IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 31. NO.

4, NOVEMBER 1988 265

A Network Theorem Dual to Miller’s Theorem

MARIAN K. KAZIMIERCZUK

Abstract-Miller’s theorem is an important tool commonly used in ‘1 ‘2

analysis and design of amplifiers with voltage-shunt feedback. A net-
work theorem presented and proved here is dual to Miller’s theorem
t+
VL
and can be utilized in the analysis and design of amplifiers with cur-
rent-series feedback. Three examples are given to illustrate the appli-
I-
cability of the theorem.

I. INTRODUCTION

M ILLER’S theorem [1]-[4] is one of the basic net-

work theorems presented in almost all electronic
circuits textbooks, e.g., [ 3 ] , [4].It simplifies the analysis
and design of amplifiers with voltage-shunt feedback. The
theorem is especially useful for amplifier analysis at high
frequencies where the voltage-shunt feedback due to the
base-to-collector capacitance C,, in BJT’s or the gate-to- (b)
drain capacitance Cgdin FET’s should be taken into ac- Fig. 1. Illustration of the theorem dual to Miller’s theorem. (a) The am-
count. Applying Miller’s theorem, it is possible to deter- plifier with current-series feedback. (b) Its equivalent circuit.
mine the input impedance, the voltage and current gains,
and the upper 3 dB frequency of amplifiers. The increase
in the input capacitance over the base-to-emitter capaci- The circuits of Fig. l(a) and (b) are equivalent at the
tance or the gate-to-source capacitance due to the feed- input if the voltages VI and the currents I , are the same in
back is called the Miller effect. The purpose of this paper both circuits. It can be seen from (3) and (4) that this
is to present a network theorem which is dual to Miller’s condition is satisfied if
theorem. This theorem simplifies the analysis and design Zl = Zf( 1 - K I ) . (5)
of amplifiers with current-series feedback.
Similarly, for the circuit of Fig. 1(a),
11. THEOREM
Consider the amplifier with current-series feedback,
shown in Fig. l(a). The current gain KI is defined as
= *,Zf( 1 - );
Assume that it is possible to find the value of KI by some For the circuit of Fig. l(b),
independent means. The current If through the feedback
impedance Zf is given by
v, = I,&. (7)
The circuits of Fig. l(a) and (b) are equivalent at the out-
put if the voltages V, and the currents I2 are the same in
From (1) and (2), both circuits. It follows from (6) and (7) that this condi-
tion is fulfilled if
v, = ZfIf = Zf(I, - I,) =
(
I,Zf 1
z, = Zf(1 - i).
= IIZf(1 - K I ) . (3)
For the circuit of Fig. l(b), 111. COMMENTS
A . Applicability of the Theorem
v, = ZIZ,. (4)
It should be emphasized that the above theorem, simi-
Manuscript received July 30, 1987; revised March 30, 1988.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Systems Engineering,
larly as the original Miller’s theorem, can only be used to
Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435. determine the input impedance and the forward gain of
IEEE Log Number 88231 15. the amplifier with feedback. In general, the theorem can-

0018-9359/88/1100-0265$01.OO 0 1988 IEEE

266 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION. VOL. 31. NO. 4. NOVEMBER 1988

not be applied for calculating the output impedance and

the reverse gain. This is because the conditions that exist
in the network when K1 is determined are different from
those when the output impedance is determined [2], [3].
R, = 2k0
The mutual equivalence of the circuits shown in Fig. l(a)
and (b) is valid only for the forward (from input to output)
transmission. Therefore, the output impedance and the re-
verse gain should be determined from the original circuit
of Fig. l(a), using, e.g., a classical nodal or mesh anal- -
ysis [3] or Blackman’s impedance formula [4]. (a)

B. Use@lness of the Theorem

In the original Miller’s theorem, an added equivalent
impedance, placed in parallel with the load, is [3], [4]

z,= Zf
~
(9)
1
1 - -
KV
where Kv = V2/ V I .
The original Miller’s theorem and its dual version given
here are based on the assumptions that it is possible to
determine KV or K1 by independent means, respectively.
The usefulness-or lack thereof-of Miller’s theorem
I-
in either its original or dual version can only be put in (C)
proper perspective by evaluating, in any given case, the Fig. 2. The common-emitter amplifier with current-series feedback. (a) The
effect of 1) Z2 on Kv and KV on Z 2 , or 2) Z2 on K, and K I circuit. (b) The small-signal model. (c) The equivalent small-signal
on Z,, whichever applies. The result invokes one of three model.
levels of acceptable approximation.
1) The effect of Z2 on KV or K1 is negligible, in which I n / I s , and the voltage gain A , = V O / v sfor the midband
case one can just ignore it. Then the open-loop gain KV frequency range.
or K1 may be used very conveniently to compute the al-
tered input impedance and the forward gain of the ampli- B. Solution
fier with feedback. Fig. 2(b) shows the small-signal model of the amplifier
2) The effect of Z2 on KV or K1 is not negligible, but of Fig. 2(a). In this circuit, R,, = R , R 2 / (R I + R , ) = 90
the effect of KV or K1on Z2 is negligible, the case for large kR, Rf = R,, and the gain K , is
gains (then Z2 = Zr). For acceptable accuracy in using
Miller’s theorem to compute the input impedance and the
forward gain, one must now include Z2 in computing KV
or K1. Although this is a little more trouble, it still leaves Using the theorem given above, the equivalent circuit of
Miller’s theorem a viable and insightful approach to get- Fig. 2(b) is as shown in Fig. l(c). From ( 5 ) and (8),
ting equivalent input impedance.
3) The effect of KV or K1 on Z, is not negligible and the RI = Rf(1 - KI) = R,(1 + h k ) = 101 kR,
effect of Z2 on KV or K1 is not negligible either. If Miller’s
theorem were now employed, one would be faced with
the circular procedure of having to know, say, K1 in order
to calculate Z2 in order to calculate K1. In such a case, The input impedance R,’ is
Miller’s theorem, although still valid, becomes virtually
useless. Therefore, a classical nodal or mesh analysis
would be advised to get the input impedance and the for-
R , ‘ =v,
-=R I + h,, = R , ( 1 + hf,) + h,, = 103.1 kR.
Ib
ward gain.
The input impedance of the feedback amplifier is
IV. EXAMPLES
A. Example I
Fig. 2(a) shows a common-emitter amplifier with cur- The current gain of the amplifier is
rent-series feedback. The small-signal parameters of the
BJT are h,, = 2.1 kR, hfp = 100, h,, = 0, and h,, = 0. A1 -
In =
- 10
__ = -h f;r- - -46.6.
-
Determine the input impedance R , , the current gain Al = I, 1, Is RI, + R:
KAZIMIERCZUK: NETWORK THEOREM DUAL TO MILLER'S THEOREM 261

The resistance R2 is connected in series with the ideal cur-

rent source and therefore does not affect the circuit oper-
ation.
+l:c =5kn

Since

and

the voltage gain is

A vs = -Vo= - -Vo=V,
- hf,Rc Ri
I+
VO

V, V, V, R,(1 + hf,) + hi, Ri + R,

1
hfel
R~l1+ Rp = RE(l +-)
C. Example 2
Fig. 3(a) shows a common-emitter amplifier with the
emitter bypass capacitor. The small-signal parameters of
the BJT are hi, = 1 kQ, hf, = 100, h,, = 0 , and h,, = 0.
Determine the low 3 dB frequency fL.
-
D. Solution
(C)
Fig. 3(b) shows the small-signal model of the amplifier Fig. 3 . Common-emitter amplifier with a bypass capacitor. (a) The circuit.
(b) The small-signal low-frequency model. (c) The equivalent circuit.
for the low-frequency range. The current gain KI is

where

The impedance of the parallel combination of RE and CE

in the s domain is and
1
RE -
SCE
1
RE +- Fig. 3(c) shows the equivalent circuit of the amplifier.
SCE The impedance Z1 is greater than the impedance ZE by a
From ( 5 ) and (8),
factor of hf, +1 = 101 and consists of the resistance R I
in parallel with the capacitance C 1 . Analogously, the
impedance Z, is the parallel combination of the resistance
R2 = RE( 1 + l / h f , ) 2: RE and the capacitance C2 =
CE/( 1 + l / h f , ) = CE. However, this impedance does
not affect the circuit operation because it is connected in
series with the ideal current source. The input impedance
of the amplifier is

Hence,
Since

and
268 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION. VOL. 31, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 1988

the voltage gain is where

RI =
($
2

1 + hfe +

and

s + W,
= AV,, ___
s Wp +
where the midband voltage gain is Thus, the impedance ZI consists of the resistance R I
shunted by the capacitance CI. Both R I and C , are func-
tions of frequency.
For w / w H = 1 , R I = 100Re = 100 kQ and CI = 1.56
the frequency of the real zero is pF; for w / w H = 10, RI = 51.25R, = 51.25 kCl and CI
= 1.55 pF; and for w / w H = 100, R I = 2Re = 2 kQ and
Cl = 0.79 pF.
It can be seen that the resistance R I decreases from
and the frequency of the real pole is +
Re ( hfe 1 ) to R, as the frequency f increases from zero
to infinity. The capacitance CI is very small throughout
[ 1 + ”:,l++2’] the entire frequency range and can therefore be neglected.
Thus, the advantage of the high input impedance due to
f =- = 32.4 Hz. the current-series feedback can be fully obtained only for
P 2 ~ R CE
E
< WH.
Sincefi << fp, f L = & = 32.4 Hz.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
E. Example 3

hfe
KI= - 7 REFERENCES
1 +;- W H 111 J . M. Miller, ”Dependence of input impedance of three-electrode vac-
uum tube upon the load in the plate circuit,” Sri. Papers, Nut. Bureau
Stundards, no. 3 5 1 , pp. 362-285, 1919.
where f H = w H / ( 2 a ) = 1 MHz. Determine the imped- 121 A. B . Macnee. “On the presentation of Miller’s theorem.” IEEE
ance Z , for the high-frequency range. Trans. Educ., vol. E-28, pp. 92-93, May 1985.
131 A. S . Sedra and K. C. Smith, Microelecrronic Circuits. 2nd ed. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1987, pp. 52-56.
F. Solution 141 J . M. Millman and A. Grabel, Mirroc,/ertronics, 2nd ed. NewYork:
From ( 5 ) , McCraw-Hill, 1987, p. 849.

Marian K. Kazimierczuk was born in Poland on

March 3, 1948 He received the M S , Ph D , and
Habilitate Doctorate degrees in electronics engi-
neering from the Department of Electronics,
Technical University of Warsaw, Warsaw. Po-
land, in 1971, 1978, and 1984, respectively
In 1972 he joined the Institute of Radio Elec-
tronics, Department of Electronics, Technical
University of Warsaw. Warsaw, Poland, where he
was employed as an Instructor from 1972 and 1978
and as an Assistant Professor from 1978 to 1984
-- _ +;wc, He headed the Radio Electronics Laboratory and the Electronic Apparatus
RI Laboratory from 1978 to 1984. His teaching, research, and development
KAZIMIERCZUK: NETWORK THEOREM DUAL TO MILLER’S THEOREM
activities were in the areas of RF power technology, radio transmitters,
electronic circuits and systems, semiconductor device modeling, electro-
magnetic field theory, microwave theory and technique, electronic mea-
surements, circuit theory, communications, and computer-aided design. In
1984 he worked as a Project Engineer at Design Automation, Inc., Lex-
ington, MA, where he was responsible for designing Class E high-effi-
ciency switching-mode dcidc converters. In 1984-1985 he was a Visiting
Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Virginia Poly-
technic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, where he taught elec-
tromagnetic fields and electronic circuits and systems. and his research ac-
tivity was in the area of power electronics. Since 1985 he has been an
Assistant Professor with the Department of Electrical Systems Engineer-
269
ing, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, where he has been working in
the areas of analog and digital electronics, integrated circuits, electronic
devices, and power electronics. He is the author of 6 0 scientific papers. of
which 19 were published in IEEE TRANSACTIONS and JOURNALS.He also
holds six patents related to the new concepts of high-efficiency switching-
mode tuned power amplifiers and oscillators.
Dr. Kazimierczuk is a member of the Association of Polish Engineers
and the Polish Society of Theoretical and Applied Electrical Sciences. He
received seven awards from the President of the Technical University of
Warsaw, three awards from the Polish Ministry of Science, University Ed-
ucation, and Technology in 1981, 1982, and 1985, and an award from the
Polish Academy of Sciences in 1983 for scientific achievements.