QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

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Name of Student: Year&Section:

Week No. CHEM 101C Date:
2-3 General Chemistry and
Organic

TOPIC TITLE
1. Chemistry: An Introduction
TOPICS
1. Introduction to Chemistry
1.1 Chemistry as a Science
1.2 Subdivisions of Chemistry
1.3 Origins of Chemistry
1.4 Scientific Measurements
1.4.1 Elements of Measurement
1.4.2 Significant Figures
1.4.3 Scientific Notation
1.4.4 SI Units of Measurement
1.4.5 Unit Relationship between SI and English Units
1.4.6 Units of Density and Temperature
1.4.7 Factor-Label Method

LEARNING OUTCOME
1. Gain understanding on the basic concepts of measurement as applied in
Chemistry; and
2. Appreciate the importance of measurement in Chemistry; Solve problems
involving measurement as applied in Chemistry.

KEYWORDS
Inorganic Temperature
Measurement Factor-label
Density SI system

SUGGESTED/ASSIGNED READING/S
Nocum, Zenaida T. (2005). General inorganic chemistry.C & A Publishing, Inc.:
Quezon City.
Whitten, D., et al (2007). Chemistry. Thompson Books: California.
Chang, R. (2005). Chemistry. Mc Graw Hill: New York.
Goldberg, D. E. (2004). Fundamentals of chemistry. Mc Graw Hill: New York.

1. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

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1.1 Chemistry as a Science

The word Chemistry is derived from the Greek word “chemia”, meaning the
“art of metal working”. In Arabic, it is “kimia”, meaning the “art of
transmuting metals.” Both of these two words that refers to chemistry are not
enough to encompass all of the things that describes the true meaning chemistry.
Chemistry is commonly known as the study of matter. Matter, as we all know, is
anything that occupies space and has mass. Thus, matter includes both living
and non-living things. Because of his assumption, chemistry includes the study of
both living and non-living things as long as matter is concerned. This gives
chemistry the title as the central science.
As a central science, chemistry makes constant interfaces with the other
fields of science either in the biological or physical sciences. This gave rise to the
classical subdivisions and the modern subdivisions of chemistry. The classical
subdivisions and the modern subdivisions of chemistry are discussed below.

1.2 Subdivisions of Chemistry

1.2 .1 Classical Subdivisions of Chemistry

There are four classical subdivisions of chemistry namely Inorganic
chemistry, Organic chemistry, Analytical chemistry, and Physical chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the behavior and properties of the elements and
their compounds, with the exception of the element carbon. Organic chemistry, on
the other hand, studies the behavior and properties of the element carbon and its
compounds. The exceptional compounds that contain carbon are the carbides,
cyanides, and carbonates, which are inorganic in nature, are being studied in
Inorganic chemistry.

Analytical chemistry encompasses all methods and processes of acquiring

information about the composition of matter. There are two branches of Analytical
chemistry – quantitative and qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis is
concerned on the amount or concentration of constituents in a sample being
studied. It includes macroscale and microscale techniques, methods, processes,
and instrumentation in the quantitative determination of the sample. While
Qualitative analysis is more concerned on the determination of elements, ions,
compounds, or substances present in the samples without considering the amount
or concentration of the constituents present in the sample. In Qualitative
Analytical chemistry, the question that is
usually asked by the chemists is, “what constituents are present in the sample?”
while in Quantitative Analytical chemistry asks the question, “how much of the
constituents are present in the sample?”

Physical chemistry is applies the principles of physics to explain the

properties, behavior, and changes that happen in a chemical system. In other
words, it is a combination of physics and chemistry. Physical chemistry is a
quantitative – based branch of chemistry that usually explains underlying chemical
phenomenon in the other branches of chemistry in terms of energy changes,
entropy, kinetics, and many others.

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1.2.2 Modern Subdivisions of Chemistry

The modern subdivisions of chemistry emerged due to the ever-expanding
quest for new knowledge. These modern branches of chemistry sprout out form the
four classical branches of chemistry. Because there is a need for specificity in the
field of science, specific areas of research and study was developed and these are as
follows: Biochemistry, environmental chemistry, quantum chemistry, industrial
chemistry, geochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, aquatic chemistry, polymer
chemistry, thermochemistry, electrochemistry, colloid chemistry, food chemistry,
and many others.

1.3 ORIGINS OF CHEMISTRY

The earliest evidence that man knew some basic principles of chemistry can
be dated back to the earliest artifacts of stone used as tools by the primitive man.
One example is the archaeological discovery of the fossils of the Peking man of
Beijing, China (Homo erectus pekinenesis) by the group from the American Museum
of Natural History in 1921 (Bodner & Pardue, 1995). The excavation suggests that
these Peking man knew some properties of the stones and they used these stones
as tools. Moreover, aside from the used of some tools, the Peking man also made
used of fire in cooking their food, which gives an implication that they made useful
advantages of the chemical reactions involving combustion processes (Bodner &
Pardue, 1995).

Ancient Civilization
Before 600 B.C., the production of metals from ores, the manufacture of
pottery, brewing, baking, and the preparation of dyes and of drugs are ancient arts
in Egypt and Mesopotamia (Mortimer, 1986). Metallurgy started with process of
extracting metals from their ores like the heating of the ore malachite to produce
copper. This practice became a technological breakthrough when 10 % copper and
12 % tin was mixed together to form bronze (Bodner & Pardue, 1995). Aside from
copper, the Egyptians also used iron, silver, and gold. In addition, they also knew
the art of glass making and embalming. All of these practical are considered to be
empirical or based from practical experience. All of these things where discovered
in the great pyramids of Egypt. The pyramids are the one of greatest
accomplishments of ancient civilization for it served as a laboratory for the
Egyptians and served as a temple, giving its credit as the greatest wonders on
world.

Greek Civilization
The philosophical aspect or the theoretical aspect of chemistry began in
ancient Greece about 600 B.C. (Mortimer, 1986). The Greeks introduced the
concepts like the elements such as earth (cold and dry), air (hot and wet), fire (hot
and dry), and water (cold and wet). Moreover, the concept about the atom was
proposed by Leucippus and later was elaborated further by Democritus in the fifth
century B.C. (Mortimer, 1986). Plato proposed the concept on the shapes of atoms
and properties of atoms to be changed (or transmuted) into another form. Aside
from these theories, the Greeks also knew the principle behind chemical
combination and introduced systematic experimentation.

Roman Civilization

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The Romans introduced “empirical chemistry” and new theoretical

knowledge that are later used not only for the sake of discovery but also in their
quest for expanding their empire. This is evident in their dexterous skills in
developing more hard but flexible weapons like swords, spears, arrows, shield,
carousels, etc. Empirical chemistry for the Romans is different from the Egyptians
point of view because for the Egyptians chemistry for them is just based from
actual experiences while for the Romans, chemistry is based from a series of
experimentation.

Period of Alchemy
The word alchemy was derived form the Arabic term al-kimia meaning “the
art of transmuting metals” (Clugston & Flemming, 2000). With this, the
alchemists’ goal is to prolong life indefinitely making humans immortal using a
“philosopher’s stone” called by the Arabs as the aliksir, which was later corrupted
into elixir (Mortimer, 1986). The alchemists also would like to change or transmute
the base metals like iron, zinc, and copper into gold. All of these goals of the
alchemists turned out to be a fantasy. Later, the term alchemy was criticized as
pseudo-chemistry or false chemistry.

Renaissance Period
The Renaissance period is sometimes called as the period of the awakening or
enlightenment from the period of the alchemy during the Dark Ages. The Dark
Ages is believed the period of chaos, war, and confusion.

Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim (Paracelsus), a Swiss Physician,

disproved the beliefs of the school of iatrochemistry, a branch of alchemy
concerned with medicine particularly in balancing the human body fluids called as
the humours. The humours are believed to determine the person’s physical and
mental state. However, Paracelsus said that ailments and diseases could only be
cured with the use of chemicals (Clugston & Flemming, 2000).

In 1661, Robert Boyle wrote a book called The Sceptical Chymist, which
attacked the idea about fire, air, water, and earth became widely accepted by the
public and opened the doors to the development of modern chemistry. Moreover,
Boyle also criticized in his book about the goal of the alchemist of transmuting the
base metals into gold. He stressed that chemical theory should be derived from
experimental evidence (Mortimer, 1986).

The Phlogiston theory (fire principle) was principally the work of George
Ernst Stahl. This theory dominated chemistry during the eighteenth century. This
theory of phlogiston was assumed to be a constituent of any substance that could
undergo combustion. Phlogiston theory also explains in this theory that all
substance are composed of calx (metal oxide) and phlogiston and undergoes a
process called as calcination. However, this theory was inadequately explained and
not universal for all chemical reactions that undergo combustion.

Modern Chemistry
The beginning of modern chemistry opened new frontiers of knowledge and
breakthroughs. Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, was the founder and the
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father of modern chemistry. Some of his contributions in the field of chemistry are
as follows; quantitative experimentation using accurate measurements,
organization of chemical data, chemical nomenclature, law of conservation of mass
in chemical change, and explained the theory of combustion.

Lavoisier also published in 1789 his Elementary Treatise on Chemistry a list

of 33 chemical elements, many of which are still recognized today (Clugston &
Flemming, 2000). Other works of modern scientist like John Dalton, Dmitri
Mendeleev, Marie Curie, Svante August Arrhenius, and many others later followed
the meritorious works of Lavoisier.

1.4 Scientific Measurements

1.4.1 Elements of Measurement

One of the important tools of chemistry is measurement. In measurement,
there all of the data are accurately reported and quantitatively interpreted. There
are three elements of measurement namely – number, unit, and uncertainty or
error. A number indicate the size or magnitude of the quantity being measured.
The unit in a measurement provides a basis for comparing a certain quantity with
a standard reference. Uncertainty or error indicates the degree of accuracy and
precision of a quantity being measured. This usually indicates the number of
significant figures in a measurement.

For example, the normal body temperature of a human being is 37.0 o C.

The number is reported as 37.0 while C (Celcius) is the unit. The number of
decimal places indicates the degree of uncertainty or error.
Uncertainty or error
o
37.0 C Unit

Number

There are also two types of properties being measured, the macroscopic and
microscopic properties. Macroscopic properties can be measured or determined
directly using measuring instruments like the meter stick, thermometer, graduated
cylinder, beam balance, barometer, and many others. Microscopic properties
must be determined using an indirect method. It is difficult to determine directly
microscopic properties because they usually exist in an atomic or molecular scale.

1.4.2 Significant Figures

In a measurement, the degree of uncertainty or error can be corrected using

significant figures. Significant figures are the reliable digits or numbers in a
measurement. These digits are reliable for the reason that it only includes those
digits

in a measurement based on the degree of accuracy or precision of measuring

instrument being used.

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Table 1.1 Accuracy of Measuring Instruments

Instrument / Accuracy
Equipment
Thermometer ±0.2 oC
Buret ±0.02 mL
Pipet ±0.02 mL
Graduated cylinder ±0.1 mL
Meterstick ±0.1 cm (±1 mm)
Top-loading balance ±0.001 g (±1 mg)
Analytical balance ±0.0001 g (±0.1 mg)

Adopted from Brown, LeMay, & Bursten (2000). Laboratory Experiments /

to Accompany/ Chemistry: The central Science.

Guidelines for Using Significant Figures

You might wonder that as you switch on the calculator, the first number
that appears in the LCD is a zero with a decimal point after it or if you press any
number, there is always a decimal point after it. The decimal point has something
to do with significant figures and this could be explained by the following set of
guidelines for using significant figures:

1) All nonzero digits are significant. For example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or

a combination of these numbers are considered significant
2) Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. Example, 501 contains 3
significant figures, 10203, contains 5 significant figures, 6040809,
contains 7 significant figures and so on.
3) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are considered not significant.
The zero digits are used to indicate the placement of the decimal point.
For example, 0.1, 0.07, 0.005, 0.0008, and 0.0000003 contain 1
significant figure. While 0.023, 0.00357, 0.0008192, contain 2,3, and 4
significant figures, respectively.
4) If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros to the right of the
decimal point is considered significant. Example, 3.0 have 2 significant
figures, 5.00 have 3 significant figures, and 67.000 have 5 significant
figures.
The fifth and last guideline says that, for numbers that contain decimal points, the
trailing zeros (zeros before and after the last nonzero digit) may or may not be
significant. For example, 300 may contain only 1 significant figure (3), or 2
significant figures (30), or 3 significant figures (300). This guideline will not be
included in our discussion two avoid confusion. However, this guideline could be
corrected if all of the numbers are written in scientific notation.

1.4.3 Scientific Notation

To make all measurements reliable and accurate, scientific notation is used.
Scientific notation is a simple and short form of expressing extremely small and
extremely large numbers. It is a number between 1 and 10 times 10 raised to some
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exponent (power). It is said that all of the digits in a number are considered
significant because the zeros are no longer used to set the placement of the decimal
point.
Scientific notation could be expressed as written in the mathematical symbols
below:
N = Number between 1 & 10 in a positive or
negative
N x 10 n Integer.
10 = Number of times 10 is multiplied by itself.
n = Exponent or power

Guidelines in Rounding Off Numbers

There are only two guidelines to take note in applying scientific notations.
However, in applying these guidelines, the rounding off numbers should also be
considered. In this text, we shall used only one convention in rounding off
numbers, that is, if the number to be drop is equal or greater (≥) than 5, we will add
one to the number to the number preceding it. However, if the number to be drop
is equal or lesser than 4 (≤), then, we will retain the number preceding it.

Examples in rounding off numbers in 3 significant figures:

1) 23.55 = 23.5
2) 694.2 = 694
3) 0.0008126 = 0.000813
4) 0.000003654 = 0.00000365

Guidelines in Applying the Scientific Notation

The two guidelines in applying the scientific notation are as follows:

1) An extremely large number can be converted into a scientific notation

with a positive
exponent (N x 10 n) by moving the decimal point to the left ( ). The
number of
places the decimal point is moved to the left indicates the number of
power or
exponent.

Examples: (Scientific notations with 3 significant figures)

1 = 1.00 x 10 0
10 = 1.00 x 10 1
100 = 1.00 x 10 2
1000 = 1.00 x 10 3
10000 = 1.00 x 10 4
100000 = 1.00 x 10 5

2) An extremely small number can be converted into a scientific notation

with a negative
exponent (N x 10 – n ) by moving the decimal point to the right ( ).
The number
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of places the decimal point is moved to the right indicates the number of
power or
exponent.

Examples: (Scientific notations with 3 significant figures)

0.1 = 1.00 x 10 – 1
0.01 = 1.00 x 10 – 2
0.001 = 1.00 x 10 – 3
0.0001 = 1.00 x 10 – 4
0.00001 = 1.00 x 10 – 5
0.000001 = 1.00 x 10 – 6

1.4.4 SI Units of Measurement

There were two systems of measurements that are widely used word wide.
These two systems are the English and the Metric Systems of measurement. The
English units are commonly used by laypersons and the Metric units use
measurements with the powers of 10.
In 1960, a General Conference of Weights and Measures, an international
authority on units, proposed a new system of measurement that is patterned from
the metric system of measurement. This new metric system of measurement is
called as the International System of Units (SI or Syteme International d’ Unites
in French). The SI units of measurement were created to standardized and simplify
measurements for the pursuit in the promotion of advances in science and
technology. Tables 1.2 shows the SI base units which are commonly used in
measurements.

Table 1.2 SI Base Units

Base Name of Unit Symbol
Quantity
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Electrical current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Mole mol
substance
Luminous Candela cd
intensity
Adopted from Chang, Raymond (1995). Chemistry 5th Edition.

From the seven SI base units, only the units of length, mass, time,
temperature, and amount of substance will be frequently utilized in our study of
chemistry. The rest of the units will no longer be used in studying the behavior,
properties, and changes that occur in matter. However, derived units like volume,
density, pressure, and many others will also be included in this course.

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Table 1.3 shows the prefixes used for the multiples and submultiples of SI
units.
Table 1.3 Prefixes Used with SI Units

Factor Prefix Symbol

10 18 Eka E
10 15 Peta P
10 12 Tera T
10 9 Giga G
10 6 Mega M
10 3 Kilo K
10 2 Hecto h
10 1 Deka da
10 – 1 Deci d
10 – 2 Centi c
10 – 3 Milli m
10 – 6 Micro μ
10 – 9 Nano n
10 – 12 Pico p
10 – 15 Femto f
10 – 18 Atto a
Adopted with modification from Chang, Raymond (1995). Chemistry 5th Edition.

For convenience, we will be using the prefixes from milli (m) to kilo (k) to the
following units of length, mass, and volume. The corresponding units like meter
(m), gram (g) and liter (L) will be used as base units for length, mass, and volume,
respectively. In this text, you learn that changing the base units of meter, gram,
and liter will only change the quantity being measured but not for the
corresponding value of the prefixes. Refer to Table 1.4 for the application of these
base units.

Table 1.4 Application of Prefixes and Base Units

Prefix Equivalent Quantity

Length (m) Mass (g) Volume (L)
10 m (milli) = 1 c 10 mm = 1 cm 10 mg = 1 cg 10 mL = 1 cL
10 c (centi) = 1 d 10 cm = 1 dm 10 cg = 1 dg 10 cL = 1 dL
10 d (deci) = 1 base 10 dm = 1 m 10 dg = 1 g 10 dL = 1 L
unit
10 base unit = 1 da 10 m = 1 10 g = 1 dag 10 L = 1 daL
dam

10 da (deka) = 1 h 10 dam = 1 hm 10 dag = 1 hg 10 daL = 1 hL

10 h (hecto) = 1 k 10 hm = 1 km 10 hg = 1 kg 10 hL = 1 kL
1 k (kilo) = 1000 1 km = 1000 1 kg = 1000 mg 1 kL = 1000 mL
m mm

1.4.5 Unit Relationship Between SI Units and English Units

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It is also important to know the unit relationship between the SI units and
the English units of measurement. The following are list of unit relationship
between the SI and English units of measurements for length, mass, volume, and
pressure:

Units of Length Units of Mass Units of Volume Units

of Pressure

Units of Length Units of Mass Units of Volume Units of Pressure

1m = 1.094 yd 453.6 g = 1 lb 1 L = 1.057 qt 1 atm = 760 mm Hg
= 39.37 in 1 kg = 2.2 lbs 3.785 L = 1 gal = 760 torr
= 3.28 ft 1000 kg = 1 ton = 76 cm Hg
1.61 km = 1 mi = 101325 Pa
30.48 cm = 1 ft = 101325 N/m2
25.4 mm = 1 in = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi

1.4.6 Units of Density and Temperature

The units of density and temperature are also relevant in understanding the
nature of matter. Density (d) is the mass of substance divided by its volume. On
the other hand, temperature (T) is a quantitative measure for the degree of
hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature is also the measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of matter. Below are the units for density and
formulas for the conversion of temperature of substances.

Density = mass / volume Temperature

1 g / mL = 1000 kg / m 3 K = 273 + o
C
o o
1g/L = 0.001 g / mL F = 9 / 5 C + 32
o
C = 5/9 ( oF - 32)

1.4.7 Factor – Label Method

In the conversion of units, the Factor –Label Method is commonly used to

show the relationships between the given units and the required units. It is also
known as dimensional analysis method because all of the given units are cancelled
and the required units are left in the equation. The general formula in applying
the factor –label method is shown below:

Factor – Label Method = given unit x unit factor = required

unit

or

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Factor – Label Method = given unit x required unit = required

unit
given unit

Example:
1.50 km = ______ mm
6
1.50 km x 1000000 mm = 1.50 x 10 mm or it could be,
1 km

1.50 km x 10 hm x 10 dam x 10 m x 10 dm x 10 cm x 10 mm =
1.50 x 10 6 mm
1 km 1 hm 1 dam 1m 1 dm 1 cm

Performance Check 1
On Measurement
Date Accomplished:_____________
Name:________________________________________ Course and Year:_____________
Subject:______________________________________ SCORE:_____________________
1. Significant Figures
Identify the number of significant figures in the following items below:

1) 12300 = _______ 6) 63.020 = ________ 11) $ 96.00 =

_________
2) 50.020 = _______
3) 002300 = _______
4) 9610100 = ______
5) 6.300000 = ______
________
7) 0.0250 = ________ 12) 37.0 o C = __
8) 0.009100 = ______ 13) 8.1 x 10 — 3 =
9) 98750010 = ______ 14) 3.00 x 10 4 =
31
10) 60500 = _________ 15) 2 x 10 =

2. Scientific Notation
Write the scientific notation of the following numbers in three significant
figures:
1) 0.000023056 = ________________ 6) 569321 = _______________
2) 0.000236005 = ________________ 7) 963990 = _______________
3) 0.000000964 = ________________ 8) 6323.10 = _______________
4) 0.00000006912 = ______________ 9) 84063.99 = ______________
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5) 0.000000506020 = _____________ 10) 0.989452 = _____________

3. SI Units
Convert the following units into the desired SI units by applying the Factor –
Label method: Show all pertinent calculation and round off your final answers in
three significant figures.

1) 963 K = __________ o F 2) – 18.0 o

C = ____________ K

3) 23655 mg = ______________ hg 4) 36.0 psi = ___________ mmHg

5) 2136.00 cm = __________ km 6) 0.000065236 kg = _________ dag

7) 549.960 mL = ___________ Dl 8) 9688.00 cm 3 = ___________ dm3

9) 0.0000m3 = _____________ cm 10) 36.58 g / L = _____________ dag /

m3

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