Gen Chem Topic-3

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Criminal Justice Education
Name of Student: Year&Section:

Week No. Date:
6-7 General Chemistry
TOPIC TITLE
3. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
TOPICS
3.1 Ideas About Atoms
3.2 Models of the Atom
3.3 Subatomic Particles
3.4 Atomic Number of the Elements
3.5 Isotopes of the Elements
3.6 ATOMIC MASS (ATOMIC WEIGHT)
3.7 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM
3.8 Quantum Theory
3.9 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
3.10 Dual Nature of the Electron
3.11 Quantum Mechanics
3.12 Quantum Numbers
3.13 Electron Configuration
3.14 THE PERIODIC TABLE
LEARNING OUTCOME
1) Enumerate and explain the different models of the atom.
2) Identify the three subatomic particles.
3) Differentiate the different atomic properties.
4) Determine the atomic number, mass number, or number of neutrons of an
isotope when given the values of any two of these three items.
5) Calculate the average atomic mass of an element, given the isotopic masses
and the abundance of its isotopes.
6) Explain the quantum theory.
7) Discuss the dual nature of the electron.
8) Relate the importance quantum mechanics in locating the position of the
electron in an atom.
9)VIdentify the quantum numbers of the differentiating electron.
10)VWrite the electronic configuration of elements.
11)Recall the development of the periodic table.
12) Discuss the periodic class of elements.
13) Describe the periodicity of elements.
KEYWORDS
Inorganic Temperature
Measurement Factor-label
Density SI system
SUGGESTED/ASSIGNED READING/S
College of
General Chemistry QUIRINO STATE
CCJE
Developed by: Criminal Justice
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DENSON M. LIDAY, MS CHEM
072020 Page 1 of 26
Nocum, Zenaida T. (2005). General inorganic chemistry.C & A Publishing,

Inc.: Quezon City.
Whitten, D., et al (2007). Chemistry. Thompson Books: California.
Chang, R. (2005). Chemistry. Mc Graw Hill: New York.
Goldberg, D. E. (2004). Fundamentals of chemistry. Mc Graw Hill: New York.
3. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

3.1 Ideas about Atoms
Have you ever been asked to believe in something you couldn’t see? You cannot
see the basic components of matter within your eyes. Yet invisible atoms are the
fundamental units of which all matter is composed. Even more remarkable, the atom
itself can be fractured into many pieces.
The structure of matter has long intrigued and engaged the minds of people.
The seed of atomic theory was sown during the time of the ancient Greek
philosophers. About 440 B.C. Empedocles stated that all matter was composed of four
“elements” – earth, air, water and fire. Democritus (about470-370B.C.), one of the
early atomistic philosophers, thought that all forms of matter were finitely divisible
into invisible particles, which he called atoms. This purely speculative hypothesis was
not based on scientific observations. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) opposed the theory of
Democritus and endorsed and advanced the Empedoclean theory (Hein, 1993). The
term atom is derived from the Greek word “atomos” meaning uncuttable or indivisible.
The atom is the smallest unit of an element.
3.2 Models of the Atom

(1) Dalton’s Atomic Theory
More than 2000 years after Democritus, the English schoolmaster John Dalton
(1766-1844) from Manchester revived the concept of atoms and proposed an atomic
theory based on facts and experimental evidences. He presented the idea in detail in
his book New System of Chemical Philosophy in 1808. The essence of Dalton’s atomic
theory may be summed up as follows:
a) Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All

atoms of an element are identical having the same size, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of an element are different from the
atoms of all other elements.
 Law of Definite Proportions
This law was advanced by Joseph Proust, a French chemist, which states that
the different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements
in the same proportions by mass. An example is carbon dioxide, CO 2 from different
sources have the same ratio by mass of carbon, C to oxygen, O2.
b) Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any

compound, the ratio of the numbers of any two of the elements
present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
 Law of Multiple Proportions

This law states that if two elements can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other
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element are in ratios of small whole numbers. An example is carbon forms

two stable compounds with oxygen – CO and CO2.
CO = 1 C & 1 O; CO2 = 1 C & 2 O
[Ratio of O2 of CO to the O2 of CO2 is 1:2]
c) A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or

rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
destruction.
 Law of Conservation of Mass

This law states that matter can be neither created nor destroyed. [Since
matter is made of atoms that are unchanged in a chemical reaction, it follows
that must be conserved as well].
(2) Thomson’s Model

Atoms have no overall charge; they are neutral. So, there must be a part of the
atom that is positively charged, to balance the negative charge of the electrons. At the
end of the 19th century, scientists understood that the atom had positively and
negatively charged components, and that the negatively charged components had a
very low mass. Joseph John Thomson proposed a model that described atoms as
negatively charged embedded in a uniform, positively charged sphere. It became
known as the “ Plum – Pudding Model ” because the electrons were spread randomly
throughout the positive charge like the raisins in a pudding.
The name electron had been coined in 1981 by Johnstone Stoney, who
suggested that this name would be appropriate for a fundamental electrically charged
particle within atoms. Thomson called the very light particle found in his cathode-ray
experiments “corpuscles”. It was Hendrik Lorentz who pointed out that Thomson had
in fact found Stoney’s electrons, which are negatively charged particles (Clugston &
Flemming, 2000).
(3) Rutherford’s Model

The discovery that positively charged particles were present in atoms came soon
after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. Ernest Rutherford had,
by 1907, established that the positively charged alpha particle emitted by certain
radioactive elements was ions of the element helium. Rutherford used these alpha
particles to establish the nuclear nature of atoms (Hein, 1993). This is the “ Planetary
or Nuclear Model ”where the atom’s positive charges are all concentrated in a dense
central core within the atom and the electrons are considered to be spinning around
the nucleus as the planets do around the sun. The dense central core of the atom is
called the nucleus.
Three (3) types of rays emitted by radioactive substances
a) Alpha ray or particle [] is a particle with positive charge of +2 and is

attracted to negatively charged plate.
b) Beta ray or particle [] consists of negatively charged particles (electrons) and
is attracted to positively charged plate.
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c) Gamma ray or particle [] is a high-energy radiation that does not

consist of a charged particle and unaffected by an external electric field.
Between 1917 and 1921, Ernest Rutherford bombarded six different elements
with alpha particles. He discovered that the nuclei of boron, nitrogen, fluorine,
sodium, aluminum and phosphorus all gave out the same positive particle, which was
identical to the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. Because this was the first particle
found in the nucleus, he called it the proton (from the Greek protos, meaning “first”).
Rutherford concluded that protons made up the positive part of the nuclei of all
elements. The proton carries a positive charge of exactly the same magnitude as the
negative charge on the electron (Clugston & Flemming, 2000).
Experimental evidence for the neutron was found in 1932, when James
Chadwick bombarded the element beryllium with alpha particles, which could pass
through many centimeters of solid lead and which was not deflected by electronic or
magnetic fields. Chadwick decided that the stream must consist of particles with
almost the same mass as protons but with no charge. Chadwick had detected the
neutrons postulated earlier by Rutherford. Protons and neutrons are collectively
known as nucleons because they are both found in the nucleus (Clugston & Flemming,
2000).
(4) Bohr’s Model
In 1913 Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a young Danish physicist and a student of

Rutherford’s, came up with a new atomic model. He proposed that electrons are
arranged in concentric circular paths, or orbits, around the nucleus (Wilbraham et al,
1997). The electrons in an atom can exist only in certain circular orbits at specific
distances from the nucleus. The energy of the electron is quantized and can only be
lost or gained in discrete amount. [The electron goes to a higher energy level and then
falls back to the energy level closer to the nucleus].
(5) De Broglie’s Wave Theory
In 1924, Louis de Broglie, a French graduate student concluded that the

electron is both a particle and a wave which moves about the nucleus in somewhat
random way, sometimes near and sometimes far away. [Electrons are spread out over
space around the nucleus and vibrate in distinctly different modes like standing
waves].
3.3 Subatomic Particles

Each atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus contains
protons and neutrons but not electrons. In a neutral atom the negative electrons
exactly offset the positive charge of the nucleus. Because the charge of an electron is
equal but have opposite sign to the charge of a proton, a neutral atom must contain
exactly the same number of electrons as protons. However, this generalized picture of
atomic structure provides no information on the arrangement of electrons within the
atom. Table 3.1 summarizes the properties of subatomic particles (Hein, 1993).
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Table 3.1. Properties of Subatomic Particles
Particl Symbol Mass Charge Location Discoverer

e (g) Coulomb Charge
Unit
Electro e- 9.1095 x 10-23 -1.6022 x 10 -
-1 Orbitals J. J.
19
n Thomson
Proton p 1.67252 x 10- +1.6022 x 10- +1 Nucleus E.
24 19
Goldstein
Neutro n 1.67495 x 10- 0 0 Nucleus J.
24
n Chadwick
3.4 Atomic Number of the Elements

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of that element. The atomic number determines the identity of an atom. For
example, every atom with an atomic number of twelve is a carbon atom; it contains
twelve protons in its nucleus. Every atom with an atomic number of 16 is a sulfur
atom; it contains 165 protons in its nucleus. The atomic number tells us not only the
number of positive charges in the nucleus but also the number of electrons in the
neutral atom (Hein, 1993).
3.5 Isotopes of the Elements

All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons, but
experimental evidence has shown that, in most cases, all atoms of a given element do
not have identical masses because atoms of the same element may have different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
Atoms of an element having the same atomic number but different atomic
masses are called isotopes of that element. Atoms of the various isotopes of an
element, therefore, have the same number of protons and electrons but different
numbers of neutrons.
Most of the elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes. However, not all
isotopes are stable; some are radioactive and are continuously decomposing to form
other elements. For example, of the seven known isotopes of carbon, only two carbon,
carbon-121 and carbon-13, are stable. Of the seven known isotopes of oxygen, only
three are stable: O-16 and O-18. Of the fifteen known isotopes of arsenic. As-75 is the
only one that is stable (Hein, 1993).
3.6 ATOMIC MASS (ATOMIC WEIGHT)

The mass of a single atom is far too small to measure individually on a balance.
But fairly precise determinations of the masses of individual atoms can be made with
an instrument called mass spectrometer. The carbon isotope, having six protons and
six neutrons and designated carbon-12, was chosen as the standard for atomic
masses. This reference isotope was assigned a value of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(amu). Thus one atomic mass unit is defined as equal to exactly 1/12 of the mass of
a carbon-12 atom. The actual mass of a carbon-12 atom is 1.9927 x 10 -23 g, and that
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of one atomic mass unit is 1.6606 x 10 -24 g. hydrogen atoms, with a mass of
about 1/12 that of a carbon atom, have an average atomic mass of 1.00797 amu on
this relative scale. Magnesium atoms, which are about twice as heavy as carbon, have
an average mass of 24.305 amu. The average atomic mass of oxygen is 15.9994 amu.
Example:
Isotope Isotopic Mass Abundance[%] Average Atomic
[amu] Mass[amu]
Cu-63 62.9298 69.09
Cu-65 64.9278 30.91 63.55
The average atomic mass can be calculated by multiplying the atomic mass of
each isotope by the fraction of each isotope present and adding the results. The
calculation for copper is
62.9598 amu x 0.6909 = 43.48 amu

64.9278 amu x 0.3091 = 20.07 amu
63.55 amu
The relationship between mass number and atomic number is such that, if we
subtract the atomic number from the mass number of a given isotope, we obtain the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of that isotope. For example, the
fluorine atom [199F], atomic number 9 having a mass of 19 amu contains 10 neutrons:
Mass number - Atomic number = Number of neutrons

19 - 9 = 10
3.7 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM

3.7.1 Properties of Waves
A Wave is a vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted.
(1) Wavelength [  = Lambda]

- Distance between identical points on successive waves.
- Distance / wave.
- Units: m,cm, nm, etc.
(2) Frequency [  = Nu]

- Number of waves that pass through a particular point in one second.
- Waves / time.
- Units: Hz = 1 cycle/s
(3) Speed [  = Upsilon]
- Property of wave traveling through space.
- It depends on the number of cycles of the wave passing through a given
point per second (on the frequency) and on the wavelength.
- Distance / time.
- Units: m/s, cm/s, km/ hr, etc.
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Distance = Distance x Wave or = x 

Time wave time
 Electromagnetic Wave
- James Maxwell
- Visible light consists of electromagnetic wave.
- It has an electric field component and a magnetic field component [ Ex:
x-ray and radio waves].
Speed of light [ c] = 3.00 x 108 m/s or 186,000 mi/s.


Direction of wave
 Amplitude is a vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or
through.
Z
Electric field component
Magnetic field component
 Electromagnetic Radiation is an emission of energy in the form of

electromagnetic waves.
 Types of Electromagnetic Radiation
(1) Gamma rays = shortest wavelength and highest frequency.
(2) X – rays
(3) Ultraviolet radiation
(4) Infrared radiation
(5) Microwave radiation
(6) Radio waves = longest wavelength and longest frequency
“ The higher the energy the more energetic the radiation.”
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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Visible light [ 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red) ]
3.8 Quantum Theory
Max Planck, a German Physicist, advanced Quantum Theory. It was studied that
atoms and molecules could emit (or absorb) energy only in discrete quantities.
*Quantum [Latin word which means amount]
It means the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted (or absorbed) in the form
of electromagnetic radiation (Planck).
E The (E) of an emitted single quantum of

energy is proportional to the frequency () of h = Planck’s constant
the radiation. = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
E=h
Energy is always emitted in multiples of h
(Ex. h, 2 h, 3 h) but never, for example 1.67
h, 4.98 h, hh
 Photoelectric Effect
- Albert Einstein (German-born American Physicist).
- Light posses both particle like and wave like properties.
* Photons = Particles of light.
From E = h
KE = Kinetic energy of ejected
h = KE + BE light is the KE of the ejected electron
The more energetic the photon is ( i.e. the higher its ), the greater
BE = Binding Energy of the
KE = h + BE electron in the metal
more intense the light, the greater the number

of electron emitted by the target metal; the higher the frequency of the light , the
greater the KE of the emitted electron.
Technologies
(1) Photoelectric cell. It is used to measure light intensities to prevent elevator doors
from crushing people.
(2) Smoke detectors. Light scattered by smoke particles causes emission which sets
off an alarm.
3.9 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

At high temperatures, or when subjected to high voltages, elements in the
gaseous state give off colored light. Brightly colored neon signs illustrate this property
of matter very well. When passed through a prism or the grating of a spectroscope, the
light emitted by a gas appears as a set of brightly colored lines and is called a line
spectrum. These colored lines indicate that the light is being emitted only at certain
wavelengths or frequencies that correspond to specific colors. Each
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element possesses a unique set of spectral lines that is different from the
sets of all the other elements.
In 1912, Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist made a significant contribution to
atomic structure. His research led him to believe that electrons in an atom exist is
specific regions at various distances from the nucleus. He also visualized that
electrons are rotating in orbits around the nucleus, like planets rotating around the
sun.
Types of Spectra
 Emission Spectra
Continuous or line spectra of radiation emitted by substances.
 Line Spectra
A line spectra is produced when radiation is absorbed or emitted by
substances only at some wavelengths.
 Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom
The emission of radiation by an energized Hydrogen atom could then be
explained in terms of the electron dropping from a higher-energy orbit to a lower
one and giving up a quantum of energy (photon) in the form of light.
En = -RH (1/n2) As the electron gets closer to the nucleus (as n

decreases), En becomes larger in absolute value, but also
RH = Rydberg constant [Johannes Robert Rydberg]

= 2.18 x 10-18 J
n = Principal quantum number (Ex. N = 1, 2,3,…)
- = Energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the
energy of a free electron or an electron that is infinitely far
from the nucleus.
 Ground State/ Ground level

- Lowest energy of a system (n = 1).
 Excited State / Excited level
- Higher in energy than the ground state (n = 2, 3 …) [stability of electron
diminishes as n increases]
“ As n increases from 1 to 2 to 3, the orbit radius increases in size very rapidly.”
The higher the excited state, the farther away the electron is from the nucleus
and the less tightly it is held by the nucleus.
3.10 Dual Nature of the Electron
 De Broglie
Such strange goings on! Energy absorbed or emitted in packages. Light
behaving as waves and particles. Stranger things were yet to come. In 1924 Louis
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de Broglie, a French physicist asked an important question. Since light

behaves as waves and particles, can particles of matter behave as waves? De
Broglie derived an equation that described the wavelength, , of a moving particle.
“ If light waves can behave like a stream of particles (photons), then perhaps such
electron can posses wave properties.”
The greater the frequency of vibration, the shorter the wavelength of
the standing wave and the greater the number of nodes.
l =  l=2  l= 3
l = length of string
2 2 2
 = Wavelength
= h h = Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 J.s)
mu m = Mass
u = Velocity
3.11 Quantum Mechanics

 Problem: “ How can the position of a wave be specified?”
We can speak of the amplitude at a certain point in the wave, but we
cannot define its precise location because a wave extends in space.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg, a German physicist derived the famous Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty priciple, which states:
“ It is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum ( p = mu) and the
position of a particle (x) with certainty.”
xp h
4 The more you know about x, the less you know about p.
*x p = Uncertainties in measuring the position (x) and the

momentum(p).
 Schrodinger Equation
Erwin Schrodinger (Austrian Physicist) took atomic models one-step further. He
used the new quantum theory to write and solve a mathematical equations
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describing the location and energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom. The

modern description of the electrons in atoms, the quantum mechanical model,
comes from the mathematical solution to the Schrodinger equation. It solved the
following:
(1) It specifies the possible energy states that the electron can occupy.
(2) It identifies the corresponding wave functions ( = psi).
 Electron Density
Electron density gives the probability that an electron can be found in a
particular region of an atom.
  2 = Distribution of electron density in space around the nucleus.
h= h
2
- h2 . d2 + V( x ) = E
2m dx2 = 1.05457 x 10 –34
J.s
m = Mass of particle
One Dimension (Time independent)
V = Forces acting on system
= Potential Energy (PEof the particle
(1) Time - Independent [  (x,y,z,t) ]
- h 2 . d2 + V( x ) = E
2m dx2
(2) Time – Dependent [  (x,y,z, x2,y2,z2,t) ]
- h 2 . d2 = i h . dE
2m dx2 dt
3.12 Quantum Numbers

Number used to indicate the magnitude of the property of an atom that is
quantized /countable. It is used to describe electrons and the energy states it
occupy.
 Types of Quantum Numbers
(1) Principal quantum number ( n ), determines the energy level of the particle.
(2) Azimuthal or Angular Momentum quantum number ( l ) determines the
shape of the orbital.
(3) Magnetic quantum number ( m l )determines the orientation of the orbital in
space
(4) Electron Spin quantum number ( m s ) determines the spin of the electron on
a magnetic field
(1) Principal Quantum Number ( n )

Specifies the energy of an orbital.
It relates the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular
orbital.
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The larger the n is, the greater is the average distance of an electron in
the orbital from the nucleus.
Therefore, the larger and less stable is the orbital.
2
2n
Maximum number of electron in each energy level.
Principal Letter Designation Maximum number of

Quantum electron in each energy
level (2n2)
Number ( n )
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72
7 Q 98
* [The theoretical values of 50, 72, and 98 has never been attained in any
element up to date].
(2) Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum number ( l )

It describes the shape of the orbital. It refers to the subshell where the electron is
found.
 Orbital Angular Momentum or Azimuthal Qu
l=n-1
Cloud-like regions surrounding the nucleus.
Location of the electrons in space.
 Shell
A collection of orbitals with the same value of n.
 Subshell
One or more orbitals with the same n and l values.
 Shapes of Subshells
(1) Sharp (s) = spherical s <2
(2) Principal (p) = polar
(3) Diffuse (d) = clover-like p <6
(4) Fundamental (f) = combination of s, p, and d.
d < 10
Angular Momentum Shape Number of Maximum
of number of
Quantum Number ( l orbitals
electron
) subshell
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1 p 3 6
2 d 5 10
3 f 7 14
Principal Angular Momentum

Quantum
Quantum Number ( l
Number ( n ) )
1 0
2 0, 1
3 0, 1, 2
4 0, 1, 2, 3
5 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
6 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
7 0, 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6
(3) Magnetic Quantum Number ( ml )

It describes the orientation of the orbitals in space. It indicates the region in
space (orbital) where the electron is found most of the time.
ml=2l+1
Magnetic Quantum Number
Angular Momentum Magnetic
Quantum
Quantum number (
l) Number ( m l )
0 0
1 -1, 0, 1
2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
3 -3, -2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3
(4) Electron Spin Quantum Number ( ms )
It shows the direction of electron spinning around on its own axis.
 Types of Spins
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(1) Clockwise spin: + ½

(2) Counter clockwise Spin : - ½
3.13 Electron Configuration

This is the distribution of electron in the various energy levels or atomic orbitals of
an atom.
 Degenerate Orbitals
- Orbitals that have the same energy.
1s < 2s = 2p <Degenerate
3s = 3p = 3dorbitals
< 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f …
Formula on how to represent the electronic configuration of elements:
n = Principal Quantum Number

l = Angular Momentum Quantum Number
nlx x = Number of electrons in the orbitals or subshells
Example: Hydrogen ( H ) Orbital diagram

1s1
 Electron Capacity Rules

(1) Pauli Exclusion Principle
Wolfgang Pauli (Austrian Physicist) introduced a principle which states that no
two (2) electrons in an atom can have the same four (4) quantum number.
 
He = 1s2 
1s2 1s2 1s2
(a) (b) (c)
 Paramagnetic
If the electron spins are parallel spins (  or  ), their magnetic fields
would reinforce each other. Paramagnetic spins are attracted by a magnet.
 Diamagnetic
If the electron spins are paired or anti parallel to each other (  or  ),
the magnetic fields would cancel out causing them to be repelled by a
magnet.
(2) Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity

Frederick Hund (German Physicist) derived a rule, which states that the most stable
arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the greatest number of parallel
spins (paramagnetic). When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron
enters each orbital until all the orbitals contain one electron with spins parallel.
Second electrons then add to each orbital so that their
C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

  
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1s2 2s2 2p2

(3) Aufbau Principle
“ Aufbau ” – German word which means building up.
As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons are
similarly added to the atomic orbitals. Electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first.
The various orbitals within a sublevel of a principal energy level are always of equal
energy. Furthermore, within a principal energy level the s sublevel is always the lowest
energy sublevel .
3.14 THE PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic Table
The Periodic table is a systematic arrangement of all the elements
according to their atomic numbers, showing periodic similarities and
differences in the properties of elements.
Development of the Periodic Table

(1) Dobereiner’s Triad [Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner]
Elements with similar properties were group in “triads” (three).

Example: Li, Na, & K Cl, Br, & I Ca, Sr, & Ba S, Se, &
Te
(2) Newland’s Law Of Octaves [John Newland]
Elements were arranged to increasing atomic weights, and every eighth (8 th)
element had similar properties.
Example: Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
(3) Lothar Meyer
Devised a classification of elements into a table that accounted for the
periodic variations in properties. There were 56 elements arranged.
(4) Dmitri Menedeleev

Arranged elements in the order of increasing atomic weights.
- His periodic table became the forerunner of the modern periodic table.
(a) It grouped elements accurately according to properties.
(b) It made possible the prediction of the elements that had not yet been
discovered.
- Example: Eka – Al Eka – B Eka – Si Eka -Te
Eka -Sc Eka -Ga Eka –Ge
 “Eka”  Sanskrit word which means first.
(5) Henry Moseley

He arranged 36 elements in the order of increasing atomic number.
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(6 Modern Periodic Table

The elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number.
 Periodic law states that the properties of elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers.
Periodic Classification of Elements

A. Periods or Series
These show the horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. These also
show the number of main shells (n).
B. Groups or Families
The vertical columns of elements in the periodic table are described as
groups or families
They give the number of electrons in the outermost shell. They also refer to
the same characteristics or properties of elements.
 Categories [Basis: Subshell being filled]
1. Representative Group or Main Group

All have incompletely filled s and p subshells of the highest principal quantum
number. They are also called the sp block elements.
(a) Group 1A – Alkali metals
(b) Group 2A – Alkaline Earth metals
(c) Group 3A – Boron Family
(d) Group 4A – Carbon Family
(e) Group 5A – Nitrogen Family
(f) Group 6A – Oxygen Family
(g) Group 7A – Halogens
2. Noble Gases
Noble gases are categorized as Group 8A or group 0. Except for He (1s 2), all have a
completely filled p subshell.
3. Transition Metals
These are elements whose outermost s sublevel and the nearby d sublevel contain
electrons. These are called the Group B elements
(a) d – Block Transition Metals
They have incompletely filled d subshells.
(b) f – Block Transition Metals
These metals have incompletely filled f subshells.
Rare earth metals

1] Lanthanide Series - Elements 57 – 71
2] Actinide Series – Elements 89 – 110]
Figure 4.1. The Modern Periodic Table Outline
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Figure 4.1. The Modern Periodic Table Outline

s block
p block
1s 1s
2p
d block
2s
3s 3p
4s 3d 4p
5s 4d 5p
5d 6p
6s
7s 6d
4f
f block 5f
Periodic Trends
(1) Atomic radius
(2) Ionic Radius L – R : Decreases
(3) Metallic property T – B :
Increases
(a) Electrical conductivity
(b) Thermal conductivity
(4) Ionization energy
(5) Electron affinity L – R: Increases
(6) Electronegativity T – B: Decreases
1. Atomic radius
It is ½ the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms.
For simple diatomic molecules: Atomic radius is ½ the distance between the
nuclei of two atoms in a particular molecule.
2. Ionic Radius
It is the radius of a cation (+) or an anion (-).
(a) Anion
If an atom forms an anion, its size (radius) increases.
The nuclear charge remains the same but the repulsion resulting from
the additional electron enlarges the domain of the electron cloud.
 In the formation of an ion, one or more electrons are added to the highest
partially filled n shell.
Examples: Neutral atom Anion

H1 = 1s1 H- = 1s2
F9 = 1s2 2s2 2p5 F- = 1s2 2s2 2p6
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O8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4 O2- = 1s2 2s2 2p6
N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3 N3- = 1s2 2s2 2p6
(b) Cation
A cation is smaller than the neutral atom.
Removing one or more electron reduces electron – electron repulsion but the
nuclear charge remains the same, so the electron cloud shrinks.
* In the formation of a cation from the neutral atom of a representative

element, one or more electrons are removed from the highest occupied n
shell.
Examples: Neutral atom Anion

Na 11 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Na = 1s 2s2 2p6
+ 2
Ca 20 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 Ca 2+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Al 13 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 Al 3+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6
 Unipositive ion = Ion with one positive charge

 Dipositive ion = Ion with two positive charge
 Tripositive ion = Ion with three positive charge
Size : Unipositive ion > Dipositive ion > Tripositive ion
 Isoelectronic
Ions, atoms and ions, that have the same number of electron, and hence the
same ground – state electron configuration.
3. Metallic Property
(a) Electrical Conductivity

The elements’ ability to conduct electricity.
(b) Thermal Conductivity
The elements’ ability to conduct heat.
4. Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is maximum energy required to remove an electron from a

gaseous atom in its ground state. It is also the amount in kiloJoules (kJ)
needed to remove one mole of electron from one mole of gaseous atoms
(ions). Unit: kJ / mole
(a) First Ionization Energy ( I 1)

It is the amount of energy required removing the first outermost electron
of an atom in its ground state.
Energy + X ( g )  X+ ( g ) + e-
(b) Second Ionization Energy ( I 2)

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It is the amount of energy required to remove the second outermost

electron of an atom in its ground state.
Energy + X ( g )  X 2+ ( g ) + e-
(c) Third Ionization Energy ( I 3 )

It is the amount of energy required to remove the third electron of an
atom in its ground state.
Energy + X ( g )  X 3+ ( g ) + e-
* Ionization Energies: I 1 < I 2 < I 3
5. Electron Affinity
It is the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an
atom in the gaseous state.
X ( g ) + e-  X - ( g )
The more negative the electron affinity, the greater is the tendency
of an atom to accept an electron.
6. Electronegativity
The ability of an atom to attract electron to itself in a chemical bond.
THE ERIODIC TRENDS
(Increases)
Atomic Radius Ionization

Energy
Ionic radius Electron Affinity
Metallic Property Electronegativity
(Increases)
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PERFORMANCE CHECK 1
Date Accomplished:_____________
Name:________________________________________ Course and Year:_____________
Subject:______________________________________ SCORE:_____________________
Ions and Isotopes worksheet
I. Complete the following:
1. For each of the ions listed, identify the total number of electrons for each
____ 1. Al+3 ____ 2. Fe+3 ____ 3. Mg-2 ____ 4. Sn+2
-2 -3 +1
____ 5. Co ____ 6. Co ____ 7. Li ____ 8. Cr+3
-1 +2
____ 9. Rb _ ___ 10. Pt
2. For each of the following ions, indicate the total number of protons and
electrons in the ion.
Ion Number of Protons Number of Electrons
Co+2
Co+3
Cl-1
K+1
S-2
Sr+2
Al+3
P-3
12 13 14
3. Here are three isotopes of an element: 6 C 6 C 6 C
a. The element is: __________________

b. The number 6 refers to the _________________________
c. The numbers 12, 13, and 14 refer to the ________________________
d. How many protons and neutrons are in the first isotope?
_________________
e. How many protons and neutrons are in the second isotope?
_________________
f. How many protons and neutrons are in the third isotope?
_________________
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4. Complete the following chart:
Isotope name atomic # mass # # of # of # of electrons

protons neutrons
uranium-235
uranium-238
boron-10
boron-11
Part II: Fill in the following chart
Element/Ion Atomic Number of Number of Number of Mass

Number Protons Neutrons Electrons Number
30 28 66
76 114
Part II: Answer the following questions:
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1. a. How can you tell if an atom has a negative charge?
b. How can you tell if an atom has a positive charge?
2. Define an isotope.
3. What would happen if the number of protons were to change in an atom?
PERFORMANCE CHECK 2
Subject:______________________________________ SCORE:_____________________
I. Complete the following table. (Note: Follow the mnemonic device for the electron
configuration).
Elemen Noble Gas Orbital Quantum Numbers MAGNETIS

t Electron Diagram for M
Configuration the Valence n l ml ms
Electron
1.Ba
2.Si
3.Rb
III. Using the Periodic Table, identify the element that is described in the statement.
Use symbols.
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_____ 1. The electronic notation for the neutral atom is 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
3d8.
_____ 2. The electronic notation for the ion that has a triple positive charge, X 3+ is (18Ar)
4s2 3d9.
_____ 3. The quantum numbers of the last electron added to the neutral atom
according to Aufbau method are [2, 1, 0, +½].
according to Aufbau method are [4, 0, 0, -½].
according to Aufbau method are [7, 0, 0, +½].
PERFORMANCE CHECK 3
Subject:______________________________________ SCORE:_____________________
A. On the line to the left classify each of the following elements as : metal, nonmetal or
metalloid
B. On the line to the right identify the element’s family if it belongs to one of the
families listed below, otherwise leave
the line blank.
1st line 2nd line
M - Metals AM - Alkali Metal H - Halogen
NM – Nonmetals G2M - Group 2 Metal NG - Noble gas
MTO - Metalloids TM - Transition Metal
1. _______ _______ Potassium 2. _______ _______ Gold

3. _______ _______ Sulfur 4. _______ _______ Antimony
5. _______ _______ Iodine 6. _______ _______ Titanium
7. _______ _______ Magnesium 8. _______ _______ Germanium
9. _______ _______ Fluorine 10. _______ _______ Cesium
11. _______ _______ Krypton 12. _______ _______ Bromine
C. Which one of the following pairs of elements is the most metallic?

1. _______ a) potassium b) bromine
2. _______ a) cesium b) sodium
3. _______ a) silicon b) aluminum
4. _______ a) gold b) bismuth
D) Rank the following elements by increasing atomic radius:
Carbon, Aluminum, Oxygen, Potassium.
___________ < _______________ < ______________ < _______________
E) Rank the following elements by increasing electronegativity:
Sulfur, Oxygen, Neon, Aluminum.

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___________ < _______________ < ______________ < _______________
CHAPTER QUIZ
Subject:______________________________________ SCORE:_____________________
I. All About Matter.
a) Fill in the Blanks.
A(n) ____________ is a pure substance that is made of only one kind of atom. The
symbol for a(n) ____________ is always one or two letters. When the symbol contains
two letters, the first letter is always ____________, and the second letter is always
____________. A(n) ____________ is a pure substance containing two or more elements
that are ____________ combined. A(n) ____________ is represented by a chemical
____________. The elements in a(n) ____________ always combine in ____________
proportions. A(n) ____________ is made of two or more substances that are ____________
combined. A(n) ____________ that is uniformly mixed is called ____________. A special
name for this is a(n) ____________. A(n) ____________ that is not uniformly mixed is
called ____________. A special type of mixture that is a solid ____________ of two or more
metals is called a(n) ____________.
b) Classify each of the following as an element (E), compound (C), homogeneous

mixture/solution (S), or heterogeneous mixture (HE).
chocolate chip cookie _____ oxygen gas _____ salt water _____
taco _____ gold _____ carbon dioxide _____
water _____ kool aid _____ table salt _____
muddy water _____ potassium _____ brass _____
graphite _____ glass _____ air _____
c) Identify each of the following as an example of a physical property or a chemical

property.
1. Silver tarnishes when it comes in contact with hydrogen sulfide in the air.
2. A banana is yellow.
3. A sheet of copper can be pounded into a bowl.
4. Barium melts at 725 C.
5. Gasoline is flammable.
6. A diamond is the hardest natural substance.
7. Helium does not react with any other element.
8. A bar of lead is more easily bent than is a bar of aluminum of the same size.
9. Potassium metal is kept submerged in oil to prevent contact with oxygen or
water.
10.An apple will turn brown is left in oxygen.
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11.Diamond dust can be used to cut or grind most other materials.

12.Acid in tomato sauce can corrode aluminum foil.
13.Rocks containing carbonates can be identified because they fizz when
hydrochloric acid is applied.
14.A piece of charcoal, which is mostly the substance carbon, glows red, gives
off heat, and becomes a gray ash.
III. Atomic Structure

1) Write electron configurations of the following ions:
a) K+ (long hand notation):
b) F- (long hand
c) Ni2+ (short hand
d) Zn2+ (short hand):
e) Br- (short hand
f) Cu2+ (short hand):
g) Ag+ (short hand):
2) Draw orbital diagrams (for valence electrons only) for the following ions:
a) K+
b) Br-
c) Ni2+
d) Zn2+
IV. Periodic Trends Practice
1. Identify each element as a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal
germanium ___________________ zinc ___________________
phosphorous _________________ lithium _______________
2. Give two examples of elements for each category
noble gases _______ ________
halogens _______ __ _____
alkali metals ________ _________
alkaline earth metals ________ _____ ___
transition metals _____ ___ _______
5. Circle the atom in each pair that has the largest atomic radius.
A) Al B B) O S C) Cl Br
D) Al Na E) F O F) Mg Ca
8. Circle the atom in each pair that has the greater ionization energy
A. Li Be B. Ba Ca C. K Na
D. P Ar E. Si Cl F. K Li
12. Circle the atom in each pair that has the greater electronegativity
A. Ca Ga B. As Br C. O Li
D. Ba Sr E. S Cl F. S O
13. Which is the largest atom in Group 4A? _____________
14. Which is the smallest atom in Group 7A? _____________ _
15. Which is the smallest atom in period 5? _______________
16. For each of the following pairs, which of the two species is larger?
A. N3- or F-___________ ______________
B. Mg2+ or Ca2+________ _________________
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C. Fe2+ or Fe3+___________ ______________
17. For each of the following pairs, which of the two species is smaller?
A. K+ or Li+_______________ __________
B. Au+ or Au3+____________ _____________
C. P3- or N3-______________ ___________
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Gen Chem Topic-3

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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Criminal Justice Education

Name of Student: Year&Section:

Nocum, Zenaida T. (2005). General inorganic chemistry.C & A Publishing,

3. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

3.2 Models of the Atom

a) Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All

b) Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any

 Law of Multiple Proportions

element are in ratios of small whole numbers. An example is carbon forms

c) A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or

 Law of Conservation of Mass

(2) Thomson’s Model

(3) Rutherford’s Model

Three (3) types of rays emitted by radioactive substances

a) Alpha ray or particle [] is a particle with positive charge of +2 and is

c) Gamma ray or particle [] is a high-energy radiation that does not

(4) Bohr’s Model

In 1913 Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a young Danish physicist and a student of

(5) De Broglie’s Wave Theory

In 1924, Louis de Broglie, a French graduate student concluded that the

3.3 Subatomic Particles

Table 3.1. Properties of Subatomic Particles

Particl Symbol Mass Charge Location Discoverer

3.4 Atomic Number of the Elements

3.5 Isotopes of the Elements

3.6 ATOMIC MASS (ATOMIC WEIGHT)

62.9598 amu x 0.6909 = 43.48 amu

Mass number - Atomic number = Number of neutrons

3.7 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM

(1) Wavelength [  = Lambda]

(2) Frequency [  = Nu]

Distance = Distance x Wave or = x 

Speed of light [ c] = 3.00 x 108 m/s or 186,000 mi/s.

Electric field component

Magnetic field component

 Electromagnetic Radiation is an emission of energy in the form of

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

E The (E) of an emitted single quantum of

more intense the light, the greater the number

3.9 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

En = -RH (1/n2) As the electron gets closer to the nucleus (as n

RH = Rydberg constant [Johannes Robert Rydberg]

 Ground State/ Ground level

de Broglie, a French physicist asked an important question. Since light

3.11 Quantum Mechanics

*x p = Uncertainties in measuring the position (x) and the

describing the location and energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom. The

3.12 Quantum Numbers

(1) Principal Quantum Number ( n )

Principal Letter Designation Maximum number of

(2) Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum number ( l )

Principal Angular Momentum

(3) Magnetic Quantum Number ( ml )

(1) Clockwise spin: + ½

3.13 Electron Configuration

Formula on how to represent the electronic configuration of elements:

n = Principal Quantum Number

Example: Hydrogen ( H ) Orbital diagram

 Electron Capacity Rules

(2) Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity

C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s2 2s2 2p2

1. ___ _ Potassium 2. _ ___ Gold

___ < _ < < _______

___ < _ < < _______

C. Fe2+ or Fe3+_ ____