PHILOSOPHY &

CURRENT ISSUES
TOPIC 3 :
LOGIC
HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KULIAH
Explain the role, position and relationship of Logical
Science with Philosophy and explain various errors in
thinking and argumentation or Fallacy

Describe the development, uses and differences of the two main

approaches in Logic namely Deduction and Induction

Describe the variety of methodologies that enrich the

development of more complex knowledge
 THE ROLE OF LOGIC AND
PREVENTION OF FALLATION
(ERROR OF THINKING)
 THE ROLE OF LOGIC AND THE PREVENTION OF
FALLATION
• LOGIC:
– the Greek word is logos, which means word, discussion, intellect, rule and reason
– distinguish between good and bad reasoning by investigating normative criteria
for valid conclusions and demonstrations
– logic is the study of an argument consists of premise and conclusion

• Arguments consist of a sequence of premises in which a conclusion is

attempted to be made from the premise of the premise

– Premise 1: All human beings will die (p1)

– Premise 2: I am human (p2)
– Conclusion I will die (k)
 ARGUMENT
Premise Premise Conclusion

• Arguments are not the same as opinions.

• An argument contains a sequence of statements in which one of

the statements is a conclusion drawn.

• A proposition is an assertion, or a proposition or a declaration in a

statement whether true or false.

• If all the premises are true, and the conclusions drawn are true,
then the argument is valid.
DEDUCTION AND
INDUCTION
 DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION
DEDUCTION INDUCTION
• Arguments in which obligatory • Arguments in which a conclusion
conclusions are drawn from the appears likely to be drawn from the
premise. premise.
• Specific conclusions are drawn • General conclusions are drawn from
from general statements specific statements

• Premise 1: All human beings will • Premise 1: 90% of UA students are

die not proficient in English
• Premise 2: I am a human being. • Premise 2: UA student Zubaidah.
• Conclusion: So, I'm going to die • Premise 3: Therefore, Zubaidah may
not be proficient in English
ABDUCTION
• In philosophy there are other methods of thinking such as the Abduction method and the Heuristic
method.

• Abduction or also referred to as inference to the best explanation - the occurrence of a

phenomenon and we can see the occurrence of a phenomenon. From there a conclusion is made
about what happened before the existence of the phenomenon which can explain why the
phenomenon exists or occurs.

• That is, we try to give the best explanation based on the phenomenon that exists. In this case we
think by thinking backwards or thinking backwards.

• For example, we see a phenomenon, for example observing a car moving on the road and we ask:
• How can this happen?
• What makes the car move?

• What must exist? That is, conditions or conditions that must exist to allow a phenomenon such as a
moving car to occur.
 HEURISTIC
Inductive logic, deductive and even abduction are ways of thinking logically where there are rules
applicable thinking.

However, for the heuristic method it is different from the deductive, inductive and abductive
methods. This is because, heuristic methods do not have systematic or orderly rules that can be
applied as in deductive and inductive logic.

This differentiates or makes heuristics a different kind of thinking than other logical thinking.

Although this heuristic logic does not have specific rules yet there are guidelines to implement
heuristic thinking.

Heuristic thinking is exploratory. It is not of an evaluation nature as found in deductive and inductive
logic where the method of logic is used to evaluate whether an argument or proposition or the
argument can be accepted as valid or invalid.
 strawman
Misrepresentingsomeone's argument to
make it easier to attack.
Alter Will said that we shruld!>JI m ore money into
health and education Warren responded by sayB>g that
he was surprised that \rViD hates our country so much
that he wants to leave it defenceless by rutting
military spending
slippery slope
Asserting that if we allow A to happen.
then Z will consequently happen too,
therefore A should not happen.
Colin Closet asserts that if -.ve allow same-sex couples
to marry, then the next thing we know we'llbe
allowing people to marry their parents. their cars and
€\/en monkeys.
special
pleading
Moving the goalposts to create exceptions
when a claim is shown to be false.
Edward Johns d.aimed to be psychic, but when his
'abilities' were tested under proper scientific corrlitions..
they magically disappeared Edward explained this
saying that one had to have faith in his abilities. for
them to work.
the gambler's
fallacy
Believing that 'runs' occur to statistically
independent pheno m e na such as roulette
wheel spins.
Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette
wheel so Greg knew that it was close to certain that
black woul d b e next up_Suffering an economic form of
natural selection with this thinking. he soon lost all of
his savings_
black-or-white
Where two alternative states are
presented as the only possibilities, when
in fact more possibilities exist
Whilst rallying support for h\5 plan to fundamentally
undermine citizens' rights. the Supreme Leader told
the people they v,,ere either ()fl his side. or on the side
of the enemy.
false cause
Presuming that a real or perceived
relationship between things means t
one Is the cause of the other.
Pointing to a fancy chart. Roger show.; how
temperatures have been rising over the past few
centuries, whilst at the same time lhe numben; c
pirates have been decreasing; thus pirates coolti
'WOrld and global warming is a hoax.
adhominer
Attacking your opponent's character
or personal traits in an attempt to
undermi ne their argument.
After Sally presents an eloquent and compelting
for a mor e equitable taxation system. Sam asks t
audience whether we should believe anything h
woman who isn't married was once arrested, ar
smells a bit weird
loaded
question
Asking a question that has an
assumption built into it so t ha t it ca1
answered without appearing guilty.
Grace and Helen were both romantically intere:
Brad One day. with Brad sitting within ears.hot.
asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was
any problems with a fungal infection.
bandwagon
Appealing to popularity or the fact that
many p e o p le d o something as an
attempted form of validation.
Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked
him to explain how so many people could believe in
leprechauns if they're only a silly old superstition
Sear\ how-ever. had had a few too many Guinness
himself and feD off his chair.
beggip.g the
question
A circular argum e nt in which the
conclusion is included in the premise.
The word Of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect We
knO\IV this because it says so in The Great and Infallible
Book of Zcrlxis Best and Most Truest Things that are
Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.
Logical Fallacies
Errorsin
reasoning
0 committing the tu quoque fallacy The red candidate
that
invalidatethe
argument
appeal
to authority
Using the opinion or position of an
authority figure, or institution of
authority, in place of an actual argument.
Not able to defend his position that evoh.Jtion 'isn't true'
Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions
evolution (and presumably isn't a primate)
appeal
to nature
Making the argume nt that because
something is 'natural' it is therefore valid,
justified, inevitable, good, or ideal
T he medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon
offering various natural remedies. such as very special
plain water. He said that it was only natural that
people should be wary of 'artificial' medicines such
as antibiotics.
comp:,sition
/division
Assuming that what's true about one part
of something has to be applied to all, or
other, parts of it.
Daniel was a precocious chikl and had a hl<ing for logic
He reasoned that atoms are invisible. and that he was
made of atoms and therefore invisible too
Unfortunately. despite his thinky skills, he lost the game
of hide and go seek
:anecdotal ,
Using personal experience or an isolated
example instead of a valid argument,
especially to dismiss statistics.
Jason said that that was an cool and everything. but his
grandfather smoked. bl<e, 30 cigarettes a day and hved
until W - so d()fl't believe everything you read at:out
meta analyses of sound studies showing proven
causal relationships.
a p lto
emotion
Manipulating an emotional response in
place of a valid or compelling argument.
Luke didnl want to eat his sheep's brains with chopped
liver and brussels sprouts, but his father told him to
think about the poor. starving children in a third world
counby who weren't fortunate enough to have any
food at all
tuquoque
Avoiding having to engage with criticism
by turniiig it back on the accuser -
answering criticism with criticism.
The blue candidate accused the red candidate of
responded by accusing the blue candidate of the same.
after whi ch ensued an hour of backand forth criticism
with not mu.ch progress.
burden
of proof
Saying that the burden of proof lies not
with the person making the claim. but
with someone else to disprove.
Bertrand.declares that a teapot is. at this very moment
in orbit around the Sun between the Earth and Mars.
and that because no one c.an prove him wrong his
claim is therefore a-valid one.
no true \.
scotsman
Making what could be called an appeal to
purity as a way to dismiss relevant
criticisms or flaws of an argument.
Angu<;. declares that Scotsmen do not put sugar on
t heir :midge. towhich l..adi.lan pointsout that he is a
Scotsman and puts sugar on his porridge Furious. like a
true Scot Angus yells that no true Scotsman sugars his
porridge.
thetexas
sharpshooter
Cheny-picking d a t a clusters to suit an
argume nt, or finding a pattern to fit a
presumption.
T he makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks JX)int to
research showing that of the five countries where
Sugarette drinks sen the most units. three of them are in
the top ten healthiest countries on Earth therefore
Sugarette drinks are healthy
the fallacy
fallacy
Presuming that because a claim has b e e n
poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made,
that it is necessarily wrong.
Recognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in
arguing that we should eat healthy fcxxi because a
nutrillonist said tt was popular. Alyse said we should
therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.
personal
incredulity
Saying that because one finds something
difficult to understand that it's therefore
not true.
Kirk drew a picture of a fish and a hLOYlan andwith
effusive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we
were stupid enough to believe that a fish somehow
turned into a human through jusl like. random things
happening over time.
ambiguity
Using double meanings or ambiguities of
language to mislead or misrepresent the
truth.
W hen the judge asked the defendant why he hadrit
paid his parking f i n e h e said that he shouldn:t have to
pay them because the sign said 'Fine for parking' here·
and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to
park there.
genetic
Judging something good or bad on the
basis of where it comes from, or from
whom it comes.
Accused on the 6 o'clock news of corruption and taking
bribes. the senator .said that we should an be very wary
of the things we hear in the media, because we all
knov 'l how very unreliable the media can be.
middle
ground
Saying that a compromise, or middle
point, between two extTemes is the truth.
Holly said that vaccinations caused autism in children, but
her scientific.ally well-read friend caleb said that this claim
hadbeendebunked and proven false.Their friend Alice
offered a compromise that vaccinations cause some
autism
•
 Category of Fallacy
GENERAL FALLACY
• Accident Fall
• Fallacy Ad Nauseam
• Trap Question Fallacy
• Middle Way Fallacy
• Black and White
Fallacy/Dilemma
• Fallacy of Ignorance
• Fallacy of Label
• Fallacy of Abuses Principle
• The Fallacy of a Convoluted
Argument
• Figurative Fallacy
• Fallacy of Coincidence
• Fallacy of Cliché
FALLACY BASED ON
EMOTIONS
• Fallacy of Novelty
• Fallacy of Compassion
• Fallacy of Special Appeal
GENETIC FALL
• Fallacy Ad Honimem
• Fallacy Ad Populum
• Fallacy of Authority
• Fallacy of Inference
• Composition Fallacy
• Division Fallacy
 TITLE OF EACH PHILOSOPHY COURSE LECTURE AND CURRENT ISSUES BASED ON THE
DOMAIN OF PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
LECTURE: LOGIC & METHODOLOGY
LECTURE CONCEPT QUESTION REFERENCE
5
LOGIC
THE ROLE OF LOGIC Logic What is the purpose of ALatifS, “Logik” (ms 2-4)
AND THE PREVENTION Fallac Logic Science? AJalilH “Kedudukan Ilmu Mantiq
OF FALLACY - y What is the Meaning of dalam Falsafah” (ms 6-7)
Fallacy? ASariyan, Logika (ms 50 – 58)
MISTAKES OF Hashim Musa (ms 33-54)
THINKING
DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION Deducti Can you give an example of a ALatifS, Asas-Asas Penaakulan Sains
on Deduction approach and an (ms 14-33)
Inducti example of an Induction ALatifS, Bentuk-Bentuk Penerangan
on approach obtained? Sains dan Kaedah Formal (ms 34-58)
VARIOUS METHODOLOGIES OF Various Methodologies of Apart from the Deduction and ALatifS, Asas-Asas Penaakulan Sains
KNOWLEDGE GENERATION Knowledge Induction approaches, can you give (ms 14-33)
other examples of Science ALatifS, Bentuk-Bentuk Penerangan
Methodology? Sains dan Kaedah Formal (ms 34-58)
KNOWLEDGE Construction Methodology of What is the relationship of ShaharirMZ, Apakah Sains? (ms 33-
CONSTRUCTION Knowledge Development Methodology with the generation 46)
METHODOLOGY of new sciences? ShaharirMZ, Anggapan, Andaian,
Postulat, Aksiom, Hipotesis, Teori
dan Fakta (ms 87-100)