Physical Science

Midterm Reviewer

The Origin of Elements

Where did Elements come from?

● Our universe started with a Big Bang. After the Big Bang, the universe started to expand
● The universe started to cool down, the quarks (a type of elementary particle and a
fundamental constituent of matter) started making primitive elements.

The Basic Part of an Atom

THINGS TO REMEMBER
● Hydrogen is the most abundant element
● Heavier elements are least abundant
● Elements with even atomic number seems to be abundant over odd elements.

Nuclear Reactions
● Absorption or release of protons and neutrons to form new elements
● Needs high temperature and high collision; in turn produces tremendous amount of
energy
Nucleosynthesis

The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

● Produced the light elements (H, He and few Li)
❖ Nuclear Reactions (especially nuclear fusion)

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
● Produced elements up to Fe.
❖ Determines the life span of a star
❖ Fusion of Elements will result to new elements, usually with Helium (He).
❖ Proton- Proton Chain Reactions - Happens in main sequence star. This is the
process by which average star gets their energy and convert Hydrogen into

Helium.
CNO CYCLE
● Occurs in a massive star or star eight times larger than solar mass.
● CNO stands for CARBON, NITROGEN, OXYGEN
● These stars undergo CNO cycle to convert Hydrogen into Helium

Tri- Alpha Process

● Process happens in Red Giant Star once they are at the stage of a main sequence star.
● This is how three Helium -4 are converted into
Carbon

Supernova Nucleosynthesis
● Produced elements higher than Fe
❖ Produced by neutron capture and
radioactive decay
❖ Slow process (for light elements)
and Rapid process (heavy
elements)

Creating Heavy elements by Neutron

Capture

S- process (Slow Neutron capture process)

● There is a small number of free neutrons available, so the time to capture a neutron is
much longer than the decay time
● Occurs in stars at a late evolutionary stage over millions of years
R- process (Rapid Neutron capture process)
● There are a huge number of free neutrons available, so the time to capture a neutron is
much shorter than the decay time.
● Occurs in the ejecta of neutron star mergers within about 1 second
Additional Information (QUIZ 1)
● The ultimate fate of our sun is to become a red giant star
● Two other isotopes of Hydrogen: Deuterium and Tritium
● Aside from high temperature, a Supernova also require Neutrons
● Average stars have a longer lifespan than massive stars because they have more fuel
to burn
● Stellar nucleosynthesis stops at the element of iron because there is not enough
energy in their nuclei.

Particulate Nature of Matter

Polar Molecule
● A polar covalent bond is unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms.
● Forms where there is different between the electronegativity values of the atoms
participating in a bond
● Electron density is distributed asymmetrically throughout the molecules
● Anytime there are unshared pairs of electrons on the central atom, the molecule is polar
● Water is a polar molecule

Nonpolar Molecules
● A nonpolar covalent is Equal sharing of electrons between two atoms
● Nonpolar bonds are form when there is a similar electronegativity values of the atoms
participating in a bond
● Electron density is distributed symmetrically within the molecule

Electronegativity
● The ability of an atom to attract to itself an electron pair shared with another atom in a
chemical bond
Intermolecular Force
● This force holds the molecules together which can be attractive or repulsive
● These intermolecular forces are accountable for the properties of subtances
● Intermolecular forces also explain why substances exist as solids, liquids, or gases at
room temperature
● There are three general types of intermolecular forces (IMF), namely, van der Waals
forces, ion-dipole interaction, and H bonding

Types of Intermolecular forces and relative strengths

Ion- Dipole Forces

● Exist in the attraction between a charged particle called ion (which can be a positively
charged cation or a negatively charged anion) and a polar
● This exhibited in hydration, or the interaction of water molecules with the cations and
anions of ionic compounds dissolved in water
Hydrogen Bond
● This occurs between molecules that contain hydrogen bonded to small and highly
electronegative atoms
● Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole - dipole interaction between hydrogen
directly bonded to F, O, or N atom

Dipole - Dipole Forces

● Attractive forces existing between polar molecules such as HCI.
● Partial positive and partial negative poles exist and are referred to as a dipole

Dipole - Induced Dipole

● A polar molecule polarizes the electron cloud on a neighboring nonpolar molecule
● Dipole - induced - dipole interaction exists between unlike molecules

Dispersion Forces
● Are the weakest attractive force that are formed due to the temporary dipoles induced in
non-polar molecules
If the molecules have enough energy, they can overcome the IMFAS and change from one state
of matter to another
● Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce change. It may take different forms, and
heat is one of them
Temperature and Phase changes
● As a phase change occurs, temperature remains constant
● When a liquid boils, the weak IMFAS are overcome, but the strong covalent bonds
holding the atoms together within each molecule remain unaffected
● The same is true when a solid turns into liquid or gas

Capillary or Capillary Action

● Spontaneous rising of a liquid to increase its area

Surface tension
● Surface tension results from the net inward force experienced by the molecules on the
surface of a liquid

Viscosity
● Resistance of a liquid to flow
● It is related to the ease with which molecules can move past each other
● Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular forces and decreases with higher
temperature

Additional Information
● A dipole arrow is arrow is pointed to an atom that is least electronegative
● The electronegativity difference of C - O is 1.0
● Fluorine has the greatest electronegativity value while Cesium has the least value.
● A charge of an atom that can be observed in a polar molecule is that one positively
charged and one negatively charged atom

Biomolecules

Carbohydrates
● Also known as the Energy Provider
● Made up of C, H, and O
● Usually has a ratio of 1:2:1, respectively
● Building Blocks Monosaccharides
● Contains 3 to 7 carbon atoms
Monosaccharides
● Glucose - main type of sugar in the blood and is the major source of energy for the
body's cells. Ready to use
● Fructose - also known as “fruit sugar” because it primarily occurs naturally in many fruits
 ● Galactose - known as simple sugars. Usually found in nature combine with other sugars
such as lactose

Monosaccharides
● Disaccharides
❖ Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.
● Polysaccharides
❖ Branched or Unbranched
Disachharides
● Sucrose- type of sugar made up of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of
fructose
● Lactose - sugar in milk.
● Maltose - made out of two glucose molecules bound together
● Lactulose - laxative agent
Polysaccharides
● Large and insoluble molecules

Lipids
● Mostly C and H (hydrocarbons)
● Building blocks of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
● They are soluble in oil but insoluble in water
● Examples: Fats and pils
Two Classes
● Saturated Fats - have two carbons attached to each carbons. Saturated fats are
unhealthy fats like butter
● Unsaturated fats - Missing at least one hydrogen and are curl in shape. The
unsaturated fats are healthy and include oils.

Classification of LIpids
● Triglycerides
❖ Unsaturated
❖ Saturated
● Phospholipids
❖ Cell membrane
● Wax
❖ Water proofing
● Steroids
❖ Promote cell growth
❖ Precursor of Vitamin D
❖ Precursor of some hormones
 ❖ Bile salts

Protein
● Mostly made up of C, H, O, and N
● Most common or abundant molecule in our body
● Building blocks: Amino Acids
● Proteins are made up of amino acids combined through a dehydration link called
a peptide bond
Based on form
● Fibrous
● Globular
Based on structure
● Primary - quaternary
Nucleic Acids
● Made up of C, H, O, N, and P
● Building blocks: Nucleotide
Classification
● RNA - protein synthesis
● DNA- stores genetic information or material