Chapter 4

ENERGY AND POTENTIAL

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

 The electric field intensity was defined as the force on a unit test
charge at that point where we wish to find the value of the electric
field intensity.

 To move the test charge against the electric field, we have to exert a
force equal and opposite in magnitude to that exerted by the field.
► We must expend energy or do work.

 To move the charge in the direction of the electric field, our energy
expenditure turns out to be negative.
► We do not do the work, the field does.

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Work: is the energy transfer that takes place when a force causes an object to
move, work done is measured in joules (J).
work done = force applied × distance moved in direction of force

W = Fs
Energy: is the measure of the ability of an object or a system to perform work.
There are many types of energy, energy is measured in joules (J).

Power: is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is
transferred, power is measured in watts (W)
power = work done / time taken
P = W/t

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

 To move a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E, the force on Q arising
from the electric field is:

 The component of this force in the direction dL is:

 The force that we apply must be equal and opposite to the force exerted by
the field:

 Differential work done by external source to Q is equal to:

• If E and L are perpendicular, the differential

work will be zero

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field

 The work required to move the charge a finite distance is determined by
integration:

• The path must be specified

• The charge is assumed to be at rest at both initial and
final positions
• W > 0 means we expend energy or do work

• W < 0 means the field expends energy or do work

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

 The integral expression of previous equation is an

example of a line integral, taking the form of
integral along a prescribed path.
 Without using vector notation, we should
have to write:

• EL: component of E along dL

 The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is approximately:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

 If we assume that the electric field is uniform,

 Therefore,

 Since the summation can be explain as a line integral, the exact result for the
uniform field can be obtained as:

• For the case of uniform E, W does

not depend on the particular path
selected along which the charge is
carried
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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Differential Length

Rectangular

Cylindrical

Spherical

The equation of a straight line is; Circle equation:

x2 + y2 = radius2

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

 Example
Given the nonuniform field E = yax + xay +2az, determine the work expended in
carrying 2 C from B(1,0,1) to A(0.8,0.6,1) along the shorter arc of the circle x2 +
y2 = 1, z = 1.

• Differential path, rectangular coordinate

• Circle equation:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Line Integral

 Example
Redo the example, but use the straight-line path from B to A.
• Line equation:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Work and Path Near an Infinite Line Charge

A circular path : A radial path:

The differential element dL is chosen Along which a charge of Q is carried

in cylindrical coordinates, and the in the field of an infinite line charge
circular path selected demands that from ρ = a to ρ = b along a radial
dρ and dz be zero, so dL = ρ1 dφ aφ. path, dL = dρ aρ and

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Work and Path Near an Infinite Line Charge

A circular path

A radial path:

if b is larger than a, ln (b/a)

is positive, and the work
done is negative, indicating
that the charge receives
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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

 We already find the expression for the work W done by an external source in
moving a charge Q from one point to another in an electric field E:

 Potential difference V is defined as the work done by an external source in

moving a unit positive charge from one point to another in an electric field:

 We shall now set an agreement on the direction of movement. VAB signifies the
potential difference between points A and B and is the work done in moving the
unit charge from B (last named) to A (first named). B is the initial point and A is
the final point

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

 Potential difference is measured in joules per coulomb (J/C). However, volt (V)
is defined as a more common unit.
 The potential difference between points A and B is:
• VAB is positive if work is done in carrying
the positive charge from B to A
 From the line-charge example, we found that the work done in taking a charge Q
from ρ = a to ρ = b was:

 Or, from ρ = b to ρ = a,

 Thus, the potential difference between points at ρ = a to ρ = b is:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

 For a point charge, we can find the potential difference between points A and
B at radial distance rA and rB from a point charge Q , choosing an origin at Q:

• rB > rA  VAB > 0, WAB > 0,

 Although dL has r, θ, and Φ
components, the electric field
E only has the radial r
component.
Work expended by the external source
• rB < rA  VAB < 0, WAB < 0,
Work done by the electric field

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Definition of Potential Difference and Potential

 It is often convenient to speak of potential, or absolute potential, of a point

rather than the potential difference between two points.
 For this purpose, we must first specify the reference point which we consider to
have zero potential.
 The most universal zero reference point is “ground”, which means the
potential of the surface region of the earth.
 Another widely used reference point is “infinity.”
 For cylindrical coordinate, in discussing a coaxial cable, the outer conductor is
selected as the zero reference for potential.
 If the potential at point A is VA and that at B is VB, then:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a Point Charge

 The simplest way to define a zero reference for potential is to let V = 0

at infinity.
 If the point r = rB recedes to infinity, the potential at rA becomes:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a Point Charge

 Generally,

 Physically, Q/4πε0r joules of work must be done in carrying 1 coulomb charge

from infinity to any point in a distance of r meters from the charge Q.

 We can also choose any point as a zero reference:

with C1 may be selected so that V = 0 at any desired value of r.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Equipotential Surface

• An equipotential surface is a surface on which the electric potential is the

same at every point.

• Field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular.

• Shown are cross sections of

equipotential surfaces (blue lines)
and electric field lines (red lines)
for a single positive charge.

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 The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a line charge are cylindrical
surfaces.

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 The equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a sheet of charge
are surfaces parallel with the sheet of charge.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a System of Charges: Conservative Property

 We will now prove, that for a system of charges, the potential is also
independent of the path taken.
 Continuing the discussion, the potential field of a single point charge Q which
we shall identify as Q and locate at r , at the point r due to a single point charge
1 1

Q1 located at r1 is given by:

• The law of conservation of energy means that energy is never created or destroyed; it only ch

Conservative vector fields have the property that the line integral is path independent.

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 The potential arising from n point charges is:

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Example:

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Example:

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Example:

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a System of Charges: Conservative Property

 If each point charge is now represented as a small element of continuous volume charge
distribution ρvΔv, then:

 As the number of elements approach infinity, we obtain the integral expression:

 If the charge distribution takes form of a line charge or a surface charge,

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a System of Charges: Conservative Property

 As illustration, let us find V on the z axis for a uniform line charge ρL in the form
of a ring, ρ = a, in the z = 0 plane.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a System of Charges: Conservative Property

For a zero reference at infinity, then:

1. The potential arising from a single point charge is the work done in carrying a
unit positive charge from infinity to the point at which we desire the potential,
and the work is independent of the path chosen between those two points.

2. The potential field in the presence of a number of point charges is the sum of
the individual potential fields arising from each charge.

3. The potential arising from a number of point charges or any continuous charge
distribution may therefore be found by carrying a unit charge from infinity to the
point in question along any path we choose.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Potential Field of a System of Charges: Conservative Property

 With zero reference at ∞, the expression for potential can be taken generally
as:

 Or, for potential difference:

 Both expressions above are not dependent

• Potential conservation in a
on the path chosen for the line integral, simple dc-circuit problem in
regardless of the source of the E field. the form of Kirchhoff’s
voltage law

 For static fields, no work is done in carrying the unit

charge around any closed path.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
 The mathematical operation to find the rate of change in a certain direction is
called gradient.
 Now, the gradient of a scalar field T is defined as:

 Using the new term,

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
 Since V is a function of x, y, and z, the total differential is:

 But also,

 Both expression are true for any dx, dy, and dz. Thus:

 Note: Gradient of a scalar is a vector.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
 Introducing the vector operator for gradient:

We now can relate E and V as:

Rectangular

Cylindrical

Spherical

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

Potential Gradient
 Example
Given the potential field, V = 2x2y–5z, and a point P(–4,3,6), find V, E, direction
of E, D, and ρv.

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 Chapter 4 Energy and Potential

The Dipole

 An electric dipole, or simply a dipole, is the name given to two point charges
of equal magnitude and opposite sign, separated by a distance which is small
compared to the distance to the point P at which we want to know the electric
and potential fields.

 If the vector length directed from –Q to +Q is identified as d, then the dipole

moment is defined as Qd and is assigned the symbol p.

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Example:

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Example:

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Example:

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