28. Because so much has been written about Viking
and Glob, D a n ish P re h isto ric M o n u m e n ts, pp. 72-75. ships, settlements, and art, only a few general works
The view that Barkaer is more probably a burial site are noted here. Among those readily available in En
is given in Madsen, “Earthen Long Barrows,” pp. 3-6. glish with good bibliographies are Jones, H isto ry o f
the V ik in g s ; Foote and Wilson, The V ik in g A c h ie v e

12. Stenberger, S w eden , pp. 42-44, and Glob, D an ish
m e n t; Magnus Magnusson, V ik in g s !; Randsborg, V ik in g
P re histo ric M o n u m e n ts, pp. 53-75.
A g e in D e n m a rk ; Wilson, The V ik in g s a n d T h eir O ri
13. Ibid., p. 65. g in s; Sawyer, K in g s a n d V ik in g s ; and Logan, The V i
k in g s in H istory. A detailed discussion of Viking art

14. Elton, Saxo G ra m m a tic u s, pp. 13-14.
may be found in Wilson and Klindt-Jensen, V ik in g A rt,
15. Stenberger, S w eden , pp. 45-47, and Glob, D an ish

while numerous good color photographs of Viking
P re h isto ric M o n u m e n ts, pp. 7 7 - 100. artifacts are included in Graham-Campbell and Kidd,
The V ik in g s, and Magnus Magnusson, V ik in g : H a m m e r
16. Becker, “Grav eller temple?,” and Glob, D an ish o f the N orth. Two earlier works that may also be
P re h isto ric M o n u m e n ts, pp. 95-96. consulted are Brøndsted, The V ik in g s, and Arbman,
The V ik in g s. More recent are the publications of two
17. Becker, “Hal og hus,” and Lomborg, “Vadgård.”
series of lectures and symposia, V ik in g s in the W e st,
18. Glob, M o u n d People, pp. 12 7 -1 3 1, and Larsen, edited by Eleanor Guralnick, 1982, and The V ik in g s,
“Gravhøje.” edited by R. T. Farrell, 1982. Included in the latter is

“Norsemen in America: A Select Bibliography 1950—
19. Stenberger, S w eden , pp. 107-109.
1980,” compiled by Louis A. Pitschmann.
20. Becker, “To landsbyer,” and Glob, D an ish P re h is
29. Hamilton, E x ca va tio n s a t Ja rlsh o f, pp. 102-111;
toric M o n u m en ts, pp. 240-242.
Small, “The Norse Building Tradition in Shetland,”
2 1. Stenberger and Klindt-Jensen, eds., Vallhager, pp. 248-150; and Crawford, Scan d in a via n Scotland,
2:140-154, 997-998, and 1033-1064; and Stenber pp. 140-141.

ger, S w eden , pp. 140-143.
30. Sverri Dahl, F o rn a r to ftir i K v ív ík ; Sverri Dahl,
22. Todd, N o rthe rn B a rba ria n s, pp. 95-1 12. “Survey of Archaeological Investigations”; Jones, H is
tory o f the V ik in g s, pp. 269-272; Sverri Dahl, “Norse

23. Myhre, “Gårdsanlegget på Ullandhaug”; Reimers
Settlement,” pp. 6 6 -7 1; Thorsteinsson, “Develop
and Anker, “Trearkitektur,” pp. 358-361; Myhre,
ment of Faroese Settlements”; and Logan, The V ik in g s
“Development of the Farm House”; and Myhre,
in H istory, pp. 5 8 -6 1.
“Views on the Building Techniques.”
31. Roussell, “Stöng”; Roussell, “Det nordiske hus i
24. Glob, D a n ish P re h isto ric M o n u m en ts, pp. 236
vikingetid”; Eldjárn, “Viking Archaeology in Iceland”;
241.
Foote and Wilson, The V ik in g A c h ie v e m e n t, pp. 149—
25. Stenberger, S w eden , p. 138, and Cohen, V ik in g 158; Ingólfsson, “Saga-Age Farmhouse”; and Logan,
F o rtre sse s, pp. 59-60. The V ik in g s in H istory, pp. 61-70. See also Thór Mag-
nússon, “Viking Age Settlement of Iceland.” For the

351 .
dating of Stöng, a technique was used that perhaps 43. Harbison, A rch a e o lo g y o f Ireland, pp. 76-89, and
does not often come to mind: tephrochronology, or Murray, “Houses and Other Structures.” For an ac
dating by means of layers of airborne volcanic mate count of the controversy over the portion of the
rials. See Eldjárn, “Two Medieval Farm Sites.” excavations known as the Wood Quay Site, see
Bradley, ed., V ik in g D ub lin Exp osed.
32. Nørlund, V ik in g S e ttle rs; Roussell, F a rm s a nd
C h u rch es; Jones, N o rse A tla n tic S a g a , pp. 50-54; 44. Hall, E x ca va tio n s at York.
Krogh, V ik in g G reen lan d , pp. 52-69; Albrethson,

45. Ibid., pp. 67-76.
“Development of the Norse Farm”; and Logan, The
V ik in g s in H istory, pp. 71-80. 46. The examples at West Stow have already been
mentioned. See also Davison, “The Late Saxon Town
33. An early description of this discovery is in Helge
of Thetford,” pp. 19 1- 192.
Ingstad, W e stw a rd to Vinland. The official excavation
report is in Anne Stine Ingstad, D isco ve ry o f a N o rse 47. Tienhoven, “Information.”
S ettlem en t. For other commentary see Magnus Mag
48. A large body of literature on the Viking camps
nusson, V ik in g E x p an sio n W e stw a rd , pp. 12 5 - 148, and
has developed since the beginning of excavations at
Wahlgren, V ik in g s a n d A m e ric a , pp. 122-125.
Trelleborg under Poul Nørlund in 1934. His own
34. Magnus Magnusson, V ik in g s!, p. 244. publication of the site, T relleb o rg, and Cohen, V ik in g
F o rtre sse s, are major works in English. A discussion

35. Ramskou, Lind h o lm H øje, and Foote and Wilson,
not only of Fyrkat but of all four of the camps, their
V ik in g A c h ie v e m e n t, pp. 15 0 - 152.
relation to each other, and the many theories and
36. West, “Anglo-Saxon Village of West Stow,” and speculations about them is given, along with exten
Anne Stine Ingstad, D isco ve ry o f a N o rse S ettlem en t, sive bibliography, in Olsen, Schmidt, and Roesdahl,
pp. 185-192, 210-215. Fyrkat, including English summaries, 1:205-241 and
2 :185-207. The Roman foot, o r m o re precisely a
37. Foote and Wilson, V ik in g A ch ie ve m e n t, pp. 191 —
“reduced” Roman foot, has been assumed to be the
231; Randsborg, V ik in g A g e in D e n m a rk , pp. 71-96;
basic unit of measurement for these camps. It has
Skovgaard-Petersen, “The Historical Context”; and
recently been suggested that this unit was instead
Blindheim, “Emergence of Urban Communities.”
the “Northern rod” (Huggins, Rodwell, and Rodwell,
38. Ramskou, H edeby; Foote and Wilson, V ik in g “Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian Building Measure
A c h ie v e m e n t, pp. 2 10 - 2 13; Magnus Magnusson, V i ments,” pp. 38-52).
k in g s!, pp. 6 7 -7 1; and Randsborg, V ik in g A g e in D e n
49. Roesdahl, “Aggersborg,” p. 119.
m a rk, pp. 85-90. A recent report on the extensive
excavations undertaken at Hedeby is Schietzel, Stand 50. Schmidt, “Trelleborg House Reconsidered.”
d e r sie d lu n g sa rc h ä o lo g isc h e n F o rsc h u n g e n in H a ith a b u .
51. Roesdahl, “Aggersborg,” pp. 118-119.
39. James and Jameson, eds., Jo u r n a l o f Ja s p e r D a n ck -
52. Harvey, M e d ie v a l A rch ite ct, pp. 19 - 2 1.
a erts, p. 63.
53. Vitruvius, Ten B ooks, pp. 22-27, and Vegetius,
40. Benson, ed., Peter K a lm ’s T ravels, 1:272.
M ilita ry In stitu tio ns, pp. 82-85.
41. Foote and Wilson, V ik in g A c h ie v e m e n t, pp. 220
229.
42. De Paor, “Viking Towns of Ireland,” and Murray,

V ik in g a n d E a rly M e d ie v a l B u ild in g s, pp. 1-2.

Notes to Pages 3 0 -5 0
2 The M iddle A ges 7. Dietrichson, N o rsk e sta v kirker, pp. 2 12-226; An
1. Derry, H isto ry o f S can d in a via , pp. 36-63. ker and Aron Andersson, A r t o f Scand inavia, 1:201
2. Ekhoff, S ve n sk a sta vk yrk o r, pp. 148-179, and Lag 225; Håkon Christie, “Stavkirkene-Arkitektur,” pp.
erlöf and Stolt, H e m se kyrkor, pp. 181-191. The lat 2 12 - 2 13, 249-250 n7; and Gunnar Bugge, Stave
ter is one of the volumes in the inventory series C h u rch es in N orw ay, pp. 52-53.
called S ve rig e s K yrkor, a province by province official 8. Detailed analyses of this system may be found in
survey of the churches of Sweden, including their Aune, Sack, and Selberg, “The Stave Churches of
structural history (and that of their predecessors), Norway,” and Gunnar Bugge, Stave C h u rch es in N o r
their liturgical furnishings (even if now in museums way, pp. 7-18.
or other locations), and their paintings and sculp
tures. Begun in 1912, the individual parts of the vol 9. Dietrichson, N o rsk e sta v kirker, pp. 3 14-326; An
umes are being issued irregularly and are being ker and Aron Andersson, A r t o f Scand inavia, 1:273
written by authorities in the various fields of Swedish 274; and Gunnar Bugge, Stave C h u rch es in N orw ay,
church art and architecture. In some cases there are pp. 66-67.
English, French, or German summaries, and in some

10. Dietrichson, N o rsk e sta v kirker, pp. 280-287; An
cases there are also figure captions in English. Refer
ker and Aron Andersson, A r t o f S cand inavia, 1:225
ences to other parts in this series will be indicated
235; Håkon Christie, “Stavkirkene-Arkitektur,” pp.
by SK.
149-153; and Gunnar Bugge, S ta ve C h u rch es in N o r
3. Anders Bugge, N o rw e g ia n S ta ve C h urches, pp. 15 way, pp. 64-65.

18, and Gunnar Bugge, S tave C h u rch es in N orw ay, pp.
11. Dietrichson, N o rsk e sta v kirker, pp. 337-345.
20- 21.
12. The various theories are reviewed in Olsen,
4. Ekhoff, S ve n sk a sta vkyrko r, pp. 79-128, and also
H ø rg, h ov o g k irk e ; Anker and Aron Andersson, A rt o f
pp. 66-70 for fragments of similar eleventh-century
Scan d in a via , 1:386—394; and Håkon Christie, “Stavkir
planks at St. Andrew’s Church, Greensted, Essex.
kene-Arkitektur,” pp. 197-219. Theories of pagan
5. For notes on early Danish wooden churches see origin for the mast type of stave church are largely
Elna Møller and Olaf Olsen, “Danske traekirker”; based on the discovery in 1926 of postholes beneath
Krins, Frü h en S tein kirch en D än e m a rk s, pp. 126-134; the present church at Gamla Uppsala, together with
and Hugo Johannsen and Claus M. Smidt, D a n m a rk s the famous description of the “nobilissimum tem
A rk ite k tu r: K irk e n s h use, pp. 10-13. The early wooden plum” at Uppsala by Adam of Bremen in the 1070s
churches in Sweden are discussed in Ekhoff, S ve n ska (Jones, H isto ry o f the V ik in g s, pp. 326-327). There
sta vkyrko r; Lundberg, B yg g n a d sk o n ste n i S ve rig e, pp. have been attempts to reconstruct this “temple,”
169-172; Andreas Lindblom, S ve rig e s konsthistoria, such as that by Conant (C a ro lin g ian a n d R o m a n esqu e
1:45—52; and Ullén, M e d e ltid a trä ky rko r I (SK ), pp. A rch itectu re, pp. 35-36), based on that by Lindqvist
225-229. (G a m la U p p sa la F o rn m in n e n ). Given that the remains
are scanty at best, that Adam of Bremen was writing
6. A recent account of the stave churches with an from hearsay rather than from his own observation,
extensive bibliographical note is Håkon Christie, and that when the “temple” was built in the mid
“Stavkirkene-Arkitektur.” For discussions of the stave eleventh century Christian churches had already been
churches in English see Anders Bugge, N o rw e g ia n
built in Scandinavia, is it not possible that the Gamla
Stave C h u rch e s; Kavli, N o rw e g ia n A rch itectu re, pp. 15 Uppsala building was not a prototype but a copy?
22; Dan Lindblom, Stave C h u rch e s in N o rw a y; Anker
and Aron Andersson, A r t o f S candinavia, 1:200-447; 13. Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker.
and Gunnar Bugge, S ta ve C h u rch e s in N orway. K ø b en h a vn s A m t (D K ), 3:1267-1268. This volume is in

3 53 .
the Danish counterpart to the inventory series Sve 25. Rydbeck, L u nd s d o m sk y rk a s b y g g n a d sh isto ria , pp.
riges K y rk o r described in note 2 above, beginning 15-48; Wrangel, L u nd s D o m k y rk a s ko n sth isto ria , pp.
1933. When it is not otherwise apparent, reference 141-201; and Hugo Johannsen and Claus M. Smidt,
to other volumes in this series will be indicated by D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. K irk e n s huse, pp. 24-28.
DK following the title. For Roskilde see also Bolvig,
26. Johnny Roosval, B a ltisk a n o rd en s kyrkor, pp. 44
B ykirker, p. 182.
47.
14. Exner, L a nd sby kirke r, pp. 83-84, and Horskjaer,
27. Rydbeck, “Italienske inflytande”; Graebe, K y r
ed., D a n sk e kirker, 13:201-203. The latter reference
korna i V ä (SK ), pp. 11-117; and Lundberg, B yg g n a d s
should not be confused with the D a n m a rk s K irk e r se
ko n sten, pp. 231-235.
ries. It is much smaller in size, also geographically ar
ranged, well illustrated, and includes bibliographical 28. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 17:19-49; Bolvig,
references. B ykirker, pp. 166-171; Vi Madsen, R ibe D o m k irk e ; and
Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s Kirker. R ibe A m t, 1/2:61-84
15. A general history of the wall paintings of this
and 3/4:145-272.
period is Nørlund, D a n m a rk s ro m a n sk e ka lkm a lerier.
A guide to the medieval church paintings including 29. Lidén, M a ria k irk e n , pp. 23-66; Anker and Aron
the Gothic is found in Saxtorph, J e g s e r på k a lk m a le r Andersson, A r t o f Scan d in a via , 2 : 15 8 - 160; Lidén and
ier. The National Museum in Copenhagen has an Magerøy, N o rg e s kirker. B erg en , 1:9—50; and Lidén,
nounced a forthcoming series on the church “Middelalderens steinarkitektur,” pp. 40-41.
paintings, D a n sk e ka lk m a le rie r, to be published in
30. Gerhard Fischer, D o m k irk e n i S ta va n g er; Anker
seven volumes. The paintings at Råsted were ana
and Aron Andersson, A r t o f Scan d in a via , 2:153; and
lyzed for their possible relation to religious drama by
Lidén, “Middelalderens stei narkitektur,” pp. 85-88.
Lise Gotfredsen in R å ste d k irk e — sp il o g billede.
31. Gerhard Fischer, D o m k irk e n i T ro ndheim , 1:43

16. Exner, L a nd sby kirke r, p. 116, and Horskjaer, ed.,
98; Gerhard Fischer, N id a ro s D o m k irk e ; Lysaker,
D a n sk e kirker, I 1:263-264. For the portal sculptures
D o m k irk e n i T ro n d h eim ; and Lidén, “Middelalderens
see Mackeprang, Jy d s k e granitp ortaler, pp. 2 11- 2 17.
steinarkitektur,” pp. 69-84.
17. Bennett, B o tky rka ky rka (SK ).
32. Krins, F rü h en S tein kirch en D a n e m a rk s, pp. 73-84;
18. Muri, N o rsk K yrkjer, pp. 87-88. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 14:324-327.
19. Kristjánsson, C h u rch es o f Iceland, pp. 6 - 13. 33. Lundberg, B yg g n a d sk o n ste n , pp. 370-371; Cor
nell, S ve n sk a k o n ste n s historia, 1:46-49; Swartling,
20. Nørlund, V ik in g S ettlers, p. 30.
“Cistercian Abbey Churches”; and Anker and Aron
21. Ibid., pp. 34-40. Andersson, A r t o f Scan d in a via , 2:176-178.
22. Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker. 34. Conant, C a ro lin gian a n d R o m a n esqu e A rch itectu re,
K ø b en h a vn s A m t, 3 :12 8 5 -1299. pp. 126-134.
23. Exner, L a nd sby kirke r, p. 104, and Horskjaer, ed., 35. Hermansen and Nørlund, D a n m a rk s K irker. Sorø
D a n sk e k irk e r ; 2 :15-20. A m t, 1:107-137; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 4:14

24; and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 182-189.
24. Lundberg, B yg g n a d sk o n ste n , pp. 205-221; Cor
nell, S ve n sk a k o n ste n s h isto ria , 1:17-19; and Krins, 36. Hermansen and Nørlund, D a n m a rk s Kirker. Sorø
Frü h en S tein kirch en pp. 34-37. A m t, 1:17-53; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 4:38-49;
and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 219-227.

Notes to Pages 50-83
37. Frölén, N o rd e n s b e fä sta ru n d k yrko r; Anker and 48. Hermansen, Roussell, and Steenberg, D a n m a rk s
Aron Andersson, A r t o f S candinavia, 2:142-149; Hugo Kirker. K ø b en ha vn, I : I 3-30, and Claus M. Smidt, Vor
Johannsen and Claus M. Smidt, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r. F ru e K irke , pp. 11-15.

K irk e n s huse, pp. 53-55; and Johan Lange, Vaern og
49. Johnny Roosval, B a ltiska n o rd en s kyrkor, pp. 128
våben, pp. 103-115.
130.
38. Norn, Schultz, and Skov, D a n m a rk s K irker. B orn
50. Rinne, Å b o D o m ky rka , pp. 12-26; Nils E. Wick-
holm , pp. 383-431; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker,
berg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 24-27; Gardberg, “Åbo
19:97-101; and Exner, L a nd sbykirker, p. 120. The
Domkyrka”; and Richards, 8 0 0 Years, pp. 27-29.
other three are Nylars, Nykirke, and Ols, described
in Norn, Schultz, and Skov, D a n m a rk s K irker. B o rn 5 1. Boëthius and Romdahl, U p p sa la D o m ky rka ; Lund
holm , pp. 199-222, 244-274, and 335-362. berg, B yg g n a d sk o n ste n , 1:486-497; Andreas Lindblom,
S v e rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 1:173-179; and Cornell, S ve n ska
39. For Bjernede see Hermansen and Nørlund, D an
ko n ste n s historia, 1:115-117.
m a rk s K irker. Sorø A m t, 1:351-363; Horskjaer, ed.,
D a n sk e kirker, 4:64-69, and Exner, L a ndsbykirker, p. 52. Ibid., pp. 115-116; English translation in Bumpus,
25. For Thorsager see Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, C a the d rals, p. 178.
13:226-229, and Exner, L a nd sbykirker, p. 99.
53. Johnny Roosval, S. N ik o la i e lle r S to rkyrkan (SK ),
40. Carl M. Smidt, K a lu n d b o rg ; Bencard, “Om Ka pp. 206-263.
lundborg kirke”; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 2:20
54. Gunnar Svahnström, V isb y D o m k y rk a (SK ), pp.
28; and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 70-72.
I l 3-195.
41. A painting of Kalundborg by Johan Thomas
55. Gunnar Svahnström and Karin Svahnström, V isb y
Lundbye, 1837, now in the State Museum of Art,
D o m k y rk a (S K ), pp. 140-148.
Copenhagen, shows the cathedral without its central
tower. 56. Lundmark, T in g stä d e k y rka (SK ).
42. Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker.

57. Romdahl, L in k ö p in g s do m ky rka , pp. 11-127, and
K ø b en ha vns A m t, 3:1267-1332; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e
Cnattingius et al., L in k ö p in g s d o m k y rk a (SK ), pp. 242
kirker, 3:29-37; and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 182-189. 275.
43. Lorenzen, D a n sk e ciste rc ie n se rk lo ste rs b y g n in g s

58. Gerhard Fischer, D o m k irk e n i T rondheim , 1:99
historie, pp. 1-18 and 62-95; Moltke and Møller, 358.
D a n m a rk s K irker. S ønderjylland, 2:1050-1095; Hor
skjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 18:37-46; and Exner, 59. Gerhard Fischer, D o m k irk e n i Stavanger, pp. 49
L a nd sbykirker, pp. 67-68. 8 1, and Lidén, “Middelalderens steinarkitektur,” pp.

85-88.
44. See Johnny Roosval, B a ltisk a n o rd en s kyrkor.
60. Sverri Dahl, “Extracts from a Lecture on Kirk-
45. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 7:30-42, and Bol jubøur,” and Jessen, “Magnus-Katedralen.”
vig, B ykirker, pp. 150-154.
61. In this account of Scandinavian architecture no
46. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 14:33-53; Vibeke attempt is made to deal fully with the multitudinous
Michelsen and Licht, D a n m a rk s K irker. Å rh u s A m t,
problems of conservation. Here at Kirkjubøur out in
1:125-383; and Bol vig, B ykirker, pp. 269-273. the North Atlantic, at least, one might expect a min
imum of difficulty, but this is not the case. The shell
47. Hermansen, Roussell, and Steenberg, D a n m a rk s
mortar is being attacked by acid rain from the Conti
K irker. K øb en ha vn, 1:9-12, and Claus M. Smidt, Vor
nent, causing the structure to become increasingly
F ru e K irke , pp. 9-10.

355 .
unstable and raising questions about how to safe 73. Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg,
guard and use this much-beloved building. 1:1-47, and Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen,
D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 17-18. See
62. Roussell, F a r m s a n d C h u rch es, pp. 119-126, and
also Hahr, N o rd isk a Borgar, pp. 27-132, and Tuulse,
Krogh, V ik in g G reen lan d , pp. 93-99.
B u rge n d e s A b e n la n d s, pp. 197-204.
63. Berthelson, S tu d ie r i B irg ittin ero rd en s b y g g n a d
74. Ramsing, K ø b e n h a v n s h isto rie, 1:7-12.
sk ic k , pp. 9-20, and Iwar Anderson, Vad sten a g å r d
och kloster, 1: 13 6 - 148. 75. Martin Olsson, ed., S to ck h o lm s Slo tts historia,
1:31-60. For the early stone walls of Stockholm’s

64. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 13 :13 8 - 139, and
Old City see Hansson, S to ck h o lm s sta d sm u ra r, pp. 86
Exner, L a nd sbykirke r, p. 54.
171. The painting V ä d e rso lsta v la n is the earliest
65. Saxtorph, J e g s e r på ka lkm a le rier. Additional il known view of Stockholm.
lustrations can be found in Broby-Johansen, D et
76. The earlier defenses in Norway are discussed in
d a n sk e B illed bibe l, and Franceschi and Hjort, K a lk m a l
Gerhard Fischer, N o rsk e ko n geb o rger. For a full ac
e rie r fra d a n sk e lan d sb y kirker. The first of a projected
count of King Håkon Håkonsson’s building in Bergen,
iconographical study of the Danish paintings is Ban
see Gerhard Fischer and Dorothea Fischer, N o rsk e
ning, ed., C a talo gu e o f W a ll-P a in tin g s.
K o n geb o rger. B e rg e n h u s. A summary is found in Lidén,
66. Erichs and Wilcke-Lindqvist, K y rk o r i N ä rd in g - “Middelalderens steinarkitektur,” pp. 109-113.
h un dra h ä ra d (S K ), pp. 221-267. An account of the
77. King Håkon Håkonsson was a friend of King
Swedish paintings, with extensive bibliography, is in
Henry III of England, whose master builder was
Söderberg, S ve n sk a ky rko m åln inga r.
Henry of Reynes, the architect of Westminster Ab
67. A discussion of the baldachin paintings, with bib bey. There has been speculation that Henry of
liography, is in Wichström, “Maleriet i høymiddel Reynes was the builder of Håkon’s Hall (Simpson,
alderen,” pp. 263-270. C a stle o f B e rg e n ).
68. Sárkány, “Finströms kyrka.” See also the general 78. Kronqvist, Å b o slott, and Gardberg, Å b o slott.
discussion in Kronqvist, “Mittelalterliche Kirchen-

79. Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 34-35,
architektur.”
and Olof af Hällström, Sveab org.
69. For an extensive bibliography of the literature

80. Rydbeck, G lim m in g e h u s, pp. 3-30, and Kjellberg,
on medieval Scandinavian churches, 1950-1982, see
Skå ne, 3:61-81.
“Kirkearkaeologisk litteratur i Norden.”
8 1. For a brief history of the development of Euro
70. The following articles that summarize these
pean town halls from the twelfth to the fifteenth
studies, with bibliography, are in Barley, ed., E uropean
centuries see Pevsner, H isto ry o f B u ild in g Types, pp.
Towns: Nyberg, “Denmark,” pp. 65-81; Lidén, “Ur
53-62.
ban Archaeology in Norway,” pp. 83-101; and Am
brosiani and Hans Andersson, “Urban Archaeology in 82. Tidemand-Dal, “Gildhuset i Naestved”; Sestoft,
Sweden,” pp. 123-126. D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. A rb e jd e ts b y gn in ger, pp. 21-22;
and Aage Andersen, M id d e la ld e rb y e n N a estve d , pp.
7 1. Lebech, D a n sk e kø b sta eder, 1: 12 7 - 128, and Hart
85-86.
mann and Villadsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B yens huse.
B ye n s plan, pp. 13-15.
72. Ekhoff and Janse, V isb y sta dsm u r, and Wåhlin,

Visby, pp. 34-42.

3 The Renaissance in Scandinavia 17. Wanscher, K ro n b o rg s h isto rie; Christensen, K ro n
1. Derry, H isto ry o f Scan d in a via , pp. 86-95. b o rg ; Weilbach, K ro n b o rg C a stle; Norn, K ro nb o rg; and
Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 1:11-52. The earliest
2. The Netherlandish works are discussed in Hitch
stages of Kronborg and possible sources for the de
cock, N e th e rla n d ish S cro lled G a b les, pp. 33-47.
sign of its walls in the late fourteenth century are
3. Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, i :353-370. The six discussed in Langberg, “Castle of Elsinore.” A brief
teenth-century Danish manor houses are discussed in discussion of the work of individual builders and
Hahr, N o rd isk a bo rg a r, pp. 151-174. sculptors under Frederik II is in Skovgaard, K in g 's A r
chitecture, pp. 17-25. For eighteenth-century views

4. Eriksen, O m v a e lsk e g a v le ; Norn, H e sse la g e rg a a rd ;
and comments see Thurah, D a n sk e Vitru viu s, 2:67-75
and Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 8:7-20.
and plates 28-30. For discussion of Thurah and of his
5. Ibid., 8:128-155. great publication see below, chapter 4.
6. Hahr, “Torup”; Lundberg, “Torups Slott”; Kjell 18. Beckett, U ra n ib o rg ; Martin Olsson, U ranib org, pp.
berg and Svensson, eds., Slott och herresä ten , Skåne, 3-23; and Jern, U ranib org. Tycho Brahe set forth his
1:343-365; and Söderberg, M a n o r H o u ses, p. 38. idea of the site for astronomical observations as fol
lows: “First of all, the place should be in a high local
7. Norn, C h ristia n l l ľ s bo rge, 1:82-91, and Söder
ity from where there is a free view round the whole
berg, R ik sfa ste n , pp. 177-200.
horizon, without woods or mountains or other build
8. Strömbon, G rip sh o lm , pp. 18-62; Westlund, G rip s-

ings intervening. It is also preferable that it is a soli
holm u n d e r V a sa tid en ; Wollin, “Gripsholmsföreningen tary place, free from the commotion of the common
och restaureringen”; Malmborg, ed., G rip sh o lm ; and herd, where it is possible to enjoy philosophical tran
Malmborg, K u n g lig a slo tten 2:9-84. quility,” in Raeder, Strömgren, and Strömgren, trans,
and eds., Tycho B ra h e ’s D escrip tio n , p. 121.
9. Andreas Lindblom, V ad sten a ; Unnerbäck, V ad sten a
slott; and Söderberg, R iksfa sten , pp. 286-320. 19. Allgulin, H a n s van S te e n w in c k e l d.ä., pp. 39-60.
10. Martin Olsson, K a lm a r slo tts historia, and Söder 20. Kidd, ed., D o cu m e n ts, p. 199. For the Reformed
berg, R iksfa sten , pp. 79-138. liturgies and church furnishings see Hamberg, T em p el
bygge, pp. 149-230, and Johannsen and Claus M.

11. Martin Olsson, K a lm a r slo tts kyrkor, pp. 34-48. Smidt, D a n m a rk s A riktek tu r. K irk e n s huse, pp. 110
See also Hahr, A rc h ite k te n fa m ilie Pahr, pp. 56-92. 135.
12. Hahr, U pp sa la slott, and Söderberg, R iksfa sten , 21. Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker. F re d e
pp. 232-265. rik sb o rg A m t, 3:2023-21 18; Exner, L a nd sb ykirker, pp.
9 0 -9 1; and Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 3 :2 5 2 - 2 5 6 .
13. Andreas Lindblom, Sto ck h o lm s slo tt; Malmborg,
K u n g lig a slotten, 1:112-132; and Martin Olsson, ed., 22. Christian A. Jensen and Hermansen, D a n m a rk s
Sto ck h o lm s slo tts historia, 1:61-86. K irker. P ra estø A m t, 1:294-300.
14. Kloster and Gerhard Fischer, R o sen cra n tz Tower, 23. Skovgaard’s K in g ’s A rch ite ctu re is the most ex
and Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 13-15. tensive account in English of the architectural activi
ties of Christian IV. See also Wanscher, C h ristia n IV ’s
15. Ibid., p. 65.
b y gn in ger, Stein, “Christian IV,” and Heiberg, ed.,
16. Beckett, F re d e rik sb o rg , pp. 1-249; Weilbach, C h ristia n IV a n d E urop e, pp. 462-505.
F re d e rik sb o rg Slo t; Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 1:83
24. Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg,
86; and Honnens de Lichtenberg, “Frederik Iľs
1:170.
Frederiksborg.”

357.
25. Among the major publications on Frederiksborg sta d sp la n ek o n st, pp. 283-287; and Eimer, Stadtp lan-
are Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 2:3-60 and plates 4-18; ung, pp. 154-155.
Wanscher, C h ristia n IV ’s bygn in ger, pp. 41-62; Steen-
38. Lorenzen, ed., C h ristia n IV ’s B ya n la ege, pp. 83
berg, C h ristia n IV ’s F re d e rik sb o rg ; and Roussell, ed.,
96; Lebech, C h ristia n sha vn, pp. 12-24; Eimer, S tadt-
D a n sk e slotte, 1:83-1 10. For gardens at Frederiks
p lan u ng, pp. 157-158; and Hartmann and Villadsen,
borg see Hakon Lund, K o n g e lig e lysthaver, pp. 108
D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B ye ns huse. B ye ns plan, pp. 22
120. For the Chapel see Moltke and Elna Møller,
23.
D a n m a rk s K irker. F re d e rik sb o rg A m t, 3:1673-1778.
39. Lorenzen, ed., C h ristia n IV ’s B ya n la ege, pp. 254
26. The original fountain was seized as booty by the
281, and Gerhard Fischer, O slo u n d e r E ik sb e rg , pp.
Swedes in 1660 and is now at Drottningholm.
31-48.
27. Skovgaard, K in g ’s A rch ite ctu re , pp. 4 5 -5 1.
40. Sinding-Larsen, A k e rsh u s, 1:51 —125 and 2 :9 - 146;
28. Bligaard, “Privy Passage.” Arno Berg, A k e rs h u s slott, 2:20-80; Stenseng, A k e rs
h us C a stle; and Mamen, A k e rsh u s.

29. Molesworth, A c c o u n t o f D e n m a rk , quoted in
Skovgaard, K in g ’s A rch ite ctu re , p. 67. 41. Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker.
K ø b en ha vn A m t, 3 :15 0 4 -1526.
30. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:43-54 and plates 24
34; Wanscher, C h ristia n IV ’s b y gn in ger, pp. 64-72, 80 42. Lundborg, H e lig a T refa ld ig h etsky rka n , pp. 25-82,
84, 89-98, and 150-154; and Heiberg, ed., C hristian and Wanscher, C h ristia n IV ’s b ygn in ger, pp. 105-113.
IV a n d Europe, pp. 471-473. For the gardens at Ro
43. The suggestion has been made that Christian IV
senborg see Lund, K o n g e lig e lysthaver, pp. 15-40.
designed the chapel at Roskilde himself, on the
3 1. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 3:68-69 and plate 4 1. grounds that Lorenz van Steenwinckel would have
been unlikely to put a column so awkwardly in the
32. Ibid., 1:61-63 and plates 53-55; Wanscher,
center of the room (Skovgaard, K in g ’s A rch itectu re, p.
C h ristia n IV ’s b y gn in ger, pp. 114-123; and Sestoft,
79). The columns of the cross aisle at Holy Trinity
D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. A rb e jd e ts b ygn in ger, pp. 28-30.
Church in Kristianstad interrupt this central space in
33. Christian IV’s desire to encourage trade with In the same manner, however, and in neither building
dia led him to send the merchant Ove Giedde to was the affected area likely to be used for
Ceylon, near where the Danish trading post of Tran- processions.
quebar was founded in 1620. This is the source of
44. Friis, O rg e lb y g n in g i D a n m a rk, pp. 3 7 -4 1. No
the name for the faience pattern designed for the
satisfactory history of the organ cases built for the
Royal Copenhagen Porcelain Manufactory by Chris
Renaissance and Baroque churches in the Scandina
tian Joachim in 1914. The Danish buildings in Tran-
vian countries has been written. The organ works
quebar are discussed in Pedersen, “Tranquebars
themselves have rarely survived, the casings now
danske huse.”
generally housing rebuilds or entirely new
34. Lorenzen, ed., C h ristia n IV ’s B ya n la ege, pp. 73 instruments.
75, and Lebech, N yboder.
45. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øb en ha vn, 2:3-70;
35. Langberg, ed., H v e m B y g g e d e H vad, 1:24-25. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 1:86-90; and Bolvig,
B ykirker, pp. 93-100.
36. Lorenzen, Je n s B a n g s Sten h u s, pp. 12-25.
46. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øb en ha vn, 2:225
37. Cederström, K ristia n sta d ; Lorenzen, ed., C h ris
250 and 265-288; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker,
tian IV ’s B y a n la eg e, pp. 160-173; Sandblad, S k å n sk
1: 17 2 - 177; and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. I 18 - 12 1.

47. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øbenhavn, 2:251— 5. Josephson, T essin, 2:109-1 18, and Eimer, Sta d t
265; Steenberg, R u nd ta a rn ; Stein, “Rundetaarns p lan u ng, pp. 541-562.

gaade”; and Svendsen, R undtårn opklaret.
6. Nordenstreng, F re d ric k sh a m n , pp. 19-27.
48. Johnson, S w e d ish S e ttle m e n ts on the D elaw are.
7. Silfverstolpe and Stavenow, D ro ttn ing h o lm ; Malm
49. Masson, Q ueen C hristina, pp. 127-132. In Sep borg, D ro ttn in g h o lm ; and Malmborg, K u n g lig a slotten,
tember of 1649 Descartes was invited to Stockholm 2:183-241. For the gardens see Ahlberg, S ve n sk a
to instruct the queen in his new philosophy. Wher trä d g a a rd sk o n ste n , 1:77-85, and Karling,
ever his lodgings may have been, appearances in the T rä d g å rd k o n ste n s h isto ria i S ve rig e , pp. 408-414.
drafty old castle at five o’clock in the morning led to
8. Thurah’s illustration is similar to a painting of So
his illness and death the following February.
phie Amalienborg at Ledreborg, both of which are
50. Andreas Lindblom, S ve rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 2:360 dated long after the Copenhagen palace was de
361. stroyed. Both views probably had a common source,
now lost. See comments by Lund in Thurah, D a n sk e
5 1. Sirén, G a m la S to ck h o lm sh u s, 1:11-13, and An
V itru viu s, 3:350-351, and Linvald, Sophie A m a lie n b o rg ,
dreas Lindblom, S v e rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 1:359-360 and
pp. 8 - 10. For the gardens see Lund, K o n g e lig e lyst
399.
haver, pp. 41-54.
52. Söderberg, N ä rke. V ä stm a n la n d , pp. 381-403.
9. Weilbach, C h arlo ttenb o rg, pp. 3-55; Roussell, ed.,
53. Sirén, G a m la S to ck h o lm sh u s, 1:28-34; Silfver- D a n sk e slotte, 2:253-270; and Thurah, D a n sk e V itru
stolpe, “Riddarhuspalatset,” pp. 85-196; Karling, “Si vius, 1:54-56. For the gardens see Lund, K o n g e lig e
mon de La Vallée.” lysthaver, pp. 257-260.
54. Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 55-58. 10. Josephson, T essin i D a n m a rk, pp. 25-84. For a
shorter account see Josephson, Tessin, 1:80-85.
55. Lundmark, S a n k t Ja k o b s K y rka (S K ), pp. 2 2 9 -3 10.
11. Ironically it was a small theater built close to
56. Flodin, T yresö ky rk a (SK ), pp. 2 5 -5 1.
the Sophie Amalienborg in 1689 that caught fire dur
ing its second performance and caused the burning of
4 Scandinavian Baroque and Rococo the palace as well. The episode is described in Over-
1. Krabbe, K a stellet, pp. 17-109.
skou, D a n sk e S ku ep la d s, 1:117.
2. Anderson, K a rlsk ro n a , pp. I 3-36, and Eimer,

12. Lindblom, S to ck h o lm s slott, pp. 42-68; Josephson,
S tadtp lanung, pp. 483-509. Count Erik Dahlberg was
Tessin, 2:70-98; Martin Olsson, ed., Sto ck h o lm s slo tts
a military engineer whose topographical drawings are
h isto rie; and Setterwall, The Royal Palace, Stockholm .
a valuable source of information about Swedish and
A more recent study that reexamines the project in
Finnish buildings in the late seventeenth century. The
detail and includes reproductions of Tessin’s drawings
drawings were engraved and published in three vol
and an analytical catalogue is Kommer, N ic o d e m u s
umes as S uecia a ntiqu a et hodierna, 1693-1714. For
T essin d e r Jü n g e r e u n d d a s S to ck h o lm e r S chloss. For
his interest in city planning see Eimer, Stadtplanung,
Rehn’s work on the interiors see Wahlberg, Je a n E ric
pp. 395-409 and 510-532.
R ehn, pp. 31-61.
3. Fett and Schnitler, eds., N o rsk K u nsthisto rie, 1:206,

13. Josephson, T essin, 1:49-52. In 1687 as Royal Ar
and Henry Berg, T ro n dh eim fø r C icigno n, p. 17.
chitect Tessin visited Versailles, where Le Nôtre
4. Engqvist, S ø n d e rjysk e byen, pp. 84-95. himself showed him the gardens. In 1705 he offered
a design for the rebuilding of the Louvre, but it was

359 .
not accepted (ibid., 1:72-73 and 97-106). some of which turned out to be parts of a cycle of
M a g n ific a t settings by the German organist and com
14. Weilbach, F re d e r ik sb e r g slot, pp. 28-51;
poser Jacob Praetorius (1586-1651) (Friis, O rg e lb y g
Nystrøm, F re d e r ik sb e r g s h isto n e ; Roussell, ed., D a n sk e
nin g, pp. 87-89).
slotte, 2:281-322; and Thurah, D a n sk e V itruvius,
2:1 10-1 14. For the park and gardens see Lund, Kon 25. Wrangel, T e ssin sk a P alatset, pp. 5-25; Siren,
g e lig e lysthaver, pp. 61-107. “Tessinska palatset”; and Josephson, Tessin, 2 :176
180.
15. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s Kirker. K ø b enhavn, 3:341—
370; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 1:49-51; and Bol 26. Schiøtt, “Frederik Ill’s Biblioteks og kunst-
vig, B ykirker, pp. 82-84. kammerbygning.”
16. Barrow, E x cu rsio n s, p. 192. 27. Rosel I and Bennett, K a lm a r D o m k y rk a (SK ), pp.
9-164.
17. Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sbo rg,
1:81-84. 28. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s Kirker. K øb enhavn, 2:484

503; Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:80-83; Horskjaer,
18. Ibid., 1:98-99. For the Castle Chapel see Bir-
ed., D a n sk e kirker, 1:189-195; and Bolvig, B ykirker,
gitte-Boggild Johannsen, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øbenhavn,
pp. 122-125.
5:22-35 and 67-81.
29. Josephson, T e ssin i D a n m a rk, pp. 121-135. The
19. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 2:62-67; Steenberg,
altar was based on Bernini’s altar in SS. Domenico e
F re d e n sb o rg ; Helsted, D ro n n in g Ju lia n e M a rie o g F re
Sisto in Rome, of which Tessin had made a sketch
d e n sb o rg slo t; Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 1:131-164;
(ibid., figure 89).
and Steenberg, “Fredensborg Interiörer.” See also
Lund, K o n g e lig e lysthaver, pp. 121-205. 30. Friis, O rg elb y gn in g, pp. 84-87. During restora
tion in 1965 it was found that the organ was leaning
20. Ehbisch also designed two pulpits for the Co
away from the tower. Arnolt Schlick had warned
penhagen Palace chapel, one of which was built
against such dangers in his treatise on organ building
(Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sbo rg, 1: 157
of 1511 (quoted in Berry, “Arnolt Schlick’s Spiegel,”
161, figures 176 and 177). For the Fredensborg
p. 80).
chapel see Moltke and Elna Møller, D a n m a rk s K irker.
F re d e rik sb o rg A m t, 2:797-821, and Jørgen Høj Mad 3 1. Steenberg, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øb en ha vn, 3:24-67;
sen, “Fredensborg slotskirke.” Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:84; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e
kirker, 1:227-231; and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 107-110.

21. Hopstock and Tschudi-Madsen, R osendal, and
Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 58-60. 32. For a brief discussion of Continental Protestant
architecture before the seventeenth century see
22. Andrén, Skokloster. For the gardens see Kariing,
Donnelly, N e w E n g la n d M e e tin g H o u se s, pp. 20-35.
T rä d g å rd k o n ste n s h isto ria i S ve rig e, pp. 468-478.
33. Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” p. 43, and
23. Langberg, C la u sh o lm s b y g n in g sh isto rie , and Rous
Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, p. 210.
sell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 14:77-98.
34. Arno Berg, V o r F re ls e rs K irk e , and Muri, N o rsk e
24. The organ in the chapel was probably originally
K yrkjer, pp. 43-44.
built in the sixteenth century, by an unknown builder,
and rebuilt in the seventeenth century. During resto 35. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:27-43 and plates 8
ration of the instrument in 1964 the bellows were 23, and Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 2:26-40. A full
found to have been lined with fragments of music, account of the first Christiansborg project is given in

Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sbo rg, 1:181 — version of his name after receiving letters of nobility
258, with a summary in English, pp. 395-401. in 1740. Weilbach’s biography remains the principal
source for Thurah’s life and work. For an account of
36. Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D an
the preparation and publication of D en D a n sk e V itru
m a rk s A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 5 6 -6 1.
v iu s and its place in Thurah’s career, see the com
37. Langberg, D a n m a rk s byg n in g sku ltu r, 1:276 and ments by the editor of the 1967 edition, Hakon
figure 256, and Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ris Lund, appended to each volume, in Danish, French,
tia n sb o rg, 1: 16 7 - 198. and German. Lund also wrote on each of the build
ings, clarifying Thurah’s remarks and commenting on
38. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:90, and plates 48-52.
the later histories of the buildings.
39. Ibid., 1:41-42, and plates 17-21, and Birgitte-
49. Meldahl and Johansen, K o n g e lig e a ka d em i, pp. 8
Boggild Johannsen, D a n m a rk s K irker. K ø b enhavn, 5:99
69; Poulsen, Lassen, and Danielsen, eds., D a n sk K u n st
175. The pulpit was designed by Lou is-Augustus
H isto rie , 3:11-21; and Pevsner, A c a d e m ie s o f A rt, pp.
LeClerc. For the organ by Lambert Daniel Kastens
155-156.
see Friis, O rg elb y gn in g, pp. 128-130. See also Hvidt,
Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg, 1:292-297. 50. Meldahl and Johansen, K o n g e lig e a ka d em i, pp.
69-71.
40. Donnelly, “Theaters in the Courts,” pp. 328
340. 5 1. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:85-87 and plates 90
95.
4 1. The text of the proclamation of March 3 1,
1738, is translated in Marker and Marker, S can d in a 52. Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg,
vian Theatre, p. 69: “. . . no play actors, rope dancers, 1:197.

conjurers, or those who run so-called games of
53. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 1:91 and plate 107, and
chance shall be found in Denmark or Norway, nor
Elling, “Arkitekten Philip de Lange.”
shall their plays and routines anywhere be performed
or exercised.” 54. Christian A. Jensen and Hermansen, D a n m a rk s
Kirker. P ra estø A m t, 2 : 1008-1013; Exner, L a nd sb y

kirker, pp. 3 0 -3 1; and Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker,
64, and Hermansen, Roussel I, and Steenberg, D an
6:269-270.
m a rk s Kirker. K ø b en ha vn, 1:113-136.
55. Donnelly, N e w E n g la n d M e e tin g H o u ses, pp. 91
108.
34, and Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 2:57-66.
56. Lindblom, S v e rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 2:613.
44. Overskou, D a n sk e S ku ep la d s, 2 : 2 7 - 4 7 .
57. Hirn, S ve ab o rg , and Hällström, Sveab org.

45. Thurah, D a n sk e V itru viu s, 3:64 and plate 32.
58. Stavenow, H å rle m a n , pp. 14 9 - 157. For later
46. Ibid., 1:57-59 and plates 44 and 47; 3:45 and
proposals for further remodeling of Svartsjö by the
plate 14.
Swedish-born English architect Sir William Chambers,
47. Ibid., 1:53-54 and plates 21-25; Roussell, ed., see Harris, S ir W illia m C h a m b e rs, pp. 87-88 and
D a n sk e Slotte, 2:141 —190; Viggo Sten Møller, plates 127 and 128.
A m a lie n b o rg ; and Elling, A m a lie n b o rg Interiors.
59. Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 1:301-326.
48. Weilbach, A rc h ite k te n L a u ritz Thura, pp. 173—
60. Ibid., 1:53-66, and Hartmann and Villadsen, D an -
185. Baptized Laurids Thurah, he adopted the later

361 .
m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B ye ns huse. B yens plan, pp. 103-105. and Fogelmarck, C a rl F re d rik A d e lc ra n tz , pp. 147-160
For the Marienlyst gardens see Lund, K o n g e lig e ly st and 389-392.
haver, pp. 243-252.
70. Meldahl, F re d e rik sk irk e n , pp. 52-65.
61. Weilbach, A rk ite k te n C. F. H a rsdo rff, pp. 153—
7 1. Langberg, D a n m a rk s b y g n in g sku ltu r, 1:5-8, and
163, and Hartmann and Villadsen, D a n m a rk s A r k ite k
Lund and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s b y g n in g sk u n st, pp.
tur. B ye ns huse. B ye ns plan, pp. 10 7 - 109. The atten
277-291.
tive observer will note, however, that the Ionic
capitals of these pilasters are presented with their 72. Weilbach, A rk ite k te n C. F. H a rsd o rff, pp. 5 8 -7 1.
rolls to the street, rather than with their volutes in
73. Hiort, “Andreas Kirkerup’s Islandske kirke.”
the normal fashion.
74. Beijer, C ourt T h ea tres, p. 7. The original archi

62. Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 78-80.
tect is not known, but a member of the Bibiena fam
63. Ibid., pp. 98-110. ily of designers has been suggested as a possibility
(Donnelly, “Theaters in the Courts,” pp. 333-334).
64. Malmborg, K u n g lig a slotten, pp. 242-252. The
first pavilion of 1753 was built as a birthday gift for 75. Fogelmarck, C a rl F re d rik A d e lc ra n tz , pp. 189-195
Queen Lovisa Ulrica and, becoming unsound, was de and 303-313; Malmborg, K u n g lig a slotten, 1:253-258;
molished in 1763 to make way for the present build and Eklund and Stribolt, B o llh u se t och D ra m aten , pp.
ing. Much of the queen’s collection of Chinese 8-15. Beijer’s C ourt T h ea tres illustrates a large collec
furnishings and objects of art remain there. An ex tion of drawings for the buildings and the sets, with
tensive account of both buildings, the collections, the commentary. On the staff of the Royal Library in
landscaping, and the restorations is given in Setter- Stockholm, in 1921 Beijer recognized the importance
wall, Fogelmarck, and GyIlensvärd, C h in ese Pavilion. of the building and its contents, then stored in ware
See also Wahlberg, Je a n E rik R ehn, pp. 75-79, and house fashion, and led efforts for restoration.
Hardy, “Historic Houses: Fantasy at Kina Slott.”
76. Neiiendam, H ofteatret, pp. 8-12.
65. Kariing, Tyresö Slott, and Söderberg, S ö d e rm a n
land, 2:255-271. 77. Stavenow, C a rl H å rlem a n , pp. 197-199, and Aim,

“Stockholms observatorium.”
66. Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 5:397-406, and
Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. E n fa m ilie h u se t, pp. 78. Setterwall, “Stockholms börsbyggnad,” and Set-
25-28. An extensive account of such gardens in Den terwall, E rik P a lm sted t, pp. 52-89.
mark is by Elling, R o m a n tisk e H ave.

79. Fogelmarck, “Gustav Ill’s Opera”; Fogelmarck,
67. Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, pp. 69-71, and Lexow, C arl F re d rik A d e lc ra n tz , pp. 200-212 and 433-453;
“Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 48-49. Lexow calls at Hilleström, The R oyal O pera, pp. 10-12; and Eklund
tention to the work by the German mathematician and Stribolt, B o llh u se t och D ra m aten , pp. 16-19.
Leonhard Christoph Sturm, A rc h ite c to n isc h e s B ede n

80. Dumont, P a ra llè le, and Pevsner, H isto ry o f B u ild
ken, which was known and used in Norway. See also
in g Types, pp. 76-77
Bugge and Alsvik, eds., N o rg e s K irker. K o n g sb e rg
K irke , pp. 59-78. 81. Høy, C h ristia n sfeld , pp. 4-11, and Gorssen, C h ris
tiansfeld. This was of course not the only Herrnhut-

68. Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, pp. 97-98, and Ødegaard,
ter colony founded in order to escape persecution in
O m K je rk e på Røros.
Germany. As early as 1731 Count Zinzendorf was in
69. Mannström, A d o lf F re d rik s K y rk a (S K ), pp. 62-75, Copenhagen to arouse initial interest in such a settle-

ment, and in 1741 under his patronage the town of 16. Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. E n fa m ilieh u se t, p.
Bethlehem in Pennsylvania was founded. See Mur- 34.
tagh, M o ra via n A rc h ite c tu re , pp. 22-93.
17. Jakstein, “C. F. Hansens Rat-und-Arresthaus,”
82. Rácz, R okoko och k la ssic ism , p. 242 and plate 29, and Jørgensen and Porphyrios, eds., “Neoclassical Ar
and Richards, 8 0 0 Years, p. 60. chitecture,” pp. 46-51.
18. Weilbach, C. F. H a n se n s C h ristia n sb o rg. For the

S Scandinavian N eoclassicism
full account of the second Christiansborg see Hvidt,
1. For comparable developments in England and
Ellehøj, and Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg, 2:2-186.
America see Summerson, A rc h ite c tu re in B ritain, pp.
247-291, and Whiffen and Koeper, A m e ric a n A rc h i 19. Percier and Fontaine, R ecu eil d e d éco ratio ns
tecture, pp. 100-124. intérieures.
2. Cornell, S ve n sk a ko n ste n s historia, 2:7-14, and 20. Derry, H isto ry o f Scan d in a via , pp. 199-206.
Söderberg, M a n o r H o u ses, pp. 179-234.
3. Bain, G u sta vu s III, 1:269-270. 53.
4. Setterwall, P a lm stedt, pp. 165-180; Bjurström, 22. Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker, 1:29-31; Bolvig,
“Gripsholmsteaterns salong”; and Beijer, “Les B ykirker, pp. 77-78; Hvidt, Ellehøj, and Norn, eds.,
Théåtres,” pp. 222-224. C h ristia n sb o rg, 2:27-32; and Birgitte-Boggild Johann
sen, D a n m a rk s K irker. K øb en ha vn, 2 :177-202.
5. For a discussion of Palmstedt’s experience and
probable resources see Donnelly, “Theaters in the 23. Hermansen, Roussell, and Steenberg, D a n m a rk s
Courts,” pp. 339-340. Kirker. K øb en ha vn, 1:151-184; Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e
kirker, 1:195-201; and Bol vig, B ykirker, pp. 103-105.

6. Beijer, “Les Théåtres,” pp. 217-218. The dedica
Attention has been drawn to some of the possible
tion reads “alie maesta di Gustavo III, re di Svezia.”
French sources for Hansen’s ideas for rebuilding
7. Ekberg, U p p sa la slott, pp. 65-83. (Langberg, O m k rin g C. F. H a n se n , pp. 30-34). See
also Wohlert, “C. F. Hansen’s Domkirke,” and
8. Stavenow, H a rle m a n , pp. 2 16 - 2 17.
Jørgensen and Porphyrios, eds., “Neoclassical Archi
9. Wollin, D e sp re z i S ve rig e , pp. 84-89. tecture,” pp. 38-41.
10. Ibid., pp. 59-82, and Malmborg, K u n g lig a slotten,

24. Wanscher, A rk ite k te n G. B in desb ø ll, pp. 15-29;
2:85-130. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rk ite k tu rstrø m n in g e r, pp.

26-30; Langberg, D a n m a rk s b y g n in g sku ltu r, 2 : 106
11. Wollin, D e sp r e z i S ve rig e , pp. 161-166. 109; Bramsen, G o ttlieb B in d e sb ø ll, pp. 49-97;
Jørgensen, “Thorvaldsen’s Museum”; and Jørgensen
12. Bucht, H ä rn ö sa n d s historia, 1:384-390.
and Porphyrios, eds., “Neoclassical Architecture,” pp.
13. Jakstein, L a n d b a u m e iste r C h ristia n F rie d rich H a n 42-45.
se n ; Langberg, O m k rin g C. F. H a n se n ; Wietek, C F.
25. Derry, H isto ry o f Scan d in a via , pp. 206-209.
H a n se n ; and Jørgensen, “Copenhagen School of Clas
sicism,” pp. 6-21. 26. Meissner, C a rl L u d w ig E n g e l, pp. 3 9 -4 1; Wick-
berg, “Engels stil historiska ställning”; Nils E. Wick-
14. Brogaard, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D an
berg, “Tillhundraårsminnet”; and Nils E. Wickberg,
m a rk s A rkitek tu r. L a n d b ru ge ts h use, pp. 176-177.
Senaatintori, pp. 121-123. The latter is the most ex
15. Jakstein, L a n d b a u m e iste r C h ristia n F ried rich H a n tensive account in English of the history of the Sen
sen , pp. 23-24. ate Square and its buildings (the text is also in

3 63 .
Finnish, Swedish, and German), and includes color re 2:235-238.

productions of a number of Engel’s drawings for the
38. Anders Bugge, A rk ite k te n S ta d sko n d u k to r Chr. H.
entire project, published for the first time. See also
G rosch, pp. 31-44 and 75-80.
Knapas, “Eastern and Western Neoclassicism,’’ and
Pöykkö, “Helsinki’s Neo-Classical Center.” 39. Ibid., pp. 91-94, and Hamran, “Det nye Norge,”
pp. 45-46.
27. Nils E. Wickberg, Senaatintori, pp. 125-126.
28. Meissner, C arl L u d w ig E n ge l, pp. 59-61; Nils E.
G rosch, pp. 97-1 10; Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, p. 31; and
Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 74-75; and Nils E.
Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 46-48.
Wickberg, Senaatintori, pp. 12 7 - 130.
4 1. Fett and Schnitler, eds., N o rsk ku n sth isto rie,
29. Lindberg, F in la n d s kyrkor, pp. 38-39.
2:241-243; Anders Bugge, A rk ite k te n S ta d sko n d uk to r
30. Lindberg, F in la n d s kyrkor, p. 55; Meissner, C arl Chr. H . G ro sch, pp. 131-153; and Hamran, “Det nye
L u d w ig E n g e l, p. 45; and Nils E. Wickberg, Sen aa tin Norge,” pp. 50-59.
tori, p. 134.
42. Lindblom, S v e rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 3:685-719.
31. Lindberg, F in la n d s kyrkor, pp. 55-56; Meissner,
43. Wollin, S k e p p sh o lm sk y rk a n (S K ), pp. 71-113.
C arl L u d w ig E n ge l, pp. 78-83; and Nils E. Wickberg,
Senaatintori, pp. 132-134.
ó Vernacular A rchitecture in Scandinavia
32. Meissner, C arl L u d w ig E n ge l, pp. 64-66; Nils E. 1. Uldall, “Open Air Museums”; Peter Michelsen,
Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 76-77; and Nils E. “The Outdoor Museum”; Arnö-Berg and Biörnstad,
Wickberg, Senaatintori, pp. 130-131. eds., S k a n se n s hus, pp. 14-30; and Alexander, Mu
seum M a ste rs, pp. 240-275.
33. Although the Library of the Academy of Sci
ences in St. Petersburg, built in 1718-1734, had 2. Peter Michelsen, “The Origin and Aim of the
burned in 1747, it had been recorded in an elaborate Open-Air Museum.”
publication of 1741, P alaty S a n k tp e te rb u rg sk o i Im p era -
3. Peter Michelsen, F rila n d sm u se e t, pp. 17-59.
to skoi A c a d e m ii. The interior was a great hall with a
two-story colonnade surrounding the walls, which 4. Uldall, “Open Air Museum,” pp. 68-69.
had book shelves in two stories. Engel’s colonnade is
5. Ailonen and Kinnunen, S eu ra sa a ri O pen A ir
a giant order, but his inspiration for the reading
M u seu m .
room may well have come from his knowledge of
the Russian example. 6. Hermansson, “Árbaer Museum,” and The Á rb a e r
M u seu m .
34. Derry, H isto ry o f Scan d in a via , pp. 2 10 - 2 18.
7. There is a considerable literature on half-timber

35. Fett et al., U lefos, and Hamran, “Det nye
construction, including work done in England, Ger
Norge,” pp. 15-17. Recent studies have changed the
many, and Holland. A useful discussion of the Scandi
former attribution to Jørgen Henrik Rawert (ibid.,
navian “bindingsvaerk” or “korsvirke” may be found
pp. 123-124).
in Lund and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s b y g n in g sk u n st, pp.
36. Kielland, P a le et i O slo; Kavli, The Royal P alace in 54-59. See also Stoklund, b o n d e g å rd o g b y g g e sk ik ,
O slo; Kavli and Hjelde, S lo ttet i Oslo, pp. 1-35; Ham pp. 28-37; Lundberg, Trä g a v form , pp. 123-125; and
ran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 31-44; and Kavli and Brogaard, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s
Hjelde, K o n g e n s Slott. A rkitek tu r. L a n d b ru ge ts h use, pp. 30-33.
37. Fett and Schnitler, eds., N o rsk ku n sth isto rie,

Notes to Pages 2 1 4 -2 4 0
8. Christian Axel Jensen, D a n sk b in d in g sv a e rk ; Stok den; and with the exception of a few potatoes, we
lund, B o nd egå rd , pp. 40-44; Peter Michelsen, F rila n d s had been so long strangers to any thing of this kind,
m u seet, pp. 208-210; and Vensild, “Højremshuse i that pine-apples could not have been more grateful.
Nord-og-Nordvest-Jylland.” We all ate of them greedily, both in their crude state
and boiled; telling our host not to be anxious in pro
9. Lund and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s by g n in g sk u n st,
curing for us any other provisions” (Clarke, Travels,
pp. 50-52, and Stoklund, B o nd egå rd , pp. 3 7 -4 1.
10:156).
20. No attempt will be made here to include all
11. For a study of chimneys and ovens see Peter possible bibliographical sources. A general survey is
Michelsen, Ildsteder. given in Valonen, “Knuttimring.” For Sweden see
Erixon, S v e n sk b y g g n a d s ku ltu r; Hallerdt, T im m e rh u s;
12. For thatching see Erixson, “Halmtakstyper i
and Lundberg, Trä g a v form , pp. 18-31. For Norway
Sverige”; Stoklund, B o nd egå rd , pp. 50-54; and Bro-
see Kavli, N o rw e g ia n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 22-29; Gunnar
gaard, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s A r k i
Bugge and Norberg-Schulz, S ta v o g laft, pp. 29-80;
tektur. L a n d b ru g e ts h use, pp. 33-35.
Håkon Christie, M id d e la ld e re n by g g er, pp. 33-40; and
13. Berlin, “Ravlundsgården.” The Ravlunda Farm Gjaerder, “Om stawerk og lafteverk.”
stead unfortunately burned in 1970, and a farmstead
21. Erixon, “North European Technique” and
from Hög in Skåne has been erected in its place.
Erixon, “Är den Nordamerikanska timringstekniken
14. For bibliography on the folk buildings of Skåne överförd fran Sverige?”
see Lundqvist, S v e n sk k o n sth isto risk bib lio grafi, pp.
22. Arnö-Berg and Biörnstad, eds., S k a n se n s hus, pp.
154-155.
343-366.
15. Arnö-Berg and Biörnstad, eds., S k a n se n s hus, pp.
23. Boëthius, A n d e rs Z o rn .
144-153.
24. Stigum, “Loft,” and Reimers and Anker, “Trear
16. For the bole-house techniques see Steensberg,
kitektur, pp. 4 0 0 -4 10. For a discussion of changing
“Bulhus”; Stoklund, B o nd egå rd , pp. 44-46; Lundberg,
elements in Norwegian houses as related to histori
Trä g a v form , pp. 92-108; and Håkon Christie, M id
cal factors see Lloyd, ”The Norwegian Laftehus.“
de la lde ren by g g er, pp. 4 1-54.
25. Stigum and Arne Berg, “Stove,” and Reimers
17. For the use of wall paintings and hangings in the
and Anker, “Trearkitektur,” pp. 386-400.
Swedish farmhouses see Plath, D eco ra tive A r ts o f S w e
den, pp. 5-8 and 16 9 -2 12. 26. For a discussion of the Norwegian painters of
these interiors see Hauglid, N a tive A r t o f N orw ay, pp.
63-106.
19. A vivid account of how such roofs could be put
27. Reimers and Anker, “Trearkitektur,” pp. 386
to use other than for shelter also gives insight into
390, and Visted and Stigum, V å r g a m le bo ndekultur,
early nineteenth-century conditions in Sweden: “We
1:46-153.
found a clean and excellent inn at Tännäs. A cooling
and delicious delicacy presented itself to our parched 28. Arne Berg, “The Joining of Individual Houses,”
palates upon our arrival here, and in a place where and Myhre, “Development of the Farm House.”
we should last have looked for it: this was nothing
29. For the early history of sawmills see Bishop,
less than a whole crop of turnips growing upon the
H isto ry o f A m e ric a n M a n u fa ctu res, 1:93-94.
top of the house, and covering all the roof of the
inn. Garden vegetables are hardly ever seen in Swe

365 .
30. The illustration is from Reginald Outhier, Jo u rn a l pp. 10-14; Crossley, T im b e r B u ild in g in E n gla nd , pp.
ď u n voyage a u n ord . Outhier had accompanied the 109-112; and Clifton-Taylor, P attern o f E n g lish B u ild
French astronomer Pierre Louis Moreau de Mauper- ing, p. 35.

tuis on an expedition to Lapland in 1736-1737, sent
39. Michelsen, F rila n d sm u se e t, pp. 199-201. In this
by Louis XV to measure the length of a degree of
group the hut in the foreground is original, brought
the meridian. The work was undertaken at the ob
to the Open Air Museum in 1910, and distinctive in
servatory at Kittilä.
being the first building acquired from Danish terri
31. Nikander, “Byar och gårdar,” pp. I 17-146, and tory proper.
Valonen, Z u r G e sch ich te d e r fin n isch en W ohnstuber.
40. Stoklund, “Røgstue og glasstue”; Thorste insson,
32. Vilkuna, “Den karelska gården,” and Nils E. “Faroese House Constructions”; Stoklund, “Røyk
Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 56-57. stova and Glasstova”; and Stoklund, “Houses and
Culture.”
33. Heikel, K a ru n a K yrka , and Lindberg, Fin la n d s ky r
kor, p. 97. 41. The splashmill illustrated here is another Faroese

example, from Sandur, moved to the Open Air Mu
34. Ullén, G ran h u lts och N o tte b ä ck s ky rk o r (SK ), pp.
seum in 1961-1965. A dwelling similar to the one at
277-296, and Ullén, M e d e ltid a trä k y rk o r I (SK ), pp.
Saksun, a kiln, and a storehouse complete the group
19-30.
there. An especially hazardous part of the enterprise
35. Ibid., pp. 112-113. was to lower the stones of the dwelling from Mula
on Borthoy down a 60-foot cliff to the ship below.
36. Wallin, S eg lo ra K yrka , pp. 9-17 and 35-77, and (Peter Michelsen, F rila n d sm u se e t, pp. 229-234.)
Arnö-Berg and Biörnstad, eds., S k a n se n s hus, pp.
510-534. The Seglora church has two features in 42. Sigurdsson, “The Turf Farm”; Ágústsson, “Inner
common with churches built by the Swedish settlers Construction”; and Ágústsson, “Building through the
in the New World. In 1647 John Printz, Governor of Centuries,” pp. 97-101.
New Sweden, wrote in a report to the Swedish
43. Nilsson, “Den sentida bebyggelsen”; Eldjárn,
West India Company, “Again, I have caused a church
“Two Medieval Farm Sites”; and Ágústsson, “Devel
to be built in New Gothenburg, decorating it ac
opment of the Icelandic Farm.”
cording to our Swedish fashion, so far as our re
sources and means would allow,” in Myers, ed., 44. Gestsson, “The Use of Stone and Turf in the
N a rra tive s o f E a rly Pen n sylva n ia, p. 122. This would Icelandic Houses.”
suggest paintings similar to those in the Seglora
45. Roussel I, F a rm s a n d C h u rch es, pp. 24-27 and
church. Then in 1698 the Swedish community in Phil
138.
adelphia built Gloria Dei Church, which also has a
polygonal apse. See Morrison, E a rly A m e ric a n A rc h i 46. Ágústsson, “Inner Construction,” pp. 181-183.
tecture, pp. 508-510.
47. Fenton, “The Longhouse in Northern Scotland.”
37. Petterson, P etäjä ve den vanhau kirk o n puolesta,
48. Hiort, “Andreas Kirkerup’s Islandske kirke,” pp.
pp. 56-57.
126-167.
38. Manker, L a p sk kultur, pp. 106-155, and Erixon,
49. Quoted in The A m e ric a n M a g a z in e , 3, no. 12
S ve n sk b y g g n a d s kultur, pp. 48-59. The use of curved
(September 1837): 461.
poles for the frame is thought to have p r e c e d e d th e
familiar “cruck” construction in English building. See 50. Jökulsson, “Árbaer Museum and Church.”
Innocent, D eve lo p m e n t o f E n g lish B u ild in g C o nstruction,
5 1. Jespersen, K o m m a n d ø rg å rd e n , and Ester Ander-

Notes to Pages 2 40-274
sen and K. Roland Hansen, “Kommandørgården på 3. Wanscher, “Constantin Hansen.”

Rømø.”
52. Stoklund, “Frilandsmuseets gård fra Lønnestak.” G rosch, pp. 172-177, and Hamran, “Det nye Norge,”
pp. 71-72.
53. Klein, L a n d b ru g e ts b y g n in g e r; Langberg, D a n m a rk s
b yg n in g sku ltu r, 2:44-53; and Brogaard, Lund, and 5. Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. E n fa m ilieh u se t, pp.
Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. La n d bru ge ts 38-63, and Brogaard, Lund, and Nørregård-N ielsen,
huse, pp. 58-67. D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. L a n d b ru ge ts h use, pp. 178-182.
54. Langberg, D a n m a rk s byg n in g sku ltu r, 1:1 15, and 6. Roussell, ed., D a n sk e slotte, 8:319-322, and Bro
Hartmann and Villadsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r. B yens gaard, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s A r k i
huse, p. 55. tektur. L a n d b ru ge ts huse, pp. 178-179. The illustration

is from Richardt and Secher, P ro sp ecter a f d a n sk e h er-
55. Langberg, D a n m a rk s byg n in g sku ltu r, 1: 185.
re ga a rd e, n.p.
56. Tunander, Falun.
7. Hjelde, O sca rsh all, pp. 11-34, and Hamran, “Det
57. Clarke, T ra ve ls, 10:556-557. nye Norge,” pp. 72-75.
58. Lexow, “Arkitektur 1536-1814,” pp. 101-102, 8. Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. E n fa m ilieh u se t, pp.
and Ødegaard, Røros. 48-84.
59. Sahlberg, H a n d icra ft M u se u m . 9. Guenther Lange, A le x is d e c h â t e a u neauf, pp. 49

51, and Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 94-95.
60. Richards, 8 0 0 Years, pp. 94-96.
10. Guenther Lange, A le x is d e c h â t e a u neuf, pp. 51
61. Tschudi-Madsen, “Veien hjem,” pp. 92-94.
53; Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, pp. 45-46; and Hamran,
62. Ágústsson, “Building through the Centuries,” “Det nye Norge,” pp. 96-97.
pp. 102-103, and Árnason, “New Lease on Life.”
11. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rkitektu rstrø m n in g er,
pp. 103-109, and Millech, J. D. H erho ldt.

7 Eclectic and Early M odern Scandina
vian Building 12. Meeks, The R a ilro a d Station, pp. 26-55, and Pev
1. An extensive account of this period in European sner, H isto ry o f B u ild in g Types, pp. 225-230.
architecture is given in Hitchcock, A rch ite ctu re : N in e
13. Derry, H isto ry o f S cand inavia, pp. 228 and 264.
teenth a n d T w entieth C e ntu ries, pp. 93-151; the work
For discussion of the early Danish railway stations
of Scandinavian builders is discussed on pp. 40-42.
see Sestoft, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. A rb e jd e ts bygn in ger,
See also Paulsson, S can d in a via n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 177
pp. 81-83 and 116-123.
184; Andreas Lindblom, S ve rig e s ko nsthisto ria, 3:800
828; Langberg, D a n m a rk s byg n in g sku ltu r, 2:103-142; 14. Paulsson, S can d in a via n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 172-194.
Faber, H isto ry o f D a n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 112 - 126; Hahr expressed dissatisfaction with the station as re
Lund and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s B yg n in g sk u n st, pp. modeled, calling the façade a “very inexpressive man
333-378; and Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 99 tle” (A rch ite ctu re in S w ed en , p. 75).
122.
2. Werlauff, U d sig t o ve r K iø b e n h a vn s U n ive rsite ts
16. Haffner, S to rtin g ets H u s, pp. 74-128, and Ham
B yg n in g s, and Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Niel-
ran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 80-90.
sen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 116-119.
17. Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, pp. 247-248.

367 .
18. Tschudi-Madsen, “Veien hjem,” pp. 30-31. 30. For discussions of Meldahl and his contemporar
ies see Stemann, F. M e ld a h l o g h a n s venner, and Mil
19. Hugo Johannsen and Claus M. Smidt, D a n m a rk s
lech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rk itektu rstrø m n in g er, pp.
A rkitek tu r. K irk e n s h u se , pp. 171-175.
165-206. See also Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker,
20. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rkitektu rstrø m n in g er, 1:44-47, and Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 84-85.
pp. 222-224, and Horskjaer, ed., D a n sk e kirker,
3 1. Willoch, N a sjo n a l g a lleriet, pp. 25-35 and 88-94,
1:134-135.
and Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, p. 74.
2 1. Fritsch, K irch en b a u d e s P ro testa n tism u s, p. 208.
32. Sachs, M o d ern O pera H o u ses, 1:53-54; Eklund
Fritsch found this plan in A. W. N. Pugin’s P re se n t
and Stribolt, B o llh u se t och D ra m aten , pp. 36-43; and
State o f E c c le sia stic a l A rch ite ctu re , where it appeared
Stribolt, S to ck h o lm s 1 8 0 0 -ta lstea tra r, pp. 287-357.
as the first of four ideal plans for not Protestant but
Roman Catholic churches, Pugin by this time having 33. Sachs, M o d ern O pera H o u ses, 1:51-52; Tschudi-
become a Catholic. Although Borch could have Madsen, H e n rik B ull, pp. 45-53; and Skriver, “Na
known Pugin’s book, it is more likely that he saw the tional Theatre in Oslo.”
plan published by Fritsch. In the German author’s
34. This matter is discussed at some length in Ring
book there is a substantial section on “evangelical”
bom, Stone, Style a n d Truth.
churches in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, which
must have been appealing to Scandinavian readers 35. Hitchcock, A rc h ite c tu re : N in eteen th a n d Tw entieth
(pp. 409-450). C e ntu ries, pp. 281-306.
22. Grut, “Engelbrektskyrkan,” and Wahlman, 36. In Denmark the architectural expression of the
E n ge lb re k tsk y rk a n . Art Nouveau was limited (Faber, H isto ry o f D an ish
A rch ite ctu re , pp. 142-145), but the impact of this

23. For discussion of the immediately preceding
style in the decorative arts was strong. See Viggo
French and German museums see Pevsner, H isto ry o f
Sten Møller, D a n sk k u n stin d u strie , 2:11-24. For the
B u ild in g Types, pp. 120-129, and also for theaters,
Norwegian architectural Art Nouveau see Tschudi-
pp. 82-84.
Madsen, “Veien hjem,” pp. 81-94. For the Swedish
24. Plageman, Dos D e u tsch e K u n stm u se u m , pp. I 17 see Andreas Lindblom, S v e rig e s ko n sth isto ria , 3:922
126. 124. For the Finnish see Moorhouse, Carpetian, and
Ahtola-Moorhouse, H e ls in k i Ju g e n d s til A rch itectu re,
25. Ibid., pp. 145-149.
and John Boulton Smith, G old en A g e o f F inn ish A rt,
26. Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, pp. 72-74. pp. 117-199.
27. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rkitektu rstrø m n in g er, 37. Lindegren, “Kungliga Dramatiske teatern,” and
pp. 109-1 I I . Eklund and Stribolt, B o llh u se t och D ra m a ten , pp. 44
68.
28. Langberg, D a n m a rk s byg n in g sku ltu r, 2 :14 6 - 148;
Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s 38. Tschudi-Madsen, “Veien hjem,” pp. 80-90.
A rkitektu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 162-163; and Skriver,

39. Richards, 8 0 0 Years, p. 133.
“Royal Theatre.”
40. Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 105-106.
29. Engberg, P a nto m im ete atre t, pp. 9-16; Lund and
Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s B y g n in g sk u n st, p. 379; and 4 1. Addison, R o m a n ticism a n d the G othic R evival, pp.
Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Neilsen, D a n m a rk s 117-126, and Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. 102—
A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, p. 162. 104.

42. Ibid., pp. 98-102. For the Finnish wooden town hall in Denmark, for example, seemed to typify
churches see Petterson, S uo m ala ine n p iukirkko . the exuberant vitality of the Danish people. The
equipoise and repose of the structure amid the lively
play of the lines, the rich lustre of the red brick,—
44. Pevsner, H isto ry o f B u ild in g Types, pp. 169-192. this was at once Scandinavian and characteristically
Danish, symbolizing as it were, the sturdy self-reli
ance of the one who, after much toil and trouble,
46. Curman, “Nordiska museets byggnad”; Ede- builds a cosy home on his own soil” (Östberg, The
strand and Lundberg, Isa k G u s t a f C lason, pp. 32-43; Sto ckho lm Town H a ll, p. 15).
and Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, pp. 130-132.

58. Holger Rasmussen, ed., D a n sk F o lk e m u se u m , pp.
47. Giedion, Space, T im e a n d A rch ite ctu re , pp. 21 I - 8-1 I.

218.
59. The history of projects and quarrels, political as
48. Ibid., pp. 181-196. well as architectural, that finally resulted in the third
Christiansborg is set forth in Hvidt, Ellehøj, and
49. Hamran, “Det nye Norge,” pp. I 17-120. Norn, eds., C h ristia n sb o rg, 2 : 187-327, with English
summary, pp. 362-371.
50. Anders Bugge, A rk ite k te n Sta d sko n d u k to r Chr. H.
G rosch, p. 184. For industrial buildings in Denmark 60. Stein Eiler Rasmussen, N o rd isch e B au kunst, pp.
from 1807 to 1914 see Sestoft, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r.
17-29. From the considerable literature on the
A rb e jd e ts b y gn in ger, f o r an interesting and well-illus Town Hall in Stockholm the most important account
trated account. in English is by the architect himself: The Sto ckho lm
51. Ibid., pp. 77-78. Town H all. See also Strömbon, “The new townhall of
Stockholm,” David Dahl, “Stockholms stadshus,” and
52. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rkitektu rstrø m n in g er, Easton, “The Stadshus at Stockholm.”
p. 114; Lund and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s B y g n in g s
61. Östberg, The Sto ck ho lm Town H all, pp. 31-32.
kunst, pp. 377-381; and Sestoft, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r.
A rb e jd e ts b ygn in ger, pp. 83-84. 62. Ibid., p. 38.
53. Ibid., p. 73. 63. Ibid., pp. 28-30.
54. Knud Jensen, F ra H a lm to rve t till R å dh u sp la ds, and 64. Saarikivi, Niilonen, and Ekelund, A rt in Finland ,
Hartmann and Vi Iladsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B yens
pp. 118-120; Ulf Hård af Segerstad, M o d ern F inn ish
huse, pp. 35-38. D e sig n , pp. 7 - 7 1; Salokorpi, M o d ern A rch ite ctu re in
Finla nd , pp. 5-14; Mikkola, A rch ite ctu re in Finla nd , pp.

55. Fisker, “Omkring Herholdt.”
5-16; and Hausen, Mikkola, and Amberg, Saa rin en in
56. Cervin, “The City Hall at Copenhagen”; Beck Finland.
ett, K ø b en h a vn s ra a d h u s; Stein Eiler Rasmussen, N o r-
65. Pallasmaa, ed., H vitträsk.
d isch e B au ku n st, pp. 7-16; Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e
a rk ite ktu rstrø m n in g er, pp. 207-252; Funder, A rk ite k te n

66. Kopisto, S uo m en K a n sa llism u se o , and Nikula, A r
M a rtin N yrop, pp. 34-52; and Jørgensen, Lund, and m a s L ind gren , pp. 153-154.
Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo
lig, pp. 78-81. 67. Christ-Janer, E lie l S aarinen, pp. 30-34, and Hau
sen, Mikkola, and Amberg, Saa rin en in F inla nd , pp.
57. The future architect of the Stockholm Town 42-48 and 71-76.
Hall, Ragnar Östberg, saw the Copenhagen building
in 1896 and later wrote of his impression: “The

369 .
68. Saarikivi, Niilonen, and Ekelund, A r t in Finland, p. 8 Scandinavian A rchitecture since

120, and Salokorpi, M o d ern A rc h ite c tu re in Finland, pp. W orld W ar I
9-1 I. 1. For the Scandinavian countries in World War I
see Derry, H isto ry o f Scan d in a via , pp. 303-304.
69. Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, pp. 148-152.
For a discussion of Richardsonian influence in the 2. Marstrand, G ru n d tv ig s M in d e k irk e , pp. 28-29; Fis
Scandinavian countries see Eaton, A m e ric a n A rc h ite c ker, “Den Klintske skole,” pp. 48-53; Mil Iech, “På
ture C o m e s o f A g e , pp. 143-207. Bjerget, Grundtvigs Kirke”; Bolvig, B ykirker, pp. 87
89; and Jelsbak, ed., G ru n d tv ig s K irke , pp. 7-26.
70. Treib, “Lars Sonck,” and Kivinen, Korvenmaa,
and Salokorpi, Lars Sonck, pp. 7-11. 3. Kivinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, Lars Sonck,
pp. 108-1 11.

71. Ibid., pp. 35-45.
4. Sonck, “Mikael Agricola Kyrkan i Helsingfors,”
72. Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 104—
and Kivinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, Lars Sonck,
106; Kivinen, T a m p ereen tu o m io k irkko , pp. 61-90;
pp. 113-1 17.
Kivinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, La rs Sonck, pp.
45-62; and Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, pp. 226 5. The spire, carrying a gold cross, rises 103 meters
227. above sea level. Special equipment built into the
tower made it possible to lower it considerably dur
73. Fritsch, K irch en b a u d e s P ro testa n tism u s, pp. 5 13
ing World War II.
530. Fritsch made a distinction between Anglican
churches in England and America and those of other 6. Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rkitektu rstrø m n in g er,
Protestant denominations. His plan of St. James Con pp. 300-301; Faber, N e w D a n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 76
gregational Church in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, by 77; and Stephenson, A rk ite k te n T h o rkild H en n in g sen ,
T. Lewis Banks, 1884, is thought to be the inspiration pp. 52-59. See also Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r.
for Sonck’s plan of St. John’s (figure 1007, p. 521). E n fa m ilie h u se t, pp. 64-78, fo r workers’ housing in
This plan had appeared in B u ild in g N e w s o f 1885, but Denmark. The work of Heinrich Tessenow in Ger
Sonck would have been more likely to have used many, and particularly his publication H a u sb a u u nd
Fritsch’s book. d e rg le ic h e n (1916), is discussed by Kenneth Frampton

in “The Classical Tradition,” pp. 167-168.
74. Treib, “Lars Sonck,” pp. 234-236, and Kivinen,
Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, Lars Sonck, pp. 81-85. 7. In 1980 the Museum of Finnish Architecture be
gan organizing an exhibition, “Nordic Classicism,” for
75. Ibid., pp. 63-67, and Ringbom, Stone, Style a nd
which it collaborated with the other Nordic archi
Truth, pp. 179-180.
tectural museums. The catalogue (Paavilainen, ed.,
76. Kivinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, Lars Sonck, N o rd ic C la ssic ism ) contains essays by leading scholars
p. 75, and Ringbom, Stone, Style a n d Truth, pp. 240 of Scandinavian architecture and is a significant con
241. tribution to the study of this development. In 1982
the catalogue was published as the exhibition was on
77. Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A rch itectu re, pp. 117 view in Copenhagen, Helsinki, Oslo, and Stockholm.
118, and Kivinen, Korvenmaa, and Salokorpi, Lars
In the same year another major study of classicism
Sonck, pp. 75-81. appeared: Porphyrios, ed., C la ssic ism Is N o t a Style.
See also Elling, K la s s isk e K ø b en ha vn; Millech and Fis

ker, D a n sk e a rk ite k tu rstrø m n in g e r, pp. 283-306; Lang-
berg, D a n m a rk s b yg n in g sku ltu r, 2 : 177-208; Faber,
H isto ry o f D an ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 150-164; and Lund

Notes to Pages 30 3 -3 2 7
and Millech, eds., D a n m a rk s B yg n in g sk u h st, pp. 383 lach’s E n tw u rff e in e r h isto risch en A rchitectu r, Book 2,
406. plate VIII. The building in the background of Book 4,
no. I I is also a cylindrical structure rising from a rec
8. Swane, F a a b o rg M u se u m ; Hiort, “Museet i Faa-
tilinear base, set on a hill much as is the Stockholm
borg”; Stephenson, A rk ite k te n C arl P etersen , pp. 34
library.
63; Paavilainen, ed., N o rd ic C la ssic ism , pp. 67 and 70
7 1; and Langkilde, N y k la ssic ism e n . 17. Blakstad and Munthe-Kaas, “Haugesund rådhus,”
Norberg-Schulz, “Fra nasjonalromantikk,” pp. 38-42,
9. From “Contrasts,” published in A rch itekten , 1920,
Norberg-Schulz, M o d ern N o rw e g ia n A rch itectu re, pp.
quoted in Paavilainen, ed., N o rd ic C la ssicism , pp. 45
41-43, and Pontvik, “Haugesund rådhus.”
48.
18. Berner, “Torvalmenningen,” and Paavilainen, ed.,
10. Porphyrios, ed., C la ssic ism , pp. 23-35.
N o rd ic C la ssic ism , p. 115.
I I . Fisker, “Den Klintske skole,” pp. 6 0 -6 1; and Mil
19. Veijola, “Riksdagshuset”; Sirén, “Finland’s New
lech, “Nordvestsjaellands Elektricitetsvaerk.”
House of Parliament”; Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A r
12. Kampmann, “Politigaarden”; Wanscher, “Politi- ch itecture, pp. 126-129; and Paavilainen, ed., N o rd ic
gaarden”; Bröchner, “Copenhagen’s New Scotland C la ssic ism , pp. 83-85.

Yard”; Rafn, “The Police Headquarters in Copen
20. Lindberg, F in la n d s kyrkor, p. 184; Pearson, A lv a r
hagen”; Rasmussen, N o rd isch e B au ku n st, pp. 103-113;
A alto, pp. 50-53; Quantrill, A lv a r Aalto, pp. 37-50;
and Langkilde, “Politigaarden.” Kampmann is quoted
and Schildt, A lv a r A a lto , pp. 44-45 and 283.
as saying, “I love putting up pillars . . . but they have
got to be decent pillars and not like Palladio’s who 2 1. Lundahl, ed., N o rd isk Fun ktio n a lism , is a collec
made them all imitations, plastered boardings” (Rafn, tion of essays on this aspect of architecture in the
“Police Headquarters,” p. 199, and Jørgensen, “Hack Scandinavian countries, similar to the volume on
Kampmann”). N o rd ic C la ssicism .
13. Caldenby and Hultin, eds., A sp lu n d , pp. 41-46; 22. Lars Backer in B y g g e k u n st 1 ( 1925), quoted in
Ahlin, S ig u rd L e w e re n tz, pp. 38-49 and 116-118; Norberg-Schulz, “Fra nasjonalromantikk,” p. 46.
Cruickshank, ed., E rik G u n n a r A sp lu n d , pp. 97-113;
23. Alvar Aalto, “Sanatorium i Penmar”; Nils E.
and Treib, “Woodland Cemetery.”
Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 132-134; Pearson,
14. Holmdahl, Lind, and Ödeen, eds., G u n na r A sp lu n d A lv a r A alto, pp. 84-93; and Quantrill, A lv a r A alto, pp.
A rch itect, pp. 41-42 and 94-97; Maré, G u n na r A s 51-55. See also Salokorpi, “Currents and
plund, pp. 2 0 -2 1; and Caldenby and Hultin, A sp lu n d , Undercurrents.”
pp. 23, 44, and 68-71.
24. See Pevsner, H isto ry o f B u ild in g Types, pp. 153—
15. Holmdahl, Lind, and Ödeen, eds., G u n na r A sp lu n d 158, for discussion of nineteenth- and early twen
A rch ite ct, pp. 76-81; Wrede, A rch ite ctu re o f G u n na r tieth-century hospitals.
A sp lu n d , pp. 45-46 and 120-129; and Cruickshank,
25. Norberg-Schulz, “Fra nasjonalromantikk,” pp.
ed., E rik G u n n a r A sp lu n d , pp. 9 7 -1 13.
66- 68 .
16. Tynell, “Stockholms stadsbibliotek”; Holmdahl,
26. H o u sin g Q uestion in S w ed en , p. 49.
Lind, and Ödeen, eds., G u n n a r A sp lu n d A rch itect, pp.
42-43; Maré, G u n n a r A sp lu n d , pp. 21-24; Wrede, A r 27. Faber, H isto ry o f D an ish A rch itectu re, pp. 156
ch itecture o f G u n n a r A sp lu n d , pp. 100-124; and Cal 158, and Hartmann and Villadsen, D a n m a rk s A r k ite k
denby and Hultin, A sp lu n d , pp. 28-29 and 92-101. tur. B yens huse. B ye ns p lan, pp. 161-166.
The Tomb of Hadrian is illustrated in Fischer von Er

371 .
28. Shand, “Stockholm, 1930”; Holmdahl, Lind, and Schulz, “Fra nasjonalromantikk,” pp. 29-35, especially
Ödeen, eds., G u n n a r A sp lu n d A rch itect, pp. 54-58; for the proposals and competitions; and Norberg-
Maré, G u n n a r A sp lu n d , pp. 2 7 -3 1; Rasmussen, N o r- Schulz, M o d ern N o rw e g ia n A rch itectu re, pp. 34-37.
disch e B au ku n st, pp. 122-128; Caldenby and Hultin,
39. “Sunila sulfatcellulosafabrik,” A rk ite k te n F in la n d
A sp lu n d , pp. 2 9 -3 1 and 35-39; and Fant, “Gunnar
(1938, no. 10), 145-160; Nils E. Wickberg, F inn ish
Asplund.”
A rch itectu re, pp. 139-141; and Giedion, Sp ace, T im e
29. Paulsson, Scan d in a via n A rch itectu re, pp. 192-202. and A rch itectu re, pp. 640-645.
See also Silk, S w eden P lan s fo r B etter H o u sin g ; Hart
40. Lauritzen, “Bygningerne ved Københavns
mann and Villadsen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B yens huse.
Lufthavn.”
B yens plan, pp. 167-178; Norberg-Schulz, “Fra nas
jonalromantikk,” pp. 94-103; and Norberg-Schulz, 4 1. For the consequences of Scandinavian involve
M o d ern N o rw e g ia n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 73-85. ment in World War II, see Derry, H isto ry o f Sca n d i
navia, pp. 328-355.

30. Paulsson, Scan d in a via n A rch itectu re, pp. 220-224.
See also Hitchcock, A rc h ite c tu re : N in eteen th and 42. Kavli, N o rw e g ia n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 120-122; Nor
Tw entieth C e ntu ries, pp. 374-375, for the Siemen- berg-Schulz, “Fra gjenreisning,” pp. 13-14; and Nor
stadt Estate by Walter Gropius in 1930, a prototype berg-Schulz, M o d ern N o rw e g ia n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 92
for such housing blocks all over Europe. 93.
31. “Københavnske etagehus,” A rk ite k te n 40, no. 4 43. Knutsen, “Menneskit i sentrum,” p. 129.
( 1939):51 —72; Rasmussen, N o rd isch e B au ku n st, pp.
44. A rch ite ctu ra l D ig e s t 30, no. 9 (September
158-163; and Millech and Fisker, D a n sk e a rk ite k
tu rstrø m nin ger, pp. 332-334. 1960): 347-348; Faber, H isto ry o f D an ish A rchitectu re,
pp. 2 18 - 2 19; and Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitektu r. E n

32. Pearson, A lv a r A a lto , pp. 138-140; Richards, 800 fa m ilie h u set, pp. 156 and 161.
Years, pp. 148-149; and Quantrill, A lv a r A alto, pp.
45. A rch ite ctu ra l D e sig n 47, nos. 11-12 ( 1977):783—
70-72.
790, and Erskine, “Architecture in a Cold Climate.”
33. Faber, H isto ry o f D a n ish A rch ite ctu re , p. 172, and
46. Paulsson, Scan d in a via n A rch itectu re, pp. 234-238;
Jørgensen, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. E n fa m ilie h u se t, pp.
Langkilde, “Bellahøj”; and Hartmann and Villadsen,
140-141.
D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. B ye n s huse. B ye ns plan, pp. 180
34. Blakstad and Munthe-Kaas, A r k ite k t Ove B an g ; 188.
Norberg-Schulz, “Fra nasjonalromantikk,” pp. 75-79;
47. Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 226
and Norberg-Schulz, Modern N o rw e g ia n A rch itectu re,
233; Ervi, “Bybyggerne bag Tapiola”; Alander, Viljo
pp. 61-65.
R evell, pp. 4 0 -5 1; Tempel, N e w F in n ish A rch ite ctu re ,
35. Koppel, “Villa Mairea”; Giedion, Space, T im e a nd pp. 60-98; and Hertzen and Spreiregen, B u ild in g a
A rch itectu re, pp. 645-649; Pearson, A lv a r Aalto, pp. N e w Town.
168-175; and Quantrill, A lv a r Aalto, pp. 83-91.
48. Howard, G a rd en C ities.
36. Aino Aito and Alvar Aalto, “Mairea.”
49. Mumford, Stadskultur.
37. Langkilde, A rk ite k te n K a y Fiske r, pp. 53-59; Fa
50. Smith, S w ed en B u ild s, pp. 94-113; Paulsson,
ber, H isto ry o f D a n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 18 6 - 189; and
S can d in a via n A rch ite ctu re , pp. 234-236; and Åström,
Møller, A Århus U n ive rsite ts B ygninger.
C ity P la n n in g in S w ed en , pp. 67-74.
38. Arneberg and Poulsson, O slo rå d h u s; “Oslo
rådhus,” B y g g e k u n st 9-10 (1950):14 5 - 174; Norberg-

5 1. For a discussion of “garden cities” and “new 64. Brochmann, “Kaleva Kirken,” and Connah, W r it
towns” see Hitchcock, A rc h ite c tu re : N in eteen th a n d in g A rch ite ctu re , pp. 174-180.
T w entieth C e ntu ries, pp. 405 and 4 2 0 -4 2 1, and Gie-
65. Skriver, “SAS Air Terminal”; Skriver, “Royal-Ho-
dion, Space, T im e a n d A rch ite ctu re , pp. 782-785.
tel-Copenhagen”; and Faber, New D an ish A rchitectu re,
52. Nils E. Wickberg, F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 146— pp. 158-161. For Arne Jacobsen see Pedersen, A r k i
147; Pearson, A lv a r A a lto , p. 219; and Quantrill, A lv a r te kte n A rn e Ja c o b se n ; Faber, A rn e Ja c o b se n ; Kastholm,

A alto, pp. 128-136. A rn e Ja c o b se n ; and Dyssegaard, A rn e Ja c o b se n : A D a n
ish A rchitect.
53. Pearson, A lv a r A alto, pp. 203-217.
66. A detailed study of architects as decorative de
54. Skriver, “Den tekniske højskoles hovedbygning”;
signers would be an enormous but fascinating under
Borràs, A rqu ite ctu ra F in la n d isa ; Pearson, A lv a r Aalto,
taking. They have been represented in several
pp. 2 16 - 2 17; and Quantrill, A lv a r Aalto, pp. 12 1- 127.
exhibitions of Scandinavian design, including a recent
55. Olsen and Crumlin-Pedersen, “The Skuldelev one at the Cooper-Hewitt Museum in New York
Ships”; Faber, N e w D a n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 146-147; City. For critical essays by Scandinavian experts and a
and Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D an good bibliography, see the exhibition catalog edited
m a rk s A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 178-179. by David R. McFadden, S ca n d in a via n M o d ern D e sig n
1 8 8 0 -1 8 9 0 .
56. A rk ite k te n 45, no. 13 (1963):245-249.
67. Skriver, “Arne Jacobsens Nationalbank,” and
57. B y g g e k u n st ( 1977):22-26, and Herteig, H and
Jørgensen, Lund, and Nørregård-Nielsen, D a n m a rk s
book, pp. 11-13.
A rkitek tu r. M a g te n s bo lig, pp. 113-115.
58. Yates, “A Monument to Faith.”

68. Woldbye, “Kim Naver’s Wall Hangings.”
59. Tempel, N e w F in n ish A rch ite ctu re , pp. 182-183,

69. Larsson, ed., N e w A rc h ite c tu re in S w ed en , p. 312.
and Bruun and Popovits, eds., K e ija a nd H e ik k i Siren,
pp. 20-43. 70. Kristensen, “Udvidelse af tappehall.”
60. Lund, “Skt. Clemens Kirke”; Horskjaer, ed., 71. Erik Berg, “Udvidelse af Kastrup,” and Sestoft,
D a n sk e kirker, 13:31-32; Faber, N e w D an ish A rc h ite c D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. A rb e jd e ts b ygn in ger, pp. 176
ture, pp. 2 13 - 2 15; Bolvig, B ykirker, p. 62; and Johans- 177.
sen and Smidt, D a n m a rk s A rkitek tu r. K irk e n s huse, pp.
72. Salokorpi, “Currents and Undercurrents.”
186-189. St. Clement’s Church is also mentioned in
a series of essays on church architecture, furnishings,
and liturgy edited by one of the architects, Johannes
Exner, and Tage Christiansen, K irk e b y g n in g o g teologi,
p. 260.
61. Jor, K irk e r i en ny tid, pp. 43-48.
62. Ibid., pp. 65-67; Muri, N o rsk e K yrkjer, pp. 256

257; and Norberg-Schulz, “Fra gjenreisning,” p. 39.
63. I have seen icebergs in the fjords of southern

Greenland of nearly identical shape. Were such natu
ral formations Hovig’s inspiration for the Tromsdalen
church?

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License Terms:

Open Book Program.

doi:10.7551/mitpress/1352.001.0001

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Preface
In 1958 Thomas Paulsson published his pioneer

ing book Scandinavian Architecture. This was the
first serious attempt to set forth a unified his
tory of building in Denmark, Finland, Norway,
and Sweden from the Iron Age to the years
following World War II. Eleven years later I be
gan teaching Scandinavian art and architecture
at the University of Oregon, an undertaking
that owed much to Paulsson’s comprehensive
view of the Nordic building arts.
Now it seems appropriate to carry his
work a few steps farther. Cities and country
sides alike have been enriched with many dis
tinguished new buildings. New investigations
and publications have not only synthesized pre
vious studies but have also provided much valu
able material for ongoing scholarship. Some
points of view have changed, bringing certain
areas, especially prehistoric and vernacular
building, which were generally left to archaeol
ogy and folklore, much more into the realm of
architectural history. Now that the age of post
modernism has arrived, bringing with it the
question of what terminology can be devised
for its successor, a new review of the history

Preface
of architecture in the Scandinavian countries been possible, the acknowledgments below and
may prove useful. in the illustration captions indicate other
According to the factors of climate, natural sources of photographs. For some buildings,
resources, and the ever-changing forces of his contemporary views have been chosen in order
tory, periods of greatest vigor in Scandinavian to increase the sense of the times in which
building have varied in time and place. An in they were constructed. The drawings that
troduction of the kind offered here is necessar were prepared especially for this book are the
ily highly selective. Readers familiar with the work of Sally Donovan and Cheryl S. Martin.
Scandinavian countries may well find some of The Graham Foundation for Advanced
their favorite buildings or favorite architects Study in the Fine Arts has generously provided
missing. Some of the author’s favorites are assistance toward the costs of publication, for
missing as well. The effort here has been to which I am very grateful. I also very much ap
achieve a reasonable balance among the accom preciate encouragement and good counsel from
plishments within the several nations, bearing in the editors of the MIT Press.
mind that the national boundaries have not al Finally, there is a debt to scholars in the
ways been what they are today. Another sub Scandinavian countries that can never be ade
ject that has been omitted is the activity of quately acknowledged. In Denmark invaluable
Scandinavian architects outside the Nordic help has come from Elisabeth Munksgaard and
countries. This is a very interesting story in it the staff of the National Museum, Hakon Lund
self that deserves much fuller treatment than is and the staff in the library of the Royal Danish
appropriate in the present work. Academy of Art, and the staff of the Royal Li
It will at once be evident from the notes brary in Copenhagen. In Helsinki Kristina N ivari
and bibliography that some of the examples has helped especially with materials from the
chosen have been the subjects of extensive in modern period, and Halldór J. Jónsson has
vestigation and publication, while others have as helped with the resources of the National Mu
yet received little attention. I have omitted seum of Iceland. Norwegian materials have
some references to materials published in local been generously made available by Luce Hinsch
historical society journals, but they are cited by in the State Archives and Elisabeth Seip in the
authors quoted in these pages and can be found Norwegian Museum of Architecture in Oslo. In
in Scandinavian libraries. The bibliography is not Stockholm much help has come from Ragnar
intended to be all-inclusive but rather to pro Jonsson in the architect’s office of the Royal
vide guidance to the principal sources of Palace and also from the staffs of the City Mu
information. seum, the Historical Museum, and the Nordic
The illustrations have been assembled from Museum. To all of these my warm thanks for
a variety of sources. I have been fortunate in much counsel and persistent and good-natured
being able to travel from Imatra to L’Anse aux help in finding elusive materials.
Meadows and from Hamburg/Altona to the
Lofoten Islands. The skies have not always been Marian C. Donnelly
friendly, and perhaps it is just as well that the
sterner aspects of climate and weather in these
countries be represented. For those sites and
buildings for which a personal visit has not yet

1 Reykjavik 11 Copenhagen
2 Bodø 12 Stockholm
3 Trondheim 13 Uppsala
4 Ålesund 14 Turku
5 Bergen 15 Tampere
6 Haugesund 16 Helsinki
7 Stavanger 17 Porvoo
8 Oslo 18 Kotka
9 Ribe 19 Imatra
10 Odense



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Åbom, Johan Fredrik, 278 Alvastra, Östergötland, abbey, 46, 55

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Rosencrantz Tower, 96-97 Bull, Georg Andreas, 260

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Ervi, Aarne, 326 Grense-Jacobselv, Finnmark, King Oscar’s

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Marienlyst, manor house, 169-170 Irming, Mogens, 325

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Kolomepczina, settlement, 16 Liselund, Møn, manor house, 174, 179, 307

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Norden, Jacob Wilhelm, 260 Paatelainen, Raili, 337

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Roskilde, Zealand Stavanger, Rogaland

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Stüler, Friedrich August, 265 Ulefoss, Telemark, manor house, 204

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Architecture in the Scandinavian Countries

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The Stone Age

Long before the present national states of Den­

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opening of the English Channel and the Danish

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I. I Map of last glaciation.

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1.4 Stengade, Langeland. 1.5 Hjerl Hede, Jutland.

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Remains of a more substantial kind of

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The hundreds of dolmens that are an inte­

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ing began c. 3000 BC, w hen the passage graves

w ere intro d uced.15 These are also built o f

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are even more impressive than the exteriors

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The Bronze Age

The Passage Grave culture did not last. It was

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ment on houses and settlements we would

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The Iron Age

If our efforts to understand the dwellings of

landsbyer,” figure I, Celtic, Roman, and Germanic or Migration, ac­

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changes of material and refinements of con­

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1.18 Ullandhaug, Rogaland.

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A later and much more strongly fortified

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The Viking Age

Long before the present national states of Den

The hundreds of dolmens that are an inte

landsbyer,” figure I, Celtic, Roman, and Germanic or Migration, ac

changes of material and refinements of con

As a result of these conversions the north

2 .15 Tveje Merløse, Zea

2 .18 Vä, Skåne. Church. Be

2.21 Bergen. St. Mary. Be

three-aisled basilica of granite, as some frag

the two parts were connected without a con