Chapter 3 PDF

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CHAPTER THREE
RADIOACTIVITY AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
3.1 Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons
3.2 Most elements are composed of several different kinds of isotopes
3.3 Electrons are organized in shells lying outside the atomic nucleus
3.4 The periodic table and electron configurations
3.5. The position of an element on the periodic table predicts its physical and
chemical properties
3.6 Some isotopes are unstable, undergoing radioactive decay
3.7 The half-life is a measure of a radioactive isotope’s stability
3.8 Some radioactive isotopes are useful in medical and other technologies
3.9 Alpha, beta, gamma, UV and X radiation can cause biological damage
Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-1

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The twentieth century discovery of the structure of the atom is one of the
great discoveries of modern science. Until J.J. Thomson discovered the electron
in 1898, atoms were thought to be the homogeneous, indivisible spheres first
imagined by the early Greek philosopher, Democritus. Within thirty-five years of
Thomson’s discovery, atoms were recognized as complex structures composed
of three subatomic particles called electrons, protons and neutrons. Within
forty years of Thomson’s discovery of the electron scientists learned that atoms
were not indivisible but could be split, releasing huge quantities of energy.
About the same time as the discovery of atomic structure, physicists
learned that radioactivity is caused by the spontaneous decay of unstable
atoms. Radioactivity had been discovered in the late nineteenth century around
the time of Thomson’s discovery. An explanation for the seemingly endless
stream of energy emitted by radioactive substances was not possible, however,
until the structure of the atom was fully understood in the 1930’s.
Interestingly, almost as soon as the structure of the atom was discovered,
scientists realized atoms were not the unchangeable particles imagined by
philosophers and scientists since the early Greek era. Instead, some atoms
were naturally unstable (now called ‘radioactive isotopes’), releasing energy as
they decayed. Some atoms could be split and the energy released from atomic
fission could be used to make terrible weapons or used for the peaceful
production of large quantities of energy.
In the early twentieth century chemists used their newfound understanding
of atomic structure to explain the forces that hold atoms together in both ionic

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formula units and covalent molecules. Chemists could finally explain the
existence of so many different kinds of compounds despite the existence of a
relatively few number of elements. Furthermore, once ionic and covalent
bonding was understood, chemists could predict the possible combining ratios of
elements that would form stable compounds. In other words, chemists could
predict the kinds of compounds possible. Chemists also used their
understanding of atomic structure to explain why elements of similar chemical
and physical properties could be arranged in a systematic pattern on the periodic
table.
Almost all of the technological and scientific advances of the twentieth
century can be traced to the discovery of atomic structure. The American
physicist and Nobel laureate, Richard Feynman, has passionately argued that
the twentieth century proof that matter is composed of atoms is mankind’s
greatest discovery. Perhaps after completing this course, you will agree with
him. In any case, you will see from material discussed in this and subsequent
chapters that the key to chemistry is our knowledge of atomic structure.
2.1 ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS
Within a few years of Thomson’s discovery of the electron, physicists
recognized that atoms were composed of two essential parts—the atomic
nucleus and electrons surrounding the nucleus. The nucleus was found to be
composed of positively charged particles called ‘protons’ and neutral particles

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called ‘neutrons’. The masses of protons and neutrons are almost identical to
one another and are much more massive than electrons. Individual protons or
neutrons are about 2000 times as massive as an electron.
Electrons, negatively charged subatomic particles, are located outside the
nucleus. Originally, electrons were thought to orbit the nucleus rather like the
planets orbit the sun in our solar system. Electrons are now viewed as behaving
more like waves than particles. Contemporary chemists think of the electrons as
a cloud outside the nucleus. Although individual electrons cannot be located in
this cloud we do know that the electron cloud contains the same number of
electrons as protons in the nucleus, making the atom electrostatically neutral
(Figure 3.1).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.1 The early Greeks imagined that atoms were hard, homogeneous spheres with no
internal structure (a). The early twentieth century model of atom, called the ‘planetary model’
imagined the atom to look like a miniature solar system, with electrons orbiting the sun (b). The
modern quantum mechanical model (c) recognizes that electrons behave more like waves than
particles. Electrons form a ‘cloud’ of electron density located outside the nucleus. Both the
planetary and quantum mechanical models of atomic structure recognize that atoms must have
equal numbers of electrons outside the nucleus and protons inside the nucleus.

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Despite having almost no mass, electrons have a charge opposite to that
of a proton. The eighteenth century American political leader and scientist,
Benjamin Franklin, first discovered that electrostatic charge appears in two forms
and named these charges ‘positive’ and ‘negative’. Franklin did not mean to
imply that a negative charge is ‘less’ than a positive charge in the way that the
number –1 is less than the number +1. Instead, the terms ‘negative’ and
‘positive’ are names given to the two different kinds of electrostatic charge. We
need two different names for the two kinds of electrostatic charge because
positively charged particles behave differently from negatively charged particles.
Particles with the same charge repel one another while oppositely charged
particles attract one another. Electrostatic attraction and repulsion is similar to
gravity in that these interactions occur in the absence of any physical connection.
Electrostatic attraction and repulsion is different from gravity in that electrostatic
interaction does not depend upon mass.
A second important difference between gravitational and electrostatic
force is that gravity only creates an attractive force while the two kinds of
electrostatic charge create both attractive and repulsive forces. Thus there is
only one kind of gravity (attractive) but there are two kinds of electrostatic
interactions (attractive and repulsive) (Figure 3.2).

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(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 The gravitational interaction occurs between two masses and is attractive (a).
Electrostatic interactions occur between two charges and are repulsive between like charges and
attractive between different charges (b).
Because similarly charged particles repel one another, a collection of
atoms in a sample of matter must always be neutral. Therefore, although atoms
are composed of positively charged particles (the protons) and negatively
charged particles (the electrons), the number of protons in an atom must always
equal the number of electrons. The important characteristics of the three
subatomic particles are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Properties of the subatomic particles
Particle Mass Charge Location Importance to atom
Proton Large +1 nucleus determines which element
Neutron Large 0 nucleus determines which isotope
Electron Small –1 outside nucleus determines charge

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Atoms with unequal numbers of protons and electrons are called ‘ions’.
Positively charged ions, often called ‘cations’ have more protons than electrons.
Anions, negatively charged ions, have more electrons than protons (Figure 3.3).
An ion’s charge (positive or negative) is equal to the difference between electron
and proton number. For example, a cation with a +2 charge has two more
protons than electrons. Similarly, an anion with a –3 charge has an excess of
three electrons, in other words, three more electrons than protons. You will soon
see that ionic compounds are composed of ions of opposite charge—the
electrostatic attraction of cations for anions provides the bonding energy for ionic
compounds. As with atoms, an ionic compound must consist of a ratio of cations
to anions such that the total charge of the cations equals the total charge of the
anions, making the ionic formula neutral.
Figure 3.3 A cation has fewer electrons than protons and an anion has more electrons than
protons. An ion’s charge is the balance between the nuclear charge and the number of electrons
outside the nucleus.

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The number of neutrons in an atom’s nucleus has no effect on the charge
of the atom because neutrons have no charge. On the other hand, the number
of neutrons affects the mass of an atom because neutrons have essentially the
same mass as a proton. As you will soon see, the identity of an element is
determined by the number of protons in the nucleus—not the number of
electrons or neutrons. The neutron number, on the other hand, determines the
identity of the isotope of an element. Isotopes are discussed in the next section
of Chapter 3.
EX 3.1 How many electrons are in each of the following ions?
a. an ion with 3 protons and a +1 charge
2 electrons: +3 and –2 = + 1
b. an ion with 17 protons and a –1 charge
18 electrons: +17 and –18 = –1
c. an ion with 8 protons and a –2 charge
10 electrons: +8 and –10 = –2
d. an ion with 26 protons and a +3 charge
23 electrons: +26 and –23 = +3
We categorize changes in an atom as either nuclear or chemical. Other
than the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes discussed in this chapter, we
shall only be discussing chemical changes in this text—in other words, changes
in the atom’s electrons. Chemical changes occur when atoms gain or lose

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electrons. The identity of an element (and thus the number of protons or
neutrons) never changes during chemical changes.
The number of protons in the nucleus is represented by the atomic
number given on the periodic table (Figure 3.4). The simplest element is
hydrogen, having 1 proton in its nucleus. On the other hand, the phosphorus
atom has 15 protons because the atomic number of phosphorus is 15. If an
atom is to be neutral, it must have the same number of electrons outside the
nucleus as it has protons inside the nucleus. The hydrogen atom has one
electron to electrostatically balance its one proton. The phosphorus atom has
15 electrons electrostatically balancing the 15 protons in its nucleus.
We use the periodic table to determine the number of protons in the atoms
of a particular element. On the periodic table shown in Figure 3.4 you can find
phosphorus, P, as element number 15 and hydrogen, H, as element number 1.
Since the number of protons equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom,
you can also quickly determine the number of electrons in the atoms of an
element from the periodic table. You will find that chemists tend to regard the
atomic number as the number of electrons in a neutral atom despite its formal
definition as being the number of protons in an atom.

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Figure 3.4 The periodic table lists elements according to their atomic number, in other words the
number of protons found in the nucleus or the number of electrons electrostatically balancing the
protons. Notice that the elements appear on the periodic table in order of their atomic numbers.
Also notice that there is a repeating pattern of increasing atomic numbers in each horizontal row
of the table. The basis for this repeating pattern will be discussed later in the chapter.
P 3.1 Answer the following questions, using information given on the periodic
table shown in Figure 3.4.
a. How many electrons are in the F atom (atomic number 9)?
b. What is the atomic number of S?
c. How many electrons are in the S2- anion?
d. What is the charge on the V ion (atomic number 23) with 20 electrons?
e. What is the charge on the As anion (atomic number 33) with 36
electrons?

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3.2 MOST ELEMENTS ARE COMPOSED OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT ISOTOPES
Chemists have very little interest in the number of neutrons in an atom
because neutrons do not significantly affect the chemical properties of an atom.
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are
called ‘isotopes’. Isotopes, having the same number of protons, are the same
element and have almost identical chemical and physical properties.
Notice that the periodic table does not list isotopes. Therefore you cannot
tell which isotopes are possible for a particular element by looking at the periodic
table. For example, there are three isotopes of carbon called C-12, C-13 and
C-14. A naturally occurring sample of carbon is composed of all three kinds of
isotopes. Carbon appears on the periodic table as element number 6 because
all carbon atoms have 6 protons. There is no way to determine from the periodic
table that there are three isotopes of carbon—the periodic table only indicates
that the carbon atom has 6 protons in its nucleus (and, of course 6 electrons
outside its nucleus).
An isotope is designated by an element’s ‘mass number’, the sum of the
number of protons and number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus. In the case of
the three isotopes of carbon, C-12 has a mass number of 12, C-13 has a mass
number of 13 and C-14 has a mass number of 14. The sum of the protons and
neutrons in C-12 is 12; that of C-13 is 13 and that of C-14 is 14.

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You are not expected to determine the mass numbers (in other words,
what kinds of isotopes) possible for a particular element. You can, however,
determine the number of neutrons in an isotope from a given mass number. The
number of neutrons in an isotope is the difference of the mass number and the
atomic number.
mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons
number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
EX 3.2 Count the number of neutrons in the three common isotopes of carbon,
C-12, C-13 and C-14.
For C-12—number of neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6 neutrons
Isotopes are often designated by a ‘full nuclide symbol’ or ‘isotopic
symbol’. As you will soon see, the full nuclide symbol is useful for writing
equations describing nuclear changes—nuclear equations. Isotopic symbols
are not used in chemical equations because there is no need to identify a
particular isotope in a chemical reaction—all isotopes of any given element react
in the same way. The atomic number is always written in the lower left hand
corner of the full nuclide symbol while the mass number is written in the upper

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left hand corner. The number of neutrons is not explicitly given in the isotopic
symbol—you must subtract the atomic number from the mass number to
determine the number of neutrons.
mass number
atomic number Sy
Ex 3.3 Complete the following table for the isotopes of chromium, Cr
Atomic number Mass number number of protons number of neutrons nuclide symbol
50
24 50 24 26 24 Cr
52
24 52 24 28 24 Cr
53
24 53 24 29 24 Cr
54
24 54 24 30 24 Cr
(Note that the atomic number for Cr is always 24 and equals the number of protons found
in all isotopes of Cr. You cannot predict from the periodic table that there are four
isotopes of Cr. Of course, chromium atoms always have 24 electrons that electrostatically
balance the 24 protons)
Notice that the full nuclide symbol tells you in two different ways how
many protons are in the nucleus. The atomic number given in the lower left
corner of the symbol simply repeats the information given by the elemental
symbol.

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P 3.2 a. Complete the following table for the three isotopes of silicon, Si.
_____ 28 ____ _____ _____
_____ 29 ____ _____ _____

30
_____ ____ ____ _____ 14 Si
b. Complete the following table for several different isotopes of different
elements.
15 32 _____ _____ _____

35
____ ____ ____ ____ 17 Cl
____ ____ 92 146 ____
5 11 _____ ___ ____
c. Complete the following table for different cations of vanadium, V.
number of protons number of electrons symbol of ion
23 22 V+
23 ____ V3+
___ ____ V5+

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d. Complete the following table for the following anions.
number of protons number of electrons symbol of ion
17 18 Cl-
16 18 ___
___ ____ P3-
52 ____ Te2-
____ ____ Br-
As you saw in Chapter 2, the atoms of different elements have different
masses. The periodic table lists these relative masses as ‘atomic masses’
(sometimes called ‘atomic weights’) given below the symbol of the element.
Atomic masses are not integers (whole numbers) because each element is
composed of several different isotopes, each of a different mass. The atomic
mass is a weighted average of the masses of the individual isotopes calculated
from the mass of each isotope and its naturally occurring prevalence. You will
see in subsequent chapters that the atomic mass is used in chemical calculations
of the mass quantities required in chemical reactions. The atomic number, on
the other hand, is used primarily to determine the number of electrons in an atom
and the arrangement of these electrons in shells outside the nucleus.

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3.3 ELECTRONS ARE ORGANIZED IN SHELLS LYING OUTSIDE THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
The number and arrangement of electrons outside the nucleus determine
chemical properties of an element. For example, the combining ratios between
elements in various compounds are determined by either: (a) how many
electrons a metal atom can lose and a nonmetal atom can gain (ionic
compounds) or (b) how electrons can be shared between two nonmetal atoms
(covalent compounds). In either case, the organization of electrons around the
nucleus determines these properties. In later chapters we shall see other
examples of the effect electron arrangement and number has upon the chemical
properties of an element.
Early in the twentieth century the Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, recognized
that electrons do not orbit the nucleus in a stable, pre-determined orbital path as
the earth orbits the sun. Instead, he discovered that electrons in atoms can
‘jump’ from one orbit to another. All atoms have a series of orbitals (or more
properly, energy levels) that can accommodate a fixed number of electrons.
Electrons can move from one orbital to another according to certain rules. An
atom must absorb energy when an electron moves from a lower energy orbital
(an orbital closer to the nucleus) to an orbital of higher energy (further from the
nucleus). Similarly, atoms lose energy when electrons ‘fall’ from higher energy
orbitals to lower energy orbitals. (Figure 3.5)

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Figure 3.5 Energy is absorbed when electrons move from lower to higher energy orbitals. When
electrons fall from higher to lower energy orbitals, the atom loses energy. Generally, lower
energy orbitals are closer to the nucleus than higher energy orbitals.
There are many ways atoms can absorb energy. For example, heating
atoms or passing electrical current through atoms causes the atoms to absorb
energy. When an atom absorbs energy in the form of light, electrons in the atom
‘jump’ from lower to higher energy orbitals. The reverse is also true—atoms
often emit light when electrons fall from higher to lower energy levels.
The energy difference between two orbitals can be determined from the
color (or wavelength) of light absorbed or emitted as an electron moves from one
orbital to another. Atoms with many electrons have many different orbitals each
with its characteristic energy and therefore can emit or absorb a number of
distinct wavelengths of light. This phenomenon can be observed in the flame

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test. Different ionic compounds placed in a hot Bunsen burner produce a flame
of a characteristic color that can be used to identify the element (Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6 Different elements produce different colors when heated in a Bunsen burner. For
example, barium compounds produce a green flame (a) while sodium compounds produce a
yellow flame (b) because the electrons in barium ions undergo different energy transitions from
those in sodium ions.
A spectroscope separates the different wavelengths of light in the same
way that a prism separates the different wavelengths (or colors) of light from
sunlight. In this way, specific wavelengths can be assigned to the specific colors
of light produced by excited atoms. The pattern of wavelengths of light
associated with the absorption or emission of energy is called an ‘absorption
spectrum’ or an ‘emission spectrum’. Each element has its characteristic
spectrum that can be used to identify the element. Figure 3.7 illustrates the
emission spectra of several different elements.

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Figure 3.7 Emission or ‘line’ spectra of some of the elements. Each colored line can be assigned
a particular wavelength. Each element has a unique spectrum different from any other element
or compound. Emission and absorption spectra represent an ‘atomic fingerprint’ that can be used
to identify any element. The same principle is used in molecular spectroscopy to identify
molecules.
The pattern of light absorption and emission has also been used to
deduce the arrangement of orbitals found in atoms. The mathematical laws of
quantum mechanics enabled physicists to discover a specific pattern of electron
energies (or orbitals) in all atoms. Included in these laws are rules determining
how many electrons can be accommodated by each of these orbitals.
The primary consideration for the number of electrons that can be
accommodated by a ‘principal orbital’ or ‘electron shell’ is the distance of the
orbital from the nucleus. These principal orbitals (or shells) often have ‘sub-
orbitals’ but we only briefly discuss sub-orbitals in this text. The numbers of
electrons that each principal shell (usually numbered 1,2, 3,…) are given in Table

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3.2. The sub-orbitals and the numbers of electrons accommodated by each
sub-orbital are given in Figure 3.8.
Table 3.2
Electron capacity of the principal shells
Shell number Number of electrons
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
The principal orbitals (with their sub-orbitals) exist for all atoms whether or
not occupied by electrons. Think of an orbital as analogous to space—space
exists whether or not particles are found in the space. Orbitals exist whether or
not an atom has electrons to fill them.

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Figure 3.8. The sub-orbitals of each principal orbital are shown in this diagram. Each p sub-
orbital can accommodate 6 electrons and each d sub-orbital can accommodate 10 electrons.
The second principal orbital (accommodating 8 electrons) consists of an s sub-orbital (2
electrons) and a p sub-orbital (6 electrons). The third principal orbital is similar to the second.
The fourth principal orbital has an s sub-orbital (2 electrons), a p sub-orbital (6 electrons) and a d
sub-orbital (10 electrons), accommodating a total of 18 electrons. The fifth principal orbital has
the same arrangement of sub-orbitals as the fourth principal orbital.
We often express the arrangement of electrons as an ‘electron
configuration’ by listing the principal orbitals in numerical order with the number
of electrons found in each orbital. We are only concerned with ‘ground state’
electron configurations—the electron configuration with the electrons in the
lowest possible energy orbitals. For example, if an atom has 6 electrons
(carbon), these electrons must be ordered according to the rules we have

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discussed. The first principal shell can only accommodate two electrons
whereas the second can hold as many as eight electrons. Thus carbon’s ground
state electron configuration has 2 electrons in the first principal shell and 4 in the
second. We often write this as ‘2-4’. As you will soon see, the four electrons in
the outermost shell in this configuration are called ‘valence’ electrons and predict
the combining ratios of carbon in carbon compounds.
EX 3.4 Write the ground state configuration of electrons for the following atoms.
Add the number of electrons in the configuration to show that it equals the
element’s atomic number.
a. F 2-7 (atomic number 9)
b. P 2-8-5 (atomic number 15)
c. Fe 2-8-8-8 (atomic number 26)
d. B 2-3 (atomic number 5)
e. Ca 2-8-8-2 (atomic number 20)
As you can see in Figure 3.8, the second principal shell is actually
composed of two sub-shells, called ‘2s’ and ‘2p’. The ‘2’ of the 2s and 2p
designates the number of the principal shell. The ‘s’ and the ‘p’ are symbols
indicating the shape of the sub-orbital. The 2s sub-shell can accommodate 2 of
the 8 electrons in the second shell and the 2p accommodates the remaining 6
electrons. Thus a more detailed electron configuration for carbon is written as

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(1s)2(2s)2(2p)2. As with the simplified electron configuration, there are two
electrons in the first shell (1s) and four the second principal shell (2s and 2p).
The sum of the superscripts in the detailed electron configuration is 6,
representing the six electrons of the carbon atom.
Table 3.3 lists the simplified and detailed electron configurations for the
first 18 elements of the periodic table. For the most part, we shall be using the
simplified electron configurations in this text because the simplified electron
configuration is sufficient to explain the chemical behavior of the elements.
3.4 THE PERIODIC TABLE AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Notice that the number of electrons accommodated by a principal shell
equals the number of elements in each horizontal row on the periodic table. The
first principal shell can accommodate as many as two electrons and there are
two elements in the first horizontal row (often called a ‘period’) of the periodic
table. The second period has eight elements, corresponding to the eight
electrons (2 2s electrons and 6 2p electrons of the detailed configuration)
accommodated by the second principal shell. The third horizontal row on the
table also has eight elements, corresponding to the third principal shell with its
eight third principal shell electrons (2 in the 3s and 6 in the 3p sub-shells).

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Table 3.3
Simplified and detailed electron configurations for the first 18 elements
Element Simplified configuration Detailed configuration
H 1 (1s)1
He 2 (1s)2
Li 2-1 (1s)2(2s)1
Be 2-2 (1s)2(2s)2
B 2-3 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)1
C 2-4 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)2
N 2-5 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)3
O 2-6 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)4
F 2-7 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)5
Ne 2-8 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6
Na 2-8-1 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)1
Mg 2-8-2 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2
Al 2-8-3 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)1
Si 2-8-4 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)2
P 2-8-5 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)3
S 2-8-6 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)4
Cl 2-8-7 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)5
Ar 2-8-8 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6

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The simplified and detailed electron configurations are similar for elements
directly above one another in the vertical rows (often called ‘groups’) of the
periodic table. For example the configuration of lithium, Li, (2-1 or (1s)2(2s)1) is
similar to that of sodium, Na, (2-8-1 or (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)1) because the outer
principal shells of both elements have 1 electron. This one electron is either the
‘starter’ electron for the next principal shell or is an s electron in the detailed
configuration. Although the electron configuration for potassium, K, is not shown
in Table 3.3, you should be able to quickly predict it. Note that potassium is
immediately below sodium on the periodic table and therefore has a single
electron in a new principal quantum shell, the fourth shell.
The pattern of electron configuration changes somewhat in the fourth
period. The fourth period of the periodic table has eighteen elements,
corresponding to the eighteen electrons that can be accommodated by the fourth
principal shell. The fourth shell consists of three sub-orbitals—4s
(accommodating 2 electrons), 4p (accommodating 6 electrons) and 3d
(accommodating 10 electrons).
In the detailed electron configuration, the third electron of the fourth
principal shell is placed in a ‘3d’ sub-orbital. In the simplified configuration this
electron is shown as the third electron in the fourth principal shell. Thus the
twenty first element, scandium, Sc, has a detailed electron configuration of
(1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)1 and a simplified configuration of 2-8-8-3. This
simplified configuration has the same outer configuration as the thirteenth
element, Al (Table 3.3) and yet scandium is not found below Al on the periodic

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table. There are ten elements intervening between calcium, (element 20) and
gallium (element 31), none of which have a simplified electron configuration of an
element above it on the periodic table. In fact, there are no elements above
these ten elements on the table.
Detailed electron configurations demonstrate the relationship between
elements in the fourth, fifth and sixth periods and the elements in the first, second
and third periods in a way that simplified electron configurations cannot. For
example, notice that the outermost part of the simplified electron configuration for
aluminum, Al (2-8-3), looks very different from that of the element immediately
below it, gallium, Ga (2,8-8-13). However, the outer portion of the detailed
electron configuration of Ga ((1s) 2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)1) is similar to
that of aluminum ((1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)1). In general, after placing ten
electrons in the d sub-orbital for fourth period elements Sc through Zn, the
pattern of p electrons in the fourth period repeats the pattern for elements in the
second and third periods (Table 3.4). A similar situation exists for the fifth period.
See if you can find a similar similarity in the detailed electron configurations of Br
and Cl.
The d sub-shell of the fourth row is called a ‘3 d’ sub-shell despite being in
the fourth period. A more advanced discussion of quantum mechanics explains
this discrepancy along with the discrepancies for the electron configurations of Cr
and Cu shown in Table 3.4. None of these discrepancies are of sufficient
importance to discuss in this text. You will find that the simplified electron

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configurations are most useful for the discussion of the chemical properties of the
first 18 elements.
EX 3.5
a. Use the detailed electron configuration to demonstrate that the first 3
elements in the same group as O have the same outer electron shell
configuration.
O: 2-6 or (1s)2(2s)2(2p)4
S: 2-8-6 or (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)4
Se: 2-8-8-16 or or (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)4
Te: 2-8-8-18-16 or (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)6(5s)2(4d)10(5p)4
b. Show that the sum of the number of electrons in either the simple or detailed
electron configuration for each element show in (a) equals the atomic number of
the element.
O: 2 + 6 = 8 = 2 + 2 + 4
S: 2 + 8 + 6 = 16 = 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 4
Se: 2 + 8 + 8 + 16 = 34 = 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 4
Te: 2 + 8 + 8 + 18 + 16 = 52 = 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 4

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Table 3.4
Simplified and Detailed electron configurations for elements 21-36 (4th period elements)
Element Simplified configuration Detailed configuration
K 2-8-8-1 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)1
Ca 2-8-8-2 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2
Sc 2-8-8-3 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)1
Ti 2-8-8-4 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)2
V 2-8-8-5 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)3
Cr* 2-8-8-6 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)1(3d)5
Mn 2-8-8-7 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)5
Fe 2-8-8-8 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)6
Co 2-8-8-9 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)7
Ni 2-8-8-10 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)8
Cu* 2-8-8-11 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)1(3d)10
Zn 2-8-8-12 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10
Ga 2-8-8-13 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)1
Ge 2-8-8-14 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)2
As 2-8-8-15 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)3
Se 2-8-8-16 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)4
Br 2-8-8-17 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)5
Kr 2-8-8-18 (1s)2(2s)2(2p)6(3s)2(3p)6(4s)2(3d)10(4p)6
Note that Cr and Cu have slightly different electron configurations than predicted by the
periodic table. The reasons for this are not discussed in this text.

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P 3.3 a. Write simplified electron configurations for the following elements. Note
you can use the atomic number to help determine the electron configuration
because the total number of electrons in the configuration must equal the atomic
number of the element.
i. Ca _____ (______ electrons corresponding to 20Ca)
ii. Cl _____ (____ electrons corresponding to 17Cl)
iii. Br ______ (____ electrons corresponding to 35Br)
iv. Ga ______ (____ electrons corresponding to 31Ga)
v. As ______ (____ electrons corresponding to 33As)
b. Which elements have the following electron configurations?
i. 2-8-6 element number ____: ___
ii. 2-8-4 element number ____: ___
iii. 2-8-8-4 element number ____: ___
iv. 2-8-8-16 element number ____: ___
v. 2-8-3 element number ____: ____
3.5. THE POSTION OF AN ELEMENT ON THE PERIODIC TABLE PREDICTS ITS PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Many chemical and physical properties of an element can be predicted
from its position on the periodic table. This remarkable fact can be explained by

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the periodic pattern of electron configurations that we have discussed in the
previous section.
Elements within any group, or vertical row on the table, have extremely
similar chemical and physical properties. Chemical and physical characteristics
of elements gradually vary as one moves rightward along any one horizontal row,
or period—these characteristics repeat this pattern of gradual variation once a
new period is started. For example, within any one period, elements become
more and more ‘nonmetallic’ with an increasing rightward position of the element
on the table. Once the end of the period is reached and a new period begun,
elements again begin as extremely metallic in the left part of the period and
become gradually more nonmetallic further to the right on the table (Figure 3.9).
Additionally, within any group on the table, elements become increasingly more
metallic as you move downward in the group. The periodic table derives its
name from this periodic, repetitive pattern of the chemical and physical properties
of the elements.

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Figure 3.9 Elements become increasingly more nonmetallic as one moves rightward along a
period. The first element in a new period is extremely metallic and the same gradual variation to
increasingly nonmetallic character repeats as one moves rightward along a new period. Although
the elements in any one group are very similar in chemical and physical characteristics, metallic
character tends to increase as one moves down any group. In summary, cesium, Cs, is the most
metallic of the naturally occurring elements and fluorine, F, is the least.
We often use certain terms to describe different ‘blocks’ of elements on
the periodic table. The s, d and p blocks of elements on the table are named
according to the outermost partially filled sub-shell in the detailed electron
configuration of the element. These blocks are labeled in Figure 3.10. All ‘s
block elements’ have one or two s electrons in their outermost s shell while ‘p
block elements’ have one or more p electrons in their outermost sub-shell. The
elements of the s and p blocks are also collectively known as the ‘representative
elements’ because their chemistry is most easily predicted from their electron

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configurations. The ‘d block metals’ (sometimes called the ‘transition metals’
have very similar chemical and physical properties and are recognizable as the
‘metals’ with which we are all familiar. The elements of the d block all have d
electrons in their outermost sub-shell.
Figure 3.10 The s, p and d blocks of the periodic table. Elements in each of these blocks have
outer electrons in the s, p or d sub-orbitals. The s and p block elements (blue) are sometimes
called the ‘representative elements’.
Elements within the same vertical row of the periodic table have the same
number of electrons in their outermost sub-shells. For example, the alkali
metals, Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs all have electron configurations with a single
electron in an outermost principal shell (simplified configuration) or s sub-shell
(detailed configuration). The alkaline earth metals, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba have
two electrons in their outermost principal shells, in other words, 2 electrons in
their outermost s sub-shell. A similar pattern is seen among the nonmetals
although, as we have seen, the pattern is only apparent in the detailed electron
configurations of the nonmetals of the fourth and fifth periods (Figure 3.11).

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Figure 3.11 The representative elements have similar outer electron configurations. In these
condensed electron configurations [He] represents the first completed principal shell and [Ne]
represents the second completed principal shell.
The number of electrons in the outermost principal shell determines many
physical and chemical characteristics of an element. For example, periodic
trends in atomic size, electron affinity (the tendency of an atom to gain
electrons) and ionization energy (the tendency of an atom to lose electrons) are
all explained by the periodic trends in the electron configurations of outermost
shell (Figure 3.12).
As you move rightward along a period, atoms become smaller and as you
move downward down a group atoms become larger. Electron affinity, the
tendency to gain electrons, also varies periodically. As you progress rightward
along a period, elements more easily gain electrons. As you progress down any
one group, elements gain electrons less easily. Ionization energy, the tendency

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to lose electrons, varies in an opposite way from electron affinity. Thus elements
lose electrons more easily as you move down a group and as you move leftward
along a period.
We can summarize these periodic properties by focusing on the most
metallic of the elements, cesium and the least metallic, fluorine. Cesium (lowest
in the first group and furthest to the left on the table) most easily loses electrons
and has the least tendency to gain electrons. Fluorine (highest in the seventh
group and most rightward on the table) has the greatest tendency to gain
electrons and the least tendency to lose them. In other words, cesium is the
most metallic of the elements (loses electrons easily) and fluorine is the most
non-metallic of the elements (gains electrons easily). We have also seen that
cesium is the largest of the atoms while fluorine is the smallest (other than
hydrogen and helium).

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(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 3.12 Atomic size (a), ionization energy (b), and electron affinity (c) are examples of three
atomic characteristics that vary periodically on the periodic table. Atoms become smaller within a
period as you move rightward along the period and become larger as you move down a group.
The energy required to remove electrons from atoms increases as you move rightward along a
period and upward within a group. The tendency to gain electrons (electron affinity) increases
upward within a group and rightward within a period. In summary, cesium (Cs), the largest atom,
has the greatest tendency to lose an electron and the least tendency to gain one. Fluorine (F), the
smallest atom, has the least tendency to lose an electron and the greatest tendency to gain one.
As you recall, cesium is the most metallic of the elements while fluorine is the least metallic.
Metals, then, tend to lose electrons easily while nonmetals tend to gain electrons easily.

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P 3.4
a. Use the periodic table to determine which of the two elements is most
metallic.
i. Ca or As
ii. C or Pb
iii. As or Br
iv. P or Cl
v. Br or I
b. Use the periodic table to determine which of the two elements is most likely to
gain electrons.
i. S or O
ii. Cr or Se
iii. S or Te
iv. Br or As
v. Ba or Tl
c. Use the periodic table to determine which of the two elements is most likely to
lose electrons.
i. F or N
ii. Ca or Ba
iii. Li or Cs

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iv. S or O
v. Br or Se
d. Use the periodic table to determine which of the two elements is composed of
the smallest atom.
i. Br or Se
ii. F or I
iii. Mg or Ba
iv. Fe or Os
v. Ge or Br
3.6 SOME ISOTOPES ARE UNSTABLE, UNDERGOING RADIOACTIVE DECAY
The electron configuration of an atom determines the chemical and
physical properties of the element. The stability of the atom, on the other hand,
is determined by the combination of protons and neutrons within its nucleus. As
you recall, most elements are composed of several different kinds of atoms
called isotopes. Isotopes of any element vary only in the number of neutrons—
not the number of protons or electrons. Often one or more isotopes of an
element are unstable because the ratio of protons to neutrons is unbalanced
according to certain rules of nuclear physics. As a result of this improper ratio,
the isotope decays in a process called ‘radioactive decay’. Although people

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often associate the word ‘isotope’ with radioactivity, actually only some isotopes
are unstable, making them radioactive.
There are three common ways in which an unstable isotope can naturally
decay—alpha, beta and gamma decay. Certain isotopes can be induced to
undergo decay processes by bombarding them with sub-atomic particles. The
most common of these induced decay processes is called ‘positron emission’
and is the only artificial decay process we shall discuss.
The alpha decay of an isotope (Figure 3.13) occurs when a large nucleus
loses a fragment composed of two protons and two neutrons—a particle called
the ‘alpha particle’. An alpha particle is a helium ion—two protons and two
neutrons without any electrons—that has split from a large, unstable nucleus.
Alpha decay occurs most commonly in large nuclei—in fact all nuclei with atomic
numbers greater than bismuth (Bi, element number 83) are unstable and
eventually undergo alpha decay.
Figure 3.13 Alpha decay occurs when the alpha particle, consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons,
is ejected from a large nucleus. The alpha particle is a helium ion with a charge of + 2.

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Beta decay occurs in isotopes having too many neutrons for the number of
protons, in other words in isotopes with too small a ratio of protons to neutrons.
Beta decay occurs as a neutron turns into a proton within the nucleus, increasing
the nuclear charge and the ratio of protons to neutrons. The additional nuclear
positive charge causes the creation of an electron that is instantly ejected from
the nucleus at a very high velocity (Figure 3.14). The ejected electron is called a
beta particle. Being an electron, the beta particle has much less mass than the
alpha particle.
Figure 3.14 Beta decay occurs as a neutron becomes a proton in a nucleus having too small a
proton to neutron ratio. In order to conserve charge, an electron is also created and is ejected
from the nucleus at a large velocity.
Sometimes nuclei are unstable because the neutrons and protons are
arranged unstably within the nucleus. These nuclei rearrange nucleons to form
more stable nuclei, emitting the excess energy in the form of gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation is a form of light (called ‘electromagnetic radiation’) and is
very similar to X-rays in energy and other physical characteristics.

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Positron emission occurs in isotopes with too large a ratio of protons to
neutrons. In positron emission, a proton is converted to a neutron within the
nucleus. The positive charge associated with the proton that has changed into a
neutron is ejected from the nucleus as a ‘positron’—a positively charged
electron (Figure 3.15). Positron emission occurs much less frequently than alpha
or beta decay. We mention positron emission because of its importance in a
medical imaging technique called ‘positron emission tomography’ or PET.
Figure 3.15 Positron emission occurs in nuclei having too many protons for the number of
neutrons. A ‘extra’ proton (red) turns into a neutron (blue), causing the creation of a positively
charged electron—the positron—which is ejected from the nucleus.
The defining features and some important characteristics of each of these
types of nuclear decay processes are summarized in Figure 3.16. You are not
expected to predict what kind of decay process might occur in a given isotope.
Instead, you will learn how to write a nuclear equation describing the alpha, beta,
and gamma decay processes that occur naturally and the artificially induced
positron emission.

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Figure 3.16 The changes resulting from alpha, beta and electron capture or positron emission.
Positron emission is also shown because of its importance in Positron Emission Tomography—an
important medical diagnostic procedure.
Although you might not be able to predict the kind of decay a particular
isotope might undergo (or indeed whether or not an isotope is unstable at all),
you can predict the element that results from the decay of a particular isotope. In
alpha decay, beta decay and positron emission the number of protons (the
atomic number) of the isotope changes, meaning that the new nucleus is now a
different element. A nuclear decay process that changes the identity of an
element is called a ‘transmutation’.
Alpha decay occurs as a result of the loss of two protons and therefore the
new nucleus has an atomic number two less than the atomic number of the initial

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isotope. In beta decay, the new nucleus has one more proton than the initial
isotope and so has an atomic number one greater than the initial isotope. The
conversion of a proton to a neutron during positron emission means that the new
nucleus has an atomic number one less than the initial isotope (Figure 3.16). A
nucleus does not change its atomic number when it undergoes gamma decay
because gamma radiation has no mass.
EX 3.6 Use the periodic table to predict the elemental symbol of the decay
product in the following nuclear changes.
a. alpha decay of Th-230
Product is two atomic number units behind Th: Ra (radium)
b. beta decay of P-32
Product is one atomic number unit greater than P: S (sulfur)
c. gamma decay of Tc-99
Product has same atomic number and therefore is Tc (technetium)
d. positron emission by K-40
Product is one atomic number unit smaller than K: Ar (argon)
We write nuclear equations to describe the different kinds of radioactive
decay. When writing nuclear equations, we always use full nuclide symbols to
represent the initial and final isotope. We balance the nuclear equation by
making sure that the sum of the atomic numbers and the sum of the mass
numbers on both sides of the arrow are equal.

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The alpha particle is given the symbol ‘24He’ to indicate that it is composed
of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. In other words, for the alpha particle, the atomic
number is 2 and the mass number is 4. The beta particle is given the symbol
’ –10e’. In other words, the beta particle is an electron with a mass number of 0
because electrons have essentially no mass. The ‘-1’ in the position of the
atomic number indicates that the proton number increases in the resultant
nucleus, requiring a –1 to balance the proton number on both sides of the arrow.
Gamma radiation is given the symbol ‘00’ to indicate that gamma radiation is a
form of electromagnetic radiation without any mass at all. Gamma decay often
accompanies alpha or beta decay (see Table 3.6). The positron, emitted during
positron emission, is given the symbol ‘10e’ to indicate that a proton has
converted to a neutron, producing an electron with a positive charge. The ‘1’ in
the position for the atomic number is required to balance the nuclear equation
since the resultant nucleus has one less proton than the decaying nucleus. The
symbols used in nuclear equations are summarized in Table 3.5.
Examples of each type of radiation are given in Table 3.6. Notice that
both atomic numbers and mass numbers balance on both sides the arrow in
each of these decay equations. In all of these equations, the initial isotope is
shown to the left of the arrow and the isotope that results from the decay process
is shown on the right. The symbols for the decay particle and resultant isotope
can be shown in any order on the right side of the arrow.

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Table 3.5
Symbols and characteristics of important radioactive emissions
Emission Symbol Physical nature
4
Alpha 2 He Helium ion
0
Beta -1 e High-energy electron
0 
0
Gamma Electromagnetic radiation
0
Positron 1 e Positively charged electron
You determine the elemental symbol for the resultant isotope from the
periodic table. In alpha decay the new element is always two places on the
periodic table behind the initial isotope. In beta decay the new element is always
one place ahead of the initial isotope while positron emission always results in a
new element one place behind the initial isotope on the periodic table. Gamma
decay causes no change in the full nuclide symbol for the resultant isotope
because gamma decay does not result in the loss of any mass from the decaying
nucleus.

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EX 3.7 Write nuclear decay equations describing the following nuclear changes
and demonstrate that the sum of atomic numbers and sum of mass numbers is
equal on both sides of the arrow.
a. alpha decay of 84218Po
84
218
Po  24He + 82214Pb
84 = 2 + 82 (sum of atomic numbers)
218 = 4 + 214 (sum of mass numbers)
b. beta decay of 1938K
19 K  -10e + 2038Ca
38
19 = –1 + 20 (sum of atomic numbers)
c. Positron emission by F-19
19
9 F  10e + 819O
9 = 1 + 8 (sum of atomic numbers)

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Table 3.6
Decay processes commonly observed as radioactivity. For each of these
processes the atomic numbers (in blue) and the mass numbers (in black) are
equal on both sides of the arrow.
Alpha decay
92
238
U  24He + 90234Th
88
226
Ra  24He + 86222Rn
Beta decay
15
32
P  -10e + 1632S
28
63
Ni  -10e + 2963Cu
Gamma decay
43
98
Tc  00 + 4398Tc
53
131
I  54131Xe + -10e + 00
Positron emission
11
6 C  10e + 511B
11
22
Na  10e + 1022Ne

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P 3.5 Write balanced nuclear decay equations for the following processes.
a. alpha decay of 83212Bi
83
212
Bi  _____ + 24He
b. beta decay of 1227Mg
12
27
Mg  _____ + -10e
c. positron emission by 815O
15
8 O  _____ + 10e
d. beta decay of 89229Ac
89
229
Ac  _____ + ______
e. alpha decay of 84208Po
______  ______ + ________
The quantity of isotopes can be measured in units of mass (for example
micrograms, μg) or, more commonly, in terms of disintegrations per second
(dps). We refer to the decay of one nucleus as a ‘disintegration’ and so the rate
of nuclear decay is expressed as ‘disintegrations per second’. The Curie (Ci) is
defined as the quantity of radioactive isotope producing 3.70 x 10 10
disintegrations per second (dps). One Curie of radioactive isotope represents a

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large quantity of radioactivity and so radio-chemists commonly work with μCi
quantities of isotope (1 x 10-6 Ci). As you recall, one mole of atoms is equivalent
to about 6 x 1023 atoms and so the disintegration of 3 x 1010 nuclei represents the
disintegration of an extremely small number of moles of isotope (3 x 1010 / 6 x
1023 or roughly 5 x 10-14 moles).
Radioactive decay processes are accompanied by the release of large
quantities of energy. The large amount of energy associated with one Curie of
radiation results from the disintegration of a very small number of atoms
(1 x 10-13 moles of atoms). By comparison, even a very energetic chemical
reaction by 1 x 10-13 moles of atoms would not generate enough energy to be
detected.
3.7 THE HALF-LIFE IS A MEASURE OF A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE’S STABILITY
The stability of radioactive isotopes varies greatly. For example, the most
prevalent isotope of uranium, U-238, is extremely stable, lasting for billions of
years whereas the Si-31 isotope only lasts a few hours. Often different
radioactive isotopes of a single element have widely varying stabilities. For
example, Kr-73 is very unstable, lasting for seconds while Kr-81 is extremely
stable, lasting for hundreds of thousands of years. Table 3.7 lists the stability of
a number of common unstable isotopes in terms of the ‘half-life’ of the isotope.
We often express the stability of an isotope as its ‘half life’—the time required for
one half of the isotope to undergo decay. The half-life is a physical characteristic
of an unstable isotope. Less stable isotopes have shorter half-lives.

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Table 3.7
Half lives of isotopes commonly encountered in medical and radiochemical technology
Isotope Half life Use in technology
C-14 5730 years Dating of archeological materials
Cr-51 27.8 days Tagging red blood cells to determine blood volume
I-131 8.1 days Visualizing thyroid gland
Xe-133 5.3 days Measuring pulmonary function
Tc-99m 6.0 hours Visualizing heart, lungs, bone and liver
The half-life can be thought of as a unit of time—in fact the half-life is
measured in units of time. When one ‘half-life’ of time passes, one half of the
original quantity of the isotope decays. After the passage of a second ‘half-life’,
only one fourth of the original quantity of isotope remains because the original
quantity of isotope has been halved twice. Table 3.8 presents the decay of C-14,
an isotope used to determine the age of carbon-containing biological specimens
and man-made artifacts.
Note that the fraction and percentage of isotope remaining depends upon
the number of half-lives that has passed—not the length of the half-life. For

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1
example, Table 3.8 shows that of an original isotope remains after the passage
8
of three half lives, regardless of the isotope. The amount of time that passes,
however, depends upon the half-life of the isotope. For example, three half-lives
of time for Cr-51 is 83.4 days (3 x 27.8 days), but only 24.3 days for
I-131 (3 x 8.1 days) (see Table 3.7).
EX 3.8 Use the information provided in Table 3.7 to answer the following
questions.
a. What fraction of C-14 remains after 3 half-lives?
1 3 1
( ) =
2 8
b. What fraction of I-131 remains after 4 half-lives?
1 4 1
( ) =
2 16
c. How long does it take for 4 half-lives of I-131 to pass?
(4 half-lives) x (8.1 days/ half-life) = 32.4 days
d. For Tc-99, how many half-lives is 18 hours?
1 half  life
(18 hours) x ( ) = 3.0 half-lives
6.0 hours

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Table 3.8
Decay of C-14 as function of passage of time
Half life = 5730 years
Quantity of isotope Time passed Number of half lives
(percent) (fraction) (years)
100 (1) 0
50 (1/2) 5730 1
25 (1/4) 11,460 2
12.5 (1/8) 17,190 3
6.25 (1/16) 22,920 4
3.13 (1/32) 28,650 5
1.56 (1/64) 34,380 6
The data shown in Table 3.8 can also be presented graphically
(Figure3.17). The shape of the decay curve is the same for all isotopes—only
the time on the x-axis varies with the half-life.

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Figure 3.17 Regardless of the type of isotope, one half of the quantity of isotope decays after the
passage of each half-life. The time given on the x-axis for this Figure refers to C-14, whose half-
life is 5730 years. The quantity of isotope at any given time is expressed in this graph as the
number of C-14 nuclei, No. This quantity could as easily be expressed as μCi of radioactivity or
mg of isotope.
If you wish to determine the quantity of isotope remaining after the
passage of a given period of time you must determine the number of half-lives
represented by the given period of time. The number of half-lives, n, is
calculated by dividing the given period of time, t, by the half-life, t/12. For
example, 40.5 days is equivalent to 5 half-lives for I-131 because the half-life of I-
131 is 8.1 days.
t 40.5 days
n= = = 5 half-lives
t1 / 2 8.1 days

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or
1 half  life
(40.5 days) x ( ) = 5 half-lives
8.1 days
According to Table 3.8, 1/32 of the original quantity of an isotope remains
1
after the passage of 5 half-lives. Thus of any given quantity of I-131 remains
32
after the passage of 40.5 days (5 half-lives).
You can also calculate the quantity of isotope remaining at a given time,
1
At, by multiplying the original quantity of isotope, A0, by ( ) as many times as the
2
1 n 1 1
number of half lives that have passed, ( ) . For example, ( )5 is equal to ,
2 2 32
the fraction of isotope remaining after the passage of 5 half-lives.
1 n
At = Ao x ( )
2
or
1 5 1
At = (1) x ( ) =
2 32
The equation given above can be used to calculate the quantity of isotope
remaining after any length of time, including non-integral numbers of half-lives,
for example, 1.5 half-lives. In this text we shall only work problems having the
number of half-lives, n, as an integer.

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EX 3.9 What is the quantity of Xe-133 remaining in a sample of Xe-133 with an
activity of 36 μCi after the passage of 21.2 days?
t 21.2 days
n= = =4
t1 / 2 5.3 days
1 n 1 1 1 1
At = Ao( ) = (36 μCi) x (1/2)4 = (36 μCi) x ( )x( )x( )x( ) =
2 2 2 2 2
1
(36 μCi) x ( ) = 2.3 μCi.
16
(You can also refer to Table 3.8 to find that 4 half lives is equivalent to 1/16 (or
6.25%) of an isotope remaining. 6.25% of 36 μCi is 2.3 μCi. )
P 3.6 Use the data presented in Table 3.7 to determine the quantity of isotope
remaining in the following problems. You can either use the equation, A t = Ao x
(1/2)n or Table 3.8 to solve these problems.
a. The quantity of C-14 remaining in a sample of C-14 with an original activity of
6.00 μCi after the passage of 11,460 years.
n = _____ years / ______years = _____
1 __
At = (______μCi) x ( ) = _______ μCi
2

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b. The quantity of Tc-99 remaining in a 450 mg sample of Tc-99 after the
passage of one day.
____ days
n= = _____
_____ days
1
At = (______) x ( )___ = _______
2
c. The quantity of I-131 remaining in a 1.00 mg sample after the passage of 48.6
days.
____ days
n= = _____
_____ days
1 1
At = (______) x ( )___ = (_____) x ( ) = _____ mg
2 ____
3.8 SOME RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES ARE USEFUL IN MEDICAL AND OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
Unstable isotopes of a number of elements are useful in a number of
technologies. One of the first uses for radioactive isotopes was radioactive
dating using C-14. Today, a number of different isotopes are used in medical
technology to assist in diagnosis or treat certain kinds of cancers. We shall
briefly examine some of these technologies.
All living systems contain a certain quantity of C-14 because living
organisms are constantly consuming carbon compounds containing a small

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quantity of C-14. The C-14 found in carbon compounds is created by the
bombardment of nitrogen by radiation coming from outer space (cosmic
radiation). An organism no longer consumes carbon compounds after it dies and
thus ceases to consume additional C-14. The C-14 contained in a dead
organism decays according to the rules outlined in Table 3.8 and Figure 3.14.
Scientists find that the quantity of C-14 found in a living organism of a
particular species (usually expressed as ‘counts per minute’ per gram of tissue,
cpm / gram) is the same for all members of that species. The longer an
organism has been dead, however, the less C-14 remains in its body. The
quantity of C-14 in the remains of a dead organism can be compared with the
C-14 content of a similar living organism in order to determine the length of time
(in terms of numbers of half-lives of C-14) that the organism has been dead.
The longer an organism has been dead, the less C-14 remains in the
organism and thus the lower the ‘counts per minute’ per gram of dead organism.
From Table 3.8 you can determine that a living organism will lose half of its C-14
content 5730 years after it dies (the half-life of C-14). For example, if one gram
of living tree tissue has 15 cpm of C-14 and one gram of fossilized wood has 7.5
cpm of C-14, the fossilized wood must be 1 half-life, or 5730 years, old. On the
other hand, fossilized wood with a C-14 content of 3.25 cpm per gram must have
died 2 half-lives ago (11,460 years ago).
You determine the age of a dead organism (often a piece of dead wood)
by calculating the number of times the original C-14 content must have been

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reduced by one half in order to reach the current, measured C-14 content in the
dead sample. Note that the C-14 content in the dead organism is always less
than the C-14 content of the comparable living organism. According to Table 3.8,
1
the C-14 content declines by with the passage of every half-life. Counting
2
backwards to the current C-14 content one half-life at a time tells you how many
half-lives that have passed since the organism died. Table 3.9 summarizes this
method of isotope dating.
Table 3.9
Number of half lives of C-14 since the death of the organism as determined by C-
14 dating
Percentage of isotope remaining in fossil Half lives past Time past (years)
100 0 0
50 1 5730
25 2 11,460
12.5 3 17,190
6.25 4 22,920
There are some important technical restrictions with C-14 dating. Firstly,
C-14 dating is only useful for dating the remains of organisms that contain

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significant quantities of carbon. Bones do not contain carbon and so C-14 dating
cannot be used to date human remains unless they have been mummified.
However, carbon-containing artifacts such as tools or coals found in burned-out
fireplaces found in association with human bones can be dated. Assuming the
humans made the artifacts or built the campfires allows us to date the bones.
Secondly, living organisms do not incorporate large quantities of C-14 and so the
quantity of C-14 remaining in a dead sample is extremely small after 5 or 6 half-
lives. As a result, the time range of C-14 dating of carbon containing substances
is restricted to 30 to 40 thousand years.
There are other, more complex isotopic dating methods using isotopes
with much longer half-lives that extend the time period over which isotopic dating
is useful. These techniques can be used to date materials containing elements
other than carbon. As an example, U-238 with a half-life of 3.5 billion years has
been used to date the age of the earth by measuring the quantities of decay
products of U-238 found in certain rocks.
A number of isotopes are useful for creating images of soft tissues or
determining the flow of blood, nutrients or gases in various parts of the body. For
example, the thyroid gland is imaged after introducing small quantities of I-131
into the patient’s bloodstream. Thyroid tissue is the only tissue that absorbs
iodine and so the I-131 concentrates in the thyroid gland. Radiosensitive
detectors measure the quantity of I-131 in the thyroid tissue and present the
information as a ‘photograph’ of the thyroid gland (Figure 3.18).

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Figure 3.18 The thyroid gland has been imaged after injecting I-131 into a patient’s bloodstream.
The beta particles emitted by the accumulated I-131 expose radiosensitive film, producing an
image of the thyroid gland. Thyroid scanning can be used to find thyroid gland tumors or to
assess how well the gland is functioning.
Figure 3.19 A PET scan of a normal brain (on the right) and a brain of a patient with Alzheimer’s
Disease. The extensive blue regions in the brain of the Alzheimer’s patient indicate abnormally
low utilization of glucose.
Positron emission tomography (PET) is used to trace the flow of
nutrients to tissues. For example, glucose utilization in the brain can be analyzed
after injecting glucose tagged with a positron-emitting isotope of fluorine, F-18,

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that is artificially created in a nuclear laboratory. Unusual glucose utilization
might indicate a pathological condition (Figure 3.19).
Radioisotopes are also used to kill cancerous cells. A radioactive isotope
of cobalt, Co-60, has long been used to kill cells of solid tumors. A small pellet
containing Co-60 is surgically placed in the tumor. High-energy gamma radiation
produced by the Co-60 kills all cells near the pellet, including the cancer cells.
Scientists are learning how to tag antibodies to cancer cells with radioactive
isotopes. The radioactively labeled antibody specifically binds to the cancer cells
and its isotope tag emits lethal radiation in the immediate vicinity of the cancer
cell, killing it.
While scientists are beginning to successfully use radioactive isotopes to
target and kill specific cells, radioactive isotopes always pose a health risk to the
patient and the technicians administering them. An understanding of the
biological effects of alpha, beta and gamma radiation is essential for health care
professionals. A related concern is X-radiation safety and, as you will see, the
dangers posed by X-rays are similar in many respects, but not identical, to the
dangers posed by unstable, radioactive isotopes.
3.9 ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA, UV AND X RADIATION CAN CAUSE BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE
The term ‘radiation’ has incorrectly come to be associated with
radioactivity. Actually, the term ‘radiation’ is best defined as ‘energy traveling
through space’. As you have previously seen, the term ‘radioactive’ refers to
unstable isotopes. While it is true that all radioactive isotopes emit radiation (in

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other words, energy), it is not true that all forms of radiation are caused by
radioactive isotopes. Such diverse and harmless phenomena as visible light,
heat radiating from a hot object (called ‘radiant heat’) and radio waves are also
forms of radiation.
Alpha, beta, gamma and X radiations are often called ‘ionizing radiation’.
These kinds of radiation, having such large energies, interact with matter so
strongly that electrons are stripped from atoms, creating ions. We shall discuss
ions, or electrostatically charged atoms, in the next few chapters. At the
moment, we need only recognize that the formation of ions by ionizing radiation
in biological molecules is extremely disruptive and destructive to the organism.
Radiation need not be ionizing to cause biological damage. Ultraviolet
radiation (UV) is non-ionizing radiation with sufficient energy that even low doses
cause biological damage. Other forms of non-ionizing radiation such as
microwave, infrared or visible radiation, do not have sufficient energy to cause
biological damage except in very high doses.
An organism is most severely damaged when its genetic material, the
DNA, is damaged by either ionizing or high-energy, non-ionizing radiation. We
shall only examine radiation-induced genetic damage in this chapter although
high-energy radiation can cause burns and other kinds of biological damage.
As you have previously seen, alpha and beta radiations are composed of
particles, the helium ion in the case of alpha radiation and high-energy electrons
in the case of beta radiation. The ability of alpha and beta particles to penetrate

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an organism and reach its genetic material—even small particles like beta
particles—is restricted by the size of the particle. Electromagnetic radiation of
sufficient energy, having no mass, can penetrate organisms much more deeply.
For this reason, high-energy electromagnetic radiation in the form of X-rays or
gamma radiation is often much more dangerous than alpha or beta radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its energy or its
wavelength. There is a direct relationship between the energy and wavelength of
electromagnetic radiation, making the energy and wavelength of electromagnetic
directly equivalent. In general, high-energy electromagnetic radiation has short
wavelengths whereas low energy electromagnetic radiation has long
wavelengths. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared (radiant heat), visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, gamma radiation, and X radiation are all forms of
electromagnetic energy with different energies and, therefore, different
wavelengths.
Figure 3.20 illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum and places the visible
spectrum in its position relative to commonly encountered forms of
electromagnetic radiation. Radio waves, having very low energy, have very long
wavelengths. Gamma and X-radiation have very short wavelengths and thus
high energies. Radio waves, microwave radiation, infrared radiation and visible
light do not have enough energy to cause ionizing biological damage.
Ultraviolet radiation, on the other hand, despite being non-ionizing
radiation, does have sufficient energy to cause damage to skin cells and is the

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major cause of skin cancer. UV radiation, being of relatively low energy
compared to X-rays and gamma radiation, cannot penetrate deeply and therefore
is only dangerous to skin cells. X-rays and gamma radiations are ionizing
radiations with sufficient energy to penetrate deeply, causing significant biological
damage to the DNA in the cells of many internal organs.
Figure 3.20 Visible radiation is a very small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Note that
gamma and X-radiation are at the high-energy end of the spectrum while infrared (heat),
microwave and radio waves are at the lower end. Also notice that blue light has more energy
than red light and that ultraviolet radiation, UV, has more energy than visible light but much less
energy than X-radiation.
DNA molecules are very large molecules (called ‘polymers’) found in the
chromosomes of all cells. In complex organisms such as ourselves, DNA is
found in each cell of our body, including gonadal cells that produce the sperms
and eggs required for sexual reproduction. Biologists refer to cells in the gonads

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(testes in the male and ovaries in the female) as ‘germ line cells’. All other cells
in the body are called ‘somatic cells’. Somatic cells often divide but do not
participate in the formation of the organism’s progeny (children).
The DNA in germ line cells determines the genetic make-up of the next
generation and so it is very important that the DNA of germ line cells be free of
damage. The DNA of somatic cells controls the various physiological processes
of the somatic cell (including the process of cell division). Damage to DNA in
somatic cells can cause somatic cells to divide too frequently, eventually leading
to the formation of cancerous tumors. Biologists distinguish between germ line
DNA damage (potentially causing damage to the progeny) and somatic DNA
damage (potentially causing tumor formation). Any somatic or germ line damage
to DNA is often called a ‘mutation’ but some mutations are much more serious
than others.
In general, germ line mutations are much more serious than somatic
mutations. A germ line mutation affects every cell in a child that develops from
the damaged sperm or egg, often resulting in severe or lethal birth defects. On
the other hand, somatic mutations only affect one somatic cell or the cells
derived from the replication of that single somatic cell. Damaged somatic cells
often spontaneously die or are destroyed by the body’s immune system,
eliminating the mutation. Only somatic mutations that escape spontaneous
death or destruction by the immune system have the potential to eventually
generate a tumor.

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There are a number of enzymes that repair DNA damaged by radiation,
chemicals or random errors in DNA replication. These enzymes allow somatic
and germ line cells to repair some radiation-induced DNA damage, reversing
mutations caused by radiation. Nevertheless, the occasional mutated and un-
repaired mutated somatic cell gives rise to cancerous cells that, if untreated, can
kill the organism. Similarly, un-repaired germ line mutations often cause birth
defects in a child originating from the germ line cell.
The extent of radiation damage depends upon (1) the dose of radiation,
(2) the depth to which the radiation penetrates, and (3) radiation’s energy
(wavelength). The dose of radiation depends upon the length of exposure and
the distance from the source of radiation. Most importantly, the amount of
exposure to radiation falls off with the square of the distance from the source and
so increasing the distance from a source of radiation is very effective in reducing
the overall exposure. For example, doubling the distance reduces radiation
exposure to one fourth of the exposure at the source. Similarly, tripling the
distance from a radiation source reduces exposure to one ninth of the exposure
at the source.
The depth with which radiation penetrates the body depends upon the
energy of the radiation and the type of radiation (Figure 3.21). In general, alpha
radiation penetrates very poorly because of the large size of the alpha particle (a
helium ion). Beta radiation is more deeply penetrating than alpha radiation and
gamma radiation is the most deeply penetrating. In fact, gamma radiation can
completely pass through your body and even penetrate lead or concrete

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shielding materials. Thus, while exposure to alpha particles might only damage
epithelial (skin) cells, beta and gamma radiation can damage the tissues of
internal organs. Ultraviolet radiation, being of considerably lower energy than
gamma or X-radiation, cannot penetrate deeper than several cells in the skin and
therefore is capable only of damaging the thin layer of skin (Table 3.10).
Figure 3.21 Gamma radiation is the most penetrating form of naturally occurring radioactivity and
alpha is the least. Beta radiation has a penetrating ability intermediate between gamma and
alpha radiation. For example, alpha radiation cannot penetrate your hand, while beta radiation
does. On the other hand, beta radiation cannot penetrate a thin sheet of aluminum. A thicker
sheet of lead is required to block gamma radiation penetration.

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Table 3.10
Properties of biological radiations capable of causing biological damage
Type of radiation Ionizing or non-ionizing Energy Depth of penetration
Continuous radiations from decaying isotopes (radioactivity)
Alpha Ionizing particles Medium Very slight
Beta Ionizing particles Medium Medium
Gamma Ionizing electromagnetic High Deep
Non-continuous (Non-radioactive) sources of radiation
X Ionizing electromagnetic High Deep
UV Non-ionizing electromagnetic Low Very slight
The length of exposure is also an important determinant of the damage
caused by radiation. Radioactive isotopes are constantly emitting energy in the
form of alpha, beta or gamma radiation. Thus exposure to radiation from
radioactive isotopes occurs for the same length of time as exposure to the
isotope. X-rays, on the other hand, are only produced by the X-ray tube when

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the tube is turned on. Like light from a light bulb, when the X-ray tube is turned
off, the X radiation (and therefore any biological damage) ceases.
Radiation safety is an important part of medical technology. The
protection of workers who might be exposed to ionizing radiation in the nuclear
industry and medicine depends upon the principles of biological damage we have
discussed in this section. We seek to reduce the likelihood and extent of
radiation-induced biological damage by (1) reducing the length of exposure (2)
increasing the distance between individuals and the source of radiation and (3)
decreasing the degree of radiation exposure by the use of shielding.
Most elements of radiation safety include all three principles of shielding,
time of exposure and distance from the radioactive source. For example,
radioactive isotopes used in medicine are stored in lead-shielded storage
cabinets located as far as possible from patients and the technicians’
workplaces. The lead shielding and distance of the isotope from individuals
reduces the extent of unnecessary exposure to the alpha, beta and gamma
radiations emitted by the isotopes. Workers exposed to radiation in the nuclear
industry or medical technology wear radiation detection badges to monitor their
exposure to radiation. Once an individual has exceeded the yearly permissible
radiation exposure, he or she is not allowed further exposure for the period of
time required to repair the radiation damage.
Proper radiation safety procedures employed during X-ray examinations
are a good summary of the use of the principles of radiation safety. Firstly, X-ray

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examination is only used when absolutely necessary for a proper diagnosis. For
example, the routine screening X-ray examinations that used to be used for
tuberculosis or scoliosis are no longer used in medicine. When an X-ray
examination is necessary, every effort is made to reduce the length and extent of
X-ray exposure to both the patient and the X-ray technician performing the
examination.
X-ray technicians stand behind a lead shield at as a great a distance as
possible from the X-ray tube to reduce their radiation exposure. Patients’ gonads
are shielded with lead to minimize germ line radiation exposure. In fact, any part
of the body not being examined is shielded as best possible from the X-ray
beam.
Over the years, X-ray examination protocols have been improved with the
goals of minimizing the length and extent of exposure to radiation. For example,
extremely sensitive X-ray film is used to minimize the length of radiation
exposure to the patient. Technicians have learned to properly position their
patients in order to minimize radiation exposure to particularly radiosensitive
areas such as lung and breast tissues. Most recently, the development of
magnetic resonance imaging techniques (MRI) has eliminated the need for any
exposure to X-radiation for many diagnostic procedures and produces images
vastly superior to X-rays.

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Summary
The atom is composed of a nucleus and the electrons surrounding the
nucleus. Atoms are composed of three types of sub-atomic particles—protons,
neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons (sometimes called ‘nucleons’) are
found in the nucleus and are responsible for the atom’s mass. Protons have a
positive charge and electrons have a charge opposite to that of proton—a
negative charge. Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Each of the eighty-eight naturally occurring elements is composed of a
unique kind of atom defined by the number of protons in its nucleus. The number
of protons in a nucleus is called the ‘atomic number’ and so each element has its
own atomic number. Elements are listed on the periodic table in order of their
atomic numbers.
Almost all elements are composed of several different isotopes. Isotopes
differ in the number of neutrons but always have the same number of protons.
The sum of the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an isotope is
called its ‘mass number’. The possible isotopes for an element are not listed on
the periodic table and so mass numbers are not shown on the periodic table.
Isotopes are often symbolized using the ‘full nuclide symbol’. A full nuclide
symbol consists of the elemental symbol with the atomic at the lower left corner
and the mass number at the upper left corner. If you are told the mass number of
a particular isotope, you can calculate the number of neutrons in isotope by
subtracting the atomic number from the mass number.

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mass number
atomic number Sy
number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus. The occupancy of
these shells is expressed as either a simple or a detailed electron configuration.
You write an electron configuration for an atom by placing electrons sequentially
in their shells according to the pattern for all atoms. The number of electrons you
place in an electron configuration equals the atomic number of the element.
Simple electron configuration
2-8-8-18-18 (for the first 54 elements)
Detailed electron configuration
[(1s)2 ] [(2s)2 (2p)6 ] [(3s)2 (3p)6] [(4s)2 (3d)10(4p)6] [(5s)2 (4d)10(5p)6]
(The principal shell color in the simple electron configuration corresponds to the same
color in the filled shell of the detailed electron configuration)
Each horizontal row of elements (called ‘periods’) on the periodic table
corresponds to one completely filled principal shell in an electron configuration.
Thus the first period has two elements (H and He) corresponding to the first
principal shell. The second and third periods have eight elements each because
the second and third principal shells have eight electrons each. The fourth and

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fifth periods have 18 elements corresponding to the eighteen electrons of the
fourth and fifth shells.
An atom’s electron configuration influences the chemical and physical
properties of the element. Elements with similar outer electron configurations are
found in the same group (vertical row) on the periodic table. Elements found in
the s and p blocks of the periodic table (Figure 3.10) have incomplete s or p sub-
shells in their detailed electron configurations. Elements found in the d block of
the periodic table (transition elements) have incomplete d sub-shells in their
detailed electron configurations. Electrons in outermost incomplete s and p sub-
shells are often called ‘valence electrons’. The number of valence electrons for
the first 18 elements corresponds to the number of outer electrons in unfilled
principal shells shown in the simplified electron configuration. The number of
valence electrons also corresponds to the Group number for the all of the
representative elements (Table 3.11).
The periodic table can be used to predict many gradually changing trends
in chemical and physical properties of the elements. These trends gradually
change as you move rightward on the periodic table—once you start a new
period there is an abrupt change in the property for the first element of the new
period that again gradually changes as you move rightward along the new
period.

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Table 3.11
Group number and electron configurations
Group number Elements Number of valence electrons
IA (alkali metals) Li, Na, K, Br, Cs 1
IIA (alkaline earth metals) Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba 2
IIIA B, Al, Ga, In, Tl 3
IVA C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb 4
VA N, P, As, Sb, Bi 5
VIA O, S, Se, Te 6
VIIA (halogens) F, Cl, Br, I 7
VIIIA (inert gases) He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe 8
Some isotopes of many elements are unstable, or radioactive.
Spontaneous radioactive decay occurs in three ways—alpha, beta and gamma
decay. Several kinds of radioactive decay can be induced by nuclear
bombardment—we briefly discussed positron emission as an example of induced
decay because of its importance in positron emission tomography. Tables 3.5
and 3.6 summarize the important properties of alpha, beta, and gamma decay

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and positron emission. The atomic number decreases by two as a consequence
of alpha decay and so the product of alpha decay is found two places behind the
initial isotope on the periodic table. Beta decay increases the atomic number by
one while positron emission decreases the atomic number by one. Thus the
product of beta decay is found one place ahead of the initial isotope’s position on
the periodic table while the product of positron emission is found one place
behind.
The stability of a radioactive isotope is described as its half-life—the time
required for one half of a given quantity of isotope to decay. Stable isotopes
have long half-lives while unstable isotopes have short half-lives. The quantity of
isotope remaining, At, after the passage of n half-lives is given by the equation:
1 n time
At = (Ao) x ( ) where n =
2 t1 / 2
(Ao is the initial quantity of isotope t1/2 is the half-life of the isotope)
Both ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, gamma radiation and X-rays) and
non-ionizing radiation (ultraviolet) have sufficient energy to cause biological
damage. Most radiation-induced biological damage occurs in the DNA of
somatic and germ line cells due to chemical changes in the DNA molecule
(mutations) caused by the radiation. The most important strategies for
protection from all forms of radiation damage are (1) increasing the distance from
the source of radiation (2) reducing the time of exposure to the radiation and (3)
reducing exposure to radiation by shielding.

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PROBLEMS
The three subatomic particles of the atom
1. Find the following elements on the periodic table and give its symbol.
a. Element with 23 protons
b. Element with 92 protons and 143 neutrons
c. Element with 16 electrons
d. Element with 27 electrons and 33 neutrons
e. Element with 84 protons
2. Give the name of the following isotopes:
a. Isotope with 6 protons and 8 neutrons
b. Isotope with 7 protons, 8 neutrons and 7 electrons
c. Isotope with 53 protons and 78 neutrons
d. Isotope with 88 protons and 140 neutrons
e. Isotope with 7 protons and an equal number of neutrons

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3. Complete the following table
Isotope Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
U-238 _______ _______ ________
_______ 11 13 ________
_______ 38 49 ________
Fe-59 ________ _______ ________
Mo-99 _________ _______ 42
4. Write full nuclide symbols for the following isotopes.
Number of protons Number of neutrons
a. 80 121
b. 90 142
c. 10 10
d. 19 19
e. 15 17

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5. There are five isotopes of Ra, all of which are unstable. Given that these
isotopes have either 140, 138, 137, 136 or 135 neutrons write the full nuclide
symbols for these five isotopes.
6. Write simplified electron configurations for the following elements.
a. C b. P c. As d. Si e. Ge
7. Identify the element with the given simplified electron configurations.
a. 2-3 b. 2-8-3 c. 2-5 d. 2-8-8-15 e. 2-1
8. In which groups do the following elements appear?
a. C b. Ge c. N d. O e. Br
9. In which periods do the following elements appear?

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10. How many valence electrons are in the following elements?
Elements exhibit certain periodic properties
11. Which atom is the largest?
a. C or Si b. N or C c. Ga or Co d. F or Br
12. Which atom most easily loses electrons?
13. Which atom has the greatest affinity for electrons?
14. Which of the following elements is most metallic?

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15. Give the symbol of an element that should be chemically similar to
a. C b. Li c. P d. O e. Fe
Alpha (24He), beta (-10e), and gamma (00) decay
16. Write nuclear decay equations for the following alpha decay processes.
a. Alpha decay of U-238
b. Alpha decay of Ra-222
c. Alpha decay of Po-210
d. Alpha decay of U-234
e. Alpha decay of Po-214
17. Write nuclear decay equations for the following beta decay processes.
a. Beta decay of Pb-210
b. Beta decay of C-14
c. Beta decay of Bi-210
d. Beta decay of Ac-227
e. Beta decay of P-32

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18. Describe the kind of decay occurring in the following processes.
a. Th-234 converts to Ra-230
b. Tc-99m converts to Tc-99
c. Zn-69 converts to Ga-69
d. In-117 converts to Sn-117
e. Ac-210 converts to Fr-206
19. Complete the following nuclear equations.
a. 84
210
Po  ____ + 82206Pb
b. 47
116
Ag  -10e + ______
c. _____  24He + 90234Th
d. _____  00 + 87206Fr
e. _____  58137Ce + -10e

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Artificially induced positron emission
20. a. Write balanced nuclear equations for positron emission by the following
artificially prepared isotopes.
38
a. 19 K b. C-11 c. O-15
The half-life is the time required for ½ of an isotope to decay
21. Calculate the quantity of Tc-99m remaining of an initial 4.0 μCi sample after
the following lengths of time. The half-life of Tc-99m is 6.0 hours.
a. 12 hours b. 18 hours c. 1 day d. 2 days
22. Three common isotopes of krypton, Kr, are Kr-73 (t1/2 of 27 s); Kr-74 (t1/2 of
11.5 minutes); and Kr-76 (t1/2 of 14.8 hours).
a. Which of these isotopes is the most stable?
b. Approximately what percentage of each of these isotopes remains after
1 day?
c. Calculate the percentage of Kr-73 remaining after 108 seconds.

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d. Calculate the percentage of Kr-74 remaining after 46.0 minutes.
e. Explain why the percentages calculated in (c) and (d) are the same
despite the time being very different for the two problems.
23. A hospital ordered 100 μCi of I-131 for thyroid scans. Examination of the
sample when it arrives reveals that only 25 μCi is present in the bottle. How old
is the I-131? Refer to Table 3.7 for required information.
24. A hospital has a 100 μCi sample of I-131 on hand for thyroid scans. How
many μCi of the I-131 remains after the material has been on hand for 24 days?
25. How many days must pass before a 500 μCi sample of I-131 is reduced to
an activity of 125 μCi?
26. A sample of corn living today is found to have a C-14 activity of 10 cpm. An
archeologist finds some dried corn in an ancient New World Village with an
activity of 2.5 cmp. How old is the village assuming the village is roughly the
same age as the corn?

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27. A 50 μCi sample of Cr-51 is obtained for medical diagnostic work. How
many μCi of Cr-51 remains after sitting in storage for 3 months? Assume the
half-life of Cr-51 (27.8 days) to be roughly one month.
28. Predict the quantity of I-131 that remains of a 10.0 Ci sample after the
passage of the following lengths of time. Assume the half-life is exactly 8 days.
a. 3 half-lives b. 16 days c. 24 days d. 4 half-lives

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RADIOACTIVITY AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

3.1 Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons

3.2 Most elements are composed of several different kinds of isotopes

3.4 The periodic table and electron configurations

3.6 Some isotopes are unstable, undergoing radioactive decay

3.7 The half-life is a measure of a radioactive isotope’s stability

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-1

in 1898, atoms were thought to be the homogeneous, indivisible spheres first

imagined by the early Greek philosopher, Democritus. Within thirty-five years of

Thomson’s discovery, atoms were recognized as complex structures composed

of three subatomic particles called electrons, protons and neutrons. Within

About the same time as the discovery of atomic structure, physicists

learned that radioactivity is caused by the spontaneous decay of unstable

the time of Thomson’s discovery. An explanation for the seemingly endless

stream of energy emitted by radioactive substances was not possible, however,

Interestingly, almost as soon as the structure of the atom was discovered,

scientists realized atoms were not the unchangeable particles imagined by

were naturally unstable (now called ‘radioactive isotopes’), releasing energy as

production of large quantities of energy.

In the early twentieth century chemists used their newfound understanding

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-2

existence of so many different kinds of compounds despite the existence of a

relatively few number of elements. Furthermore, once ionic and covalent

predict the kinds of compounds possible. Chemists also used their

understanding of atomic structure to explain why elements of similar chemical

and physical properties could be arranged in a systematic pattern on the periodic

Almost all of the technological and scientific advances of the twentieth

century can be traced to the discovery of atomic structure. The American

the twentieth century proof that matter is composed of atoms is mankind’s

chapters that the key to chemistry is our knowledge of atomic structure.

2.1 ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS

Within a few years of Thomson’s discovery of the electron, physicists

recognized that atoms were composed of two essential parts—the atomic

composed of positively charged particles called ‘protons’ and neutral particles

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-3

neutrons are about 2000 times as massive as an electron.

Electrons, negatively charged subatomic particles, are located outside the

a cloud outside the nucleus. Although individual electrons cannot be located in

electrons as protons in the nucleus, making the atom electrostatically neutral

(a) (b) (c)

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-4

Despite having almost no mass, electrons have a charge opposite to that

of a proton. The eighteenth century American political leader and scientist,

positively charged particles behave differently from negatively charged particles.

particles attract one another. Electrostatic attraction and repulsion is similar to

Electrostatic attraction and repulsion is different from gravity in that electrostatic

interaction does not depend upon mass.

A second important difference between gravitational and electrostatic

interactions (attractive and repulsive) (Figure 3.2).

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-5

attractive between different charges (b).

Because similarly charged particles repel one another, a collection of

atoms in a sample of matter must always be neutral. Therefore, although atoms

are composed of positively charged particles (the protons) and negatively

equal the number of electrons. The important characteristics of the three

subatomic particles are summarized in Table 3.1.

Properties of the subatomic particles

Particle Mass Charge Location Importance to atom

Proton Large +1 nucleus determines which element

Neutron Large 0 nucleus determines which isotope

Electron Small –1 outside nucleus determines charge

Fickel/Chemistry for Allied Health 3-6

___ 28 _ ___

___ 29 _ ___

15 32 ___ _ ___

92 146

5 11 ___ _ ____

_ __ V5+