MATH 101:Calculus 1

Lecture Notes:Week # 9
Instructor: Mohsin Ali Oct 30-Nov 3, 2023

1 Properties of Polynomials and their Graphs

Polynomials are a family of functions that exhibit exceptional behavior, characterized by seamless
continuity and smoothness across the entire real number line.

Polynomials
Definition

A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where n is a non-negative number integer and an ̸= 0

The numbers a0 , a1 , · · · , an are called the coefficient of the polynomial. The number a0 is
the constant coefficient or constant term.
The number an , the coefficient of the highest power, is the leading coefficient, and the
term an xn is the leading term.

The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers, so we can sketch only a small
portion of the graph. However, for values of x outside the portion of the graph we have drawn,
we can describe the behavior of the graph. The end behavior of a polynomial is a description of
what happens as x becomes large in the positive or negative direction. To describe end behavior,
we use the following result.

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The same end behavior of any general function f (x) can be determined using limits of that
function as x approaches to ±∞
lim f (x)
x→±∞

1.1 Real Zeros of the Polynomials

Real zeros of the polynomial

Theorem

If P is a polynomial and c is a real number, then the following are equivalent.

(a) c is the zero of P .

(b) x = c is the solution of P (x) = 0

(c) x − c is the factor of P (x)

(d) c is the x-intercept of the graph P .

if c is a zero of P and the corresponding factor x − c occurs exactly m times in the factorization
of P , then we say that c is a zero of multiplicity m.

2 First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

In Figure 1, at the points where f has a minimum value, f ′ < 0 immediately to the left and
f ′ > 0 immediately to the right. (If the point is an endpoint, there is only one side to consider.)
Thus, the function is decreasing on the left of the minimum value, and it is increasing on its
right. Similarly, at the points where f has a maximum value, f ′ > 0 immediately to the left and
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f ′ < 0 immediately to the right. Thus, the function is increasing on the left of the maximum
value and decreasing on its right. In summary, at a local extreme point, the sign of f ′ (x) changes

Figure 1: A function’s first derivative tells how the graph rises and falls

We can summarize this as a test for classifying the extreme values using the first derivative test.

First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

Scheme

Suppose that c is a critical point of a continuous function f , and that f is differentiable at

every point in some interval containing c except possibly at c itself. Moving across c from
left to right,

(a) if f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c;

(b) if f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c;

(c) if f ′ does not change sign at c (that is, f ′ is positive on both sides of c or negative on
both sides), then f has no local extremum at c

Example
Using the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

f (x) = x1/3 (x − 4)

Identify the intervals on which f is increasing and decreasing. Find the function’s local and
absolute extreme values.
Sol: The function f (x) is continuous for all values of x (why?). The first derivative of f (x) can
be evaluated using product rule.
4 4 4(x − 1)
f ′ (x) = x1/3 − x−2/3 =
3 3 3x2/3
Hence, critical points are x = 1 (where the first derivative is zero ) and x = 0 (where the first
derivative is undefined). There are no endpoints in the domain, so the critical points x = 0 and
x = 1 are the only places where f might have an extreme value.
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The critical points partition the x-axis into intervals on which f ′ is either positive or negative.
The sign pattern of f ′ reveals the behavior of f between and at the critical points.

The function f is increasing on (1, ∞) and decreasing on interval (−∞, 1). The First Derivative
Test for Local Extrema tells us that f does not have an extreme value at x = 0 ( does not change
sign) and that f has a local minimum at x = 0 ( changes from negative to positive).

Example
Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function

g(x) = x + 2 sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π

Sol:
We are interested in finding the local maximum and minimum, so we should look for the critical
points in the defined domain.

g ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos(x)
=⇒ g ′ (x) = 0 for critical points
1
1 + 2 cos(x) = 0 =⇒ cos(x) = −
2
2π 4π
=⇒ x = , x=
3 3

Increasing Decreasing Increasing

2π
Because g ′ (x) changes from positive to negative at x = , the First Derivative Test tells us
3
2π
that there is a local maximum at x = and the local maximum value is
3
( ) ( )
2π 2π 2π 2π √
g = + 2 sin = + 3
3 3 3 3

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 4π
Similarly, g ′ (x) changes from negative to positive at x = , the First Derivative Test tells us
3
4π
that there is a local maximum at x = and the local minimum value is
3
( ) ( )
4π 4π 4π 4π √
g = + 2 sin = − 3
3 3 3 3

3 Concavity and Second derivative test

Figure 2: Concavity on y = x3

As you can see in Figure 2, the curve rises as x increases, but the portions defined on the intervals
(−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) turn in different ways. As we approach the origin from the left along the
curve, the curve turns to our right and falls below its tangents. The slopes of the tangents are
decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0). As we move away from the origin along the curve to the
right, the curve turns to our left and rises above its tangents. The slopes of the tangents are
increasing on the interval (0, ∞). This turning or bending behavior defines the concavity of the
curve

Concave Up, Concave Down

Definition

The graph of a differentiable function y = f (x) is

(i) concave up on an open interval I if f ′ is increasing on I or f ′′ (x) > 0 on I

(ii) concave down on an open interval I if f ′ is decreasing on I or f ′′ (x) < 0 on I

(iii) A point where the concavity changes is a point of inflection or f ′′ (c) = 0 (provided
f ′′ changes its sign around c)

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 Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema
Scheme

Suppose f ′′ is continuous on an open interval that contains x = c

(i) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c

(ii) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c

(iii) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) = 0, then the test fails. The function f may have a local
maximum, a local minimum, or neither

Example
Consider the function
f (x) = x4 − 4x3

(a) Identify the end behaviour of the f (x).

(b) Determine the multiplicity of the zeros.

(c) Identify where the extrema of f occur

(d) Find the intervals on which f is increasing and the intervals on which f is decreasing

(e) Find where the graph of f is concave up and where it is concave down.

(f) Sketch the general shape of the graph for f .

Sol:

(a) The function is a polynomial of degree 4 with a positive leading coefficient. The end behaviour
of the f (x) is

x→∞ y→∞
x → −∞ y→∞

(b) f (x) can be factorize as

f (x) = x4 − 4x3 = x3 (x − 4)
f (x) have two zeros as x = 0 with multiplicity 3 and x = 4 with multiplicity one
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(c) f (x) is continuous as f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 = 4x2 (x − 3) exist on (−∞, ∞)
The first derivative is zero at x = 0 and x = 3. This divide the domain into three intervals.

Using the First Derivative Test for local extrema and the table above, we see that there. is
no extremum at x = 0 and a local minimum at x = 3

(d) Using the table above, we see that f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and (0, 3), and increasing on
(3, ∞)

(e) The second derivative f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x − 2) is zero when x = 0 and x = 2

We see that f is concave up on the intervals (−∞, 0), and (2, ∞) and concave down on (0, 2)

(f) Summarizing the information in the two tables above, we obtain

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 Hence, the final sketch will become as

Figure 3: Graph of y = x4 − 4x3

Example
1
Sketch y = e x , using the first,second derivative, and asymptotes
Sol:
1
(i) Notice that the domain of the function y = e x is {x|x ̸= 0}.
(ii) Finding the vertical asymptote
1
lim+ e x = ∞
x→0
So x = 0 is a vertical asymptote Also,
1
lim− e x = 0
x→0

(iii) Finding the horizontal asymptote,

1
lim e x = e0 = 1
x→±∞

So, y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote

(iv) Find the first derivative to see the increasing and decreasing behavior
( )
d 1
f ′ (x) = e x
1

dx x
1
′ ex
f (x) = − 2
x
Since e x > 0 and x2 > 0 for all x ̸= 0, which shows that f ′ (x) is negative on all the domain
1

so f (x) is decreasing on domain

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 (v) Find f ′′ (x) to see the concavity behavior of f (x)

( )
1 1 1
−x2 e x − 2
− e x (2x)
f ′′ (x) = x
x4
1
e x (2x + 1)
f ′′ (x) =
x4
1 1
Since e x > 0 and x4 > 0, we have f ′′ (x) > 0 for x > − (x ̸= 0) and f ′′ (x) < 0 for x < − .
1

2 ( ) 2
1 1
Hence, the function f (x) = e x is concave down on interval −∞, − and concave up on
( ) ( )2
1 1
− , 0 and (0, ∞). Thus the point of inflection become − , e−2
2 2

Concave up

1
Figure 4: graph of e x

3.1 Strategy for Graphing y = f (x)

The following checklist is intended as a guide to sketching a curve y = f (x) by hand. Not every
item is relevant to every function.

(A) Domain
It’s often useful to start by determining the domain D of f (x), that is, the set of values of
x for which f (x) is defined

(B) Intercepts
The y-intercept is f (0) and this tells us where the curve intersects the y-axis. To find the
x-intercepts, we set y = 0 and solve for x. (You can omit this step if the equation is difficult
to solve. or you can find the interval using the Intermediate value theorem.)

(C) Symmetry
Look at the symmetry of the function. If f (−x) = f (x) for all x in D, that is, the equation
of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced by −x, then f is an even function, and the
curve is symmetric about the y-axis. Similarly, we can check about the odd function(see
definition), which is symmetric about the origin.
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 If function satisfy f (x + p) = f (x) for all x in D with positive p, then f (x) is periodic
function with period p.
(D) Asymptotes
We have two major kinds of asymptotes: Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes
Horizontal Asymptote: Using the definition of limit at infinity, we can determine the end
behavior/ Horizontal asymptote of f (x)

lim f (x) = b, lim f (x) = b

x→∞ x→−∞

Then, y = b is the horizontal asymptote of f (x). Note that you may have different limits
for positive infinity and negative infinity, resulting in more than two horizontal asymptotes.
Vertical Asypmtote: Using the definition of infinite limits, we can determine the vertical
behavior/ vertical asymptote of f (x)

lim f (x) = ±∞, lim f (x) = ±∞

x→a+ x→a−

(E) Intervals of Increase or Decrease

Compute f ′ (x) and find the intervals on which f ′ (x) is positive ( f is increasing) and the
intervals on which f ′ (x) is negative ( f is decreasing).
(F) Local Maximum or Minimum Values
Find the critical points where f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) doesn’t exist. Then, classify the critical
point using the first/second derivative test as local minimum and maximum, respectively.
(G) Concavity and Points of Inflection
Compute the f ′′ (x) and identify the intervals of concavity with the point of inflections where
f (x) changes its concavity.
(H) Sketch the Curve
Using all the information found through steps (A)-(G). Sketch the function with labelling
all the points on the sketch

Strategy for Graphing y = f (x)

Scheme

(A) Domain

(B) Intercepts

(C) Symmetry

(D) Asymptotes

(E) Intervals of Increase or Decrease

(F) Local Maximum or

Minimum Values

(G) Concavity and Points of Inflection

(H) Sketch the Curve

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Example
Sktech the function
2x2
f (x) =
x2 − 1

(A) Domain
The domain is {x|x ̸= ±1}

(B) Intercepts
The x− and y− are both zero.

(C) Symmetry
Since f (−x) = f (x), the function is even. The curve is symmetric about y− axis.

(D) Asymptotes

2x2
lim =2
x→±∞ x2 − 1

Therefore, the line y = 2 is horizontal asymptote (at both the left and right)
Since the denominator is 0 when x = ±1

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞

x→−1− x→−1+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = ∞
x→+1− x→+1+

Therefore the lines x = −1 and x = +1 are vertical asymptotes

(E) Intervals of Increase or Decrease

−4x
f ′ (x) =
(x2− 1)2

f ′ (x) is positive when x < 0(x ̸= −1) and f ′ (x) is negative when x > 0(x ̸= 1).
Hence, f (x) is increasing on (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) and decreasing on (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

(F) Local Maximum or Minimum Values

The only critical number is x = 0. Since f (x) changes from positive to negative at 0,f (0) = 0
is a local maximum by the First Derivative Test.

(G) Concavity and Points of Inflection

12x2 + 4
f ′′ (x) =
(x2 − 1)3

Since 12x2 + 4 > 0 for all x, we have f ′′ (x) > 0 =⇒ x2 − 1 > 0 =⇒ x < −1 and x > 1,
which is f (x) is concave up on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞). Similarly, f ′′ (x) < 0 =⇒ x2 − 1 <
0 =⇒ −1 < x < 1. f (x) is concave down on (−1, 1).

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(H) Sketch the Curve

2x2
Figure 5: sketch of y =
x2 − 1

Practice Problem

Sketch the following functions

x2 cos(x)
(a) f (x) = √ (c) f (x) =
x+1 2 + sin(x)
(b) f (x) = xex (d) f (x) = ln(4 − x2 )

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Example
Sketch the graph of f (x) where f ′ (x) is given by

Sol:

(i) We can observe that f ′ (x) is defined from 0 to 9, Hence the domain of the f (x) is (0, 9).
f ′ (x) intercepts the x− axis at x = 1, x = 6, x = 8, Hence these values are critical points.

(ii) Now, f ′ (x) is positive on (1, 6) and (8, 9) then f (x) is increasing on these intervals.

(iii) Similarly, f ′ (x) is negative on (0, 1) and (6, 8) then f (x) is decreasing on these intervals.

(iv) f (x) is concave up where f ′ (x) is increasing, looking at slope/ gradient of f ′ (x), that is, on
(0, 2), (3, 5), and (7, 8)

(v) f (x) is concave down where f ′ (x) is decreasing, looking at slope/ gradient of f ′ (x), that is,
on (2, 3), and (5, 7).

(vi) The points where the function changes its concavity i,e. point of inflections are x = 2, x =
3, x = 5, x = 7.

For more practice questions please see section 4.3 and 4.5 exercise of book by james stewart
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4 L’Hôpital Rule
John Bernoulli discovered a rule for calculating limits of fractions whose numerators and denom-
inators both approach zero or ∞ The rule is known today as l’Hôpital’s Rule, after Guillaume
de l’Hôpital. He was a French nobleman who wrote the first introductory differential calculus
text, where the rule first appeared in print.

L’Hôpital Rule
Theorem

Suppose that f (a) = g(a) = 0, that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I
containing a, and that g ′ (x) ̸= 0 on I if x ̸= a. Then

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = x→a
lim ′
x→a g(x) g (x)

assuming that the limit on the right side exists

Example
Find
3x − sin(x)
lim
x→0 x
Sol:
3x − sin(x) 0
= lim form Applying l’Hôpital Rule
x→0 x 0
3 − cos(x)
= lim = 3 − cos(0) = 3 − 1 = 2
x→0 1

Example
Find √
x+1−1
lim
x→0 x
Sol:
√
x+1−1 0
= lim form Applying l’Hôpital Rule
x→0 x 0
(1/2)(x + 1)(1/2) (1/2)(0 + 1)(1/2) 1
= lim = =
x→0 1 1 2

Example
Find the limit of the function √
x+1−1− x
2
lim
x→0 x2

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Sol:
√
x + 1 − 1 − x2 0
= lim form Applying l’Hôpital Rule
x→0 x2 0
(1/2)(x + 1)−1/2 − 12 0
= lim Still form Applying l’Hôpital Rule again
x→0 2x 0
(−1/4)(x + 1)−3/2 1 0
= lim =− Not form Limit is found
x→0 2 8 0

Example
Find
x − sin(x)
lim
x→0 x3
Sol:
x − sin(x) 0
= lim form Applying l’Hôpital Rule
x→0 x3 0
1 − cos(x) 0
= lim Still form Applying l’Hôpital Rule again
x→0 3x2 0
sin(x) 0
= lim Still form Applying l’Hôpital Rule again
x→0 6x 0
cos(x) cos(0) 1
= lim = =
x→0 6 6 6

0 ∞
NOTE: The L’Hôpital Rule is valid for only and . It is not valid for other inderteminent
0 ∞
forms such as ∞ − ∞, 0 × ∞ etc

Example
Find
sec(x)
lim
π 1 + tan(x)
x→
2

Sol:
sec(x) ∞
= limπ form Applying l’Hôpital Rule
x→ 2 1 + tan(x) ∞
sec(x) tan(x)
= limπ
x→ 2 sec2 (x)
= limπ sin(x) = 1
x→ 2

Practice Problem

Find the limit ( )

1 1
lim −
x→0 sin(x) x

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