1.

States of Matter
States of matter

Particles in a solid are Particles in a liquid are still closely Particles in a gas are
closely packed and packed, but can both vibrate and widely spread out and
can vibrate but move around within the liquid can both vibrate and
cannot move around, because they have more energy – move around freely.
they have low enough to overcome the forces that They have the most
energies. hold the particles together in the energy of the three
solid. states.
Changing state

gas
boiling
boiling condensing Increasing
point energy of the
particles in the
substance

liquid
subliming

melting melting freezing

point
Experiment to show how particles move (diffusion) in solution

The crystal dissolves, and the purple

permanganate ions diffuse slowly throughout the
whole volume of the water.

They do this because both the water molecules

and the dissolved particles of permanganate are
constantly moving.
Experiment to show how gas particles move (diffusion)

The hydrogen chloride and the ammonia gases both diffuse into the tube, because the
particles are constantly moving.

Where they meet, they react forming a white ‘smoke ring’ of ammonium chloride.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

The smoke ring forms nearer the hydrogen chloride end, because ammonia moves and
diffuses more quickly than hydrogen chloride as the ammonia particles are smaller and
lighter.

At higher temperature, the gas particles would have more kinetic energy, and therefore
diffuse more quickly.
Separation Techniques
beaker
Method: Filtration

Separates: Solid from liquid or solution

mixture of solid and
How it works: solid particles (the liquid
residue) are unable to pass through
the small gaps between the fibres in residue
the filter paper so remain trapped
while the liquid or solution (the fltrate)
passes through.

Used for: e.g. removing

unreacted solid from a filter paper
solution of a salt, funnel
removing a precipitate filtrate
from a solution
Method: Crystallisation

Separates: A dissolved substance (solute) from a

solution
How it works: The solvent molecules gain enough
energy to change state from liquid to gas, and escape
making the remaining solution more concentrated.
Once the solution has become saturated, removing any
more solvent molecules causes the solute to form
crystals of the solid material. The solid crystals can be
removed from remaining solution by filtration.
Used for: Obtaining a sample of crystals of a substance
from a solution of the substance.

KEY WORDS:
solute: a solid which will dissolve in a solvent
to form a solution
solvent: a liquid in which a solute can dissolve

solution: a mixture containing one or more

solute dissolved in a solvent
Method: Simple Distillation

Separates: Liquid from a mixture of liquids, or

solvent from a solution

How it works: If a solution is heated, the solvent can

be evaporated leaving the solute in the flask. If a
mixture of liquids is slowly heated, the liquid with
the lowest boiling point can be evaporated leaving
other liquids in the flask. The evaporated vapour
travels into the condenser where it is cooled and
condenses to form the distillate which is collected

Used for: e.g. Obtaining pure water

from salt water (seawater), obtaining
pure ethanol (e.g. for a biofuel) from
a fermentation mixture
Method: Fractional Distillation

Separates: Liquids from a mixture of

several different liquids

How it works: The fractionating

column has a temperature gradient;
temperature decreases up the
column. When each liquid in the
mixture reaches its boiling point it
evaporates and by slowly increasing
the temperature each vapour can be
separated and moved into the
condenser where it cools and
condenses to be collected.

Used for: separating the different

fractions in crude oil. Note that a
similar technique but at very low
temperatures can be used to
separate the gases in air
Method: Paper Chromatography

Separates: Different dissolved components of a liquid mixture such as the colouring

additives in food, or pigments in inks.

How it works: The solubility of each additive determines how fast it will travel up the
chromatography paper when carried along by the solvent (the more soluble, the faster the
component moves), so the components end up being separated. Insoluble components
won’t move at all.
Setting up:
A baseline is drawn in pencil on the chromatography paper (not ink,
as it would separate too, interfering with the results).
A small spot of the unknown mixture is placed alongside spots of pure
substances which may be present (references).
The bottom edge of the paper is then dipped in the solvent (usually
water) and left while the solvent slowly soaks up to the top of the
paper.
The solvent level must start below the baseline so that the
substances being separated don’t dissolve off the paper into the bulk
of the solvent.
Results:
Each spot in the finished chromatogram is a different substance in the
mixture (although sometimes substances with similar solubilities
produce spots which are overlapping).
A match is found when one of the spots in the unknown sample is the
same colour and at the same height (i.e. same Rf value) as a reference
spot.
An Rf value can be calculated to help identify any spot:
Rf = distance spot moved from baseline
distance solvent moved from baseline
Practice: Interpret the results of
this chromatography
experiment.
where the solvent travelled up to

How many valid

conclusions can you
draw?

foods with pure What is the Rf value of

unknown reference mellow yellow ?
additives samples of
additives
Answers:

Conclusions:
• Yellow Brightie only contains one colouring additive, which is sunburst yellow.
• Orange Brightie contains two colouring additives. One of them is sunny yellow and one
of them is solar yellow.
• Neither of the sweets contains mellow yellow.
• There are no unidentified additives in either of the sweets.

Rf value of mellow yellow:

Distance mellow yellow spot has travelled from baseline = 68mm
Distance solvent front has travelled from baseline = 122mm
Rf = 68 ÷ 122 = 0.56
2. Atoms, Elements and
Compounds
Ato
ms are the basic building blocks of all substances. There are 92 different naturally-
Atoms
occurring types of atom. They are the smallest amount of any element we can have.
One cubic centimetre of air contains around 90 million million atoms.
Half a million (500,000) atoms lined up shoulder to shoulder could hide behind a
human hair.
If you wanted to see the atoms in a drop of water you’d have to enlarge it until it
was 24km across
If Julius Caesar’s dying breath was evenly distributed through the atmosphere, each
time you breathe in you’d take in 100 molecules of it.
- from Bill Bryson’s ‘A Short History of Nearly Everything’

Atomic Structure
The nucleus of an atom contains
protons and neutrons; the nucleus is
surrounded by orbiting electrons.
An atom is mostly empty space! If an
atom were expanded to the size of a
stadium, the nucleus would be the size
of a pea at the centre of the pitch.
Protons, neutrons and electrons are sub-atomic particles with different properties:
Sub-atomic particle Charge Mass An atom has no overall charge
Proton +1 1 because number of protons
Neutron 0 1 always = number of electrons

Electron -1 0.0005

The protons are what give an atom its identity.

A phosphorus atom is a phosphorus atom and not a sulphur atom because it
contains 15 protons, not 16.

The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (or proton number).
The protons and neutrons together are what give an atom its mass. We call the number
of protons + neutrons in the nucleus the mass number.
So we can represent any atom in the form: Given the mass number (protons +
neutrons) and atomic number (protons) it
mass number is easy to work out the number of neutrons
Symbol e.g. in an atom’s nucleus:

atomic number neutrons = mass number – atomic number

Therefore in our boron atom example, above, we can say that:

• protons = 4 (because the atomic number = 4, which identifies this as a boron atom)
• electrons = 4 (because number of electrons = number of protons in an atom)
• neutrons = 5 (because mass number = 9 and atomic number =4; so 9 – 4 = 5)

Practice applying these rules to

complete the table. Answers are
at the end of this Topic.
Isoto Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons in the
pes nucleus, but can have different numbers of neutrons.

H
1
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called
1 ISOTOPES.
hydrogen

H
They have exactly the same chemical properties, but different mass.
2
These are the three isotopes of hydrogen. The isotope hydrogen-3 (also called
1
deuterium tritium) is radioactive. The emitted electrons from the radioactive decay of
small amounts of tritium cause phosphors to glow so as to make self-powered

H
3
lighting devices called betalights, which are now used in firearm night sights,
1 watches, exit signs, map lights, key rings and a variety of other devices.
tritium
Relative
Atomic
Masses
The periodic table does not show mass numbers, but relative
atomic masses.
Definition: The relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) is the
average mass of an atom, on a scale where one atom of the
12C isotope weighs 12 exactly.
Careful – this is not the mass
It is an average value because it takes into account all the number! Chlorine atoms can’t
naturally-occurring isotopes of the element. have half a neutron. In reality
some are 35Cl and some are
37Cl. The average mass is 35.5
Calculating Relative Atomic Masses
If we know how much of each isotope there is, we can work
out the value of the Relative Atomic Mass.

e.g. 35Cl atoms have an abundance of 75% and 37Cl atoms have an abundance of 25%.

Ar = (75 x 35) + (25 x 37) Practice: Magnesium has three

100 100 isotopes. Their abundances are
24Mg 79%, 25Mg 10%, 26Mg 11%.

= 26.25 + 9.25 Calculate the relative atomic

mass of magnesium. (Answer at
= 35.5 (same as in the Periodic Table) the end of the Topic)
Electron Arrangements
There are various different ways used to illustrate where the electrons are in atoms –
which is right ?

We are going to draw the following model to help us understand atoms:

• Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in a series of shells.
• Each shell can only hold a certain fixed number of electrons.
• Each shell represents a different energy level – the lowest energy level being the
innermost shell.
• The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus, the
nearer the nucleus they are, the more strongly they are held, and the harder they are to
remove.

Filling Rules for where to put the electrons in atoms:

• Electrons go into the lowest available energy level
• The innermost shell can only hold 2 electrons
• The second shell out can hold up to 8 electrons
• The next shells can hold 8 electrons*
* under certain circumstances this can expand to 18 electrons
Electronic Structures
This is the electron arrangement for a chlorine atom:

Instead of drawing all the crosses and circles, we could write its
electronic structure as 2,8,7

Losing and gaining electrons

An atom that has lost or gained electrons is called an ion.

Because the number of electrons is now not equal to the number of protons, ions have an
overall charge.

Atoms with less than 4 electrons in the outer shell (metal atoms) can lose these electrons,
to become positively charged ions. Loss of electrons is referred to as oxidation.

Atoms with more than 4 outer shell electrons (non-metal atoms) can gain electrons,
becoming negatively charged ions. Gain of electrons is referred to as reduction.

Ions with full (or empty) outer shells are more stable than the atoms they were formed
from.
 Periodic
Table

The Periodic Table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons).
There is one element for each different atomic number. The position of any element can be
specified by it GROUP and its PERIOD, e.g. Phosphorus is Period 3 Group 5.
Periods – these are the horizontal rows in the Periodic Table (H and He are the first period)
- each row corresponds to an additional electron shell
- the number of shells = the Period number
(therefore phosphorus has 3 electron shells containing electrons)
Groups – the vertical columns in the Periodic Table
- every element in a group has the same number of electrons in their outer shell
- the number of outer shell electrons = the Group number
(therefore phosphorus has 5 outer shell electrons in the 3rd shell and the inner
shells are filled, so its electronic structure is 2,8,5)
Elements, compounds, molecules, mixtures
Element: a substance made up of only one type of atom. NOT necessarily just one
atom. While e.g. the element helium consists of individual atoms, the element oxygen
consists of pairs of oxygen atoms chemically bonded together.

Compound: a substance made up of more than one type of atom chemically bonded
together. e.g. carbon dioxide contains carbon and oxygen atoms chemically bonded
together, so carbon dioxide is a compound.

Molecule: molecules consist of atoms chemically bonded together, with each

molecule being identical, according to the molecular formula. One molecule of a
substance is the smallest amount of that substance it is possible to have. We could have
molecules of an element (oxygen molecules) or molecules of a compound (carbon
dioxide).

Mixture: a mixture contains more than one element or compound; which can be
separated by physical means. Air is a mixture containing molecules of gases such as
nitrogen and oxygen (elements) and carbon dioxide (a compound).
 Blob diagrams to show different types of substance:
Element Element
Ar O
O O
Ar O
Ar O O
Ar
Atoms of the element argon exist Oxygen atoms join in pairs.
on their own. Argon and oxygen are elements
Compound Mixture N
C N
O O O N
O C Ar
O O
C N
O O
Carbon and oxygen atoms are
joined together in carbon dioxide. Air is a mixture of elements and
compounds
Chemical formulae of elements
We use the symbol for the element, from the periodic table
A few elements consist of pairs of atoms, chemically bonded together. ONLY these
elements have a ‘2’ after the element symbol. You can remember them from:

H F Br O N I Cl E.g. Oxygen is O, and consists of pairs of atoms, so its formula is O2.

The other elements are written as single atoms, e.g. Sodium is Na, so its formula is just Na.

So in a balanced equation: 4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O

sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

Formulae of compounds
The chemical formula for a
compound tells you:
1) What atoms are in it
2)How many of each type of atom
are present, using a subscript
number following the atom symbol
3)Subscript numbers after brackets
multiply everything inside the Practice: complete the table to show numbers of
brackets by that amount. each atom present in the formula. Answers at end.
Relative Formula Mass: M r sometimes abbreviated as RFM

This is the sum of the Relative Atomic Masses of all the atoms in the substance’s
formula. e.g. The formula for water is H2O. What is its Mr ?

Add the Relative Atomic Masses of the atoms involved: O=16 H=1
therefore the relative formula mass of H2O = 1+ 1 + 16 = 18

Practice:

Work out the Relative Formula Mass of:

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Methane CH4
Carbon disulphide CS2
Copper sulphate CuSO4
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
… answers at the end
Answers Magnesium has three isotopes. Their
abundances are 24Mg 79%, 25Mg 10%,
26Mg 11%. Calculate the relative

atomic mass of magnesium:

Mr = (79 x 24) + (10 x 25) + (11 x 26)

100 100 100

= 18.96 + 2.5 + 2.86

= 24.32

Work out the Relative

Formula Mass of:

HCl 36.5
CH4 16
CS2 76
CuSO4 160
Mg(OH)2 58
Chemical Bonds
In elements and compounds, the atoms are held together by
chemical bonds.

Forming a bond makes an atom more stable, so atoms form as many

bonds are they are able to.

Bonds are made using the outer shell electrons of atoms, which are
either transferred from one atom to another, or shared between
atoms.

Valency
The number of electrons an atom
uses for bonding is called its
valency, and is related to the
number of outer shell electrons
(and the Group).
Some elements, e.g. the
transition metals can have more
than one different valency. A
number after the name shows
the valency e.g. iron(III) etc.
The type of chemical bond between two atoms depends on whether they are metal
atoms or non-metal atoms.

There are three

types of chemical
bond:
IONIC BONDING - METAL TO NON-METAL
Metal atoms give their outer-shell electrons to non-metal atoms, and each becomes an ion.
An ion is defined as an atom which has lost or gained electrons. The do this to become more
stable, usually gaining a full outer shell as a result. The number of electrons an atom gains
or loses to become an ion is shown by its valency,
An ion has a charge. The charge on an ion reflects the number of electrons it has gained or
lost (see table below). Metals form positive ions, and non-metals form negative ions.
This means that the transfer of electrons from metal to non-metal atoms results in the
formation of oppositely charged ions.
There is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely-charged ions – this is the origin
of the ionic bond which holds the ions together.

We can work out the amount of

charge an ion has from its valency, or
the group it is in. We then need to
give the sign of the charge – positive
if electrons have been lost (metals)
or negative if electrons have been
gained (non-metals).
Drawing metal ions
Start by drawing the atom with its filled
inner shells, but don’t draw the outer
shell (it is empty). Add square brackets,
and the charge on the ion (same as the
valency), and positive:
Drawing non-metal ions
Start by drawing the atom with its filled inner
shells, and its outer shell electrons (crosses). Fill
the outer shell with electrons from a metal ion
(dots) Add square brackets, and the charge on
the ion (same as the valency), and negative:

a lithium ion a fluoride ion

Note:
You can tell a
a sodium ion negative ion,
an oxide ion because the
name of the
atom has
changed to
have an ‘-ide’
ending.
a magnesium ion
a chloride ion
Some metal ions, e.g. transition metals, do not show an obvious pattern between what
group they are in and their valency/charge.
Just learn these: Silver ion Ag+ Zinc ion Zn2+

Some transition metals can form more than one different ion: a number in roman numerals
tells us the amount of positive charge (which is the same as its valency):

Copper(I) Cu+ Copper(II) Cu2+

Iron(II) Fe2+ Iron(III) Fe3+

Forming ionic compounds

When we form an ionic compound, the charges have to balance; because the same
number of electrons have to be given and received. This may mean different numbers of
ions:
one 2+ ion and two 1- ions
one 3+ ion and three 1- ions
two 3+ ions and three 2- ions
two 1+ ions and one 2- ion etc.
Working out the formula of an ionic compound: Work out formulae for:
1) Use the name to identify the ions present • aluminium fluoride,
2) Write the ions, with the correct valency underneath • magnesium chloride,
3) Swap the valencies • sodium bromide,
4) Simplify if they will both divide by same number • magnesium oxide,
• potassium oxide,
e.g. sodium sulphide zinc oxide • copper(I) oxide,
Na+ S2- Zn2+ O2- • iron(III) chloride,
1 2 2 2 simplify! • zinc sulphide,
so the formula is: Na2S ZnO not Zn2O2 ! • silver oxide

Many ionic substances contain compound ions:

These are used in the same way, with brackets if there is more
Work out formulae for:
than one of the compound ion. Learn the formulae and the
• potassium sulphate,
charges (which tell you the valencies).
• sodium phosphate,
nitrate NO3- carbonate CO32- • ammonium bromide,
Hydroxide OH- phosphate PO43- • lithium hydroxide,
sulphate SO42- ammonium NH4+ • calcium carbonate,
• magnesium nitrate
e.g. calcium hydroxide
Ca2+ OH- Formula Ca(OH)2 Answers at the end of
ammonium sulphate the topic.
NH4+ SO42- Formula (NH4)2SO4
We need to be able to write balanced chemical equations for any of the reactions we have
met at IGCSE:
You can simply learn the equations, or you can learn how to work them out. Being able to
work out the equations will help you a lot if you carry on studying Chemistry. You do need to
have learnt the word equations as a starting point.

1. Write the word equation (look for clues in the question or context)
2. Underneath each named substance, write its formula if you know it, or are given it.
3. Work out the formulae for the remaining substances, using valencies
4. When all the formulae are correct, add numbers in front to balance the equation
5. Finally add state symbols (again look for clues in the question or context)

e.g. Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Fizzing is observed, and the gas is shown to be
hydrogen when it is tested. Write the balanced chemical equation with state symbols:

Step 1: zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen

We were given three substances, and had to use our knowledge of acid reactions and making
salts to work out what the salt (zinc chloride) would be in this equation.

Step 2: Zn + HCl → zinc chloride + H2

Zinc and hydrogen are elements, and hydrogen is one of the elements which forms diatomic
molecules (HFBrONICl) so Zn and H2. HCl is an acid formula we should have learnt, but we
could work it out using valencies if we had to. (H=1 and Cl=1 so HCl)
Step 3: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
We work out the formula of zinc chloride using valencies. Zn has a valency of 2 (learn this
one) and Cl has a valency of 1 (in Group 7), hence ZnCl2.

Step 4: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Balance the equation to get the same number of each atom on each side.

Step 5: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Zinc is a metal, so we know this is a solid (s) at room temperature. We are told in the
question the acid is dilute, so it must be a solution in water. Our solubility rules tell us most
chlorides are soluble so we expect zinc chloride to be soluble and so it will dissolve in the
water present, so both the acid and the salt are (aq). We know that hydrogen is a gas, and
we are told that fizzing takes place so (g) for the hydrogen.

Practice with these example reactions. You’ll need to check the word equations as not
all the products have been given. Answers at the end of the topic
1. Making copper nitrate by reacting copper(II) oxide with dilute nitric acid
2. Testing for sulphate ions in sodium sulphate solution using barium chloride solution
3. Testing for iron(III) ions in iron(III) chloride solution
4. Making lead(II) sulphate by precipitation from suitable aqueous solutions
5. Displacing iodine from potassium iodide solution by reacting it with chlorine water
Dot and cross diagrams (ionic bonding)
Having learnt to draw individual ions and how to work out how many of each ion is in an
ionic compound, we can combine these skills to draw a dot-and-cross diagram to show its
ionic bonding.
We usually show only the outer shell electrons, because only these are involved in
bonding. We can ignore the filled inner shells.

We use dots and crosses so we can see which atom the electrons came from, and which
they were transferred to.
How to draw ionic dot and cross diagrams
The simplest example would
1. Work out the formula of the compound (see earlier)
be a compound with a 1+ and
a 1- ion in it, e.g. sodium
2. Draw the outline of the dot-cross diagram
chloride:
- correct number of ions, from formula
- correct charges on ions

3. Put in the outer shell electrons for negative ions

- add the electrons transferred from the
positive
ion to get full outer shells

4. Give the positive ion a full outer shell (an empty

outer shell is also allowed).
Practice:
Using the example for magnesium chloride, draw dot
and cross diagrams to show the ionic bonding in:
sodium oxide

magnesium oxide

calcium chloride

… answers at the end of the topic.

Covalent bonding - non-metal to non-metal
Many of the substances which make up our natural world are made only from non-metal
atoms. e.g. H2O CH4 O2 CO2 C6H12O6

Non-metal atoms form bonds with other non-metal

atoms by sharing pairs of electrons – this is called
covalent bonding.
Each non-metal atom forms as many bonds as it can (to
become more stable) until the outer shell is full.

Dot and cross diagrams (covalent bonds)

Hydrogen atoms have a valency of 1, so each can share one electron to form one bond.

a hydrogen molecule

two hydrogen atoms

The shared pair of electrons, one from each atom, is a covalent bond. We draw the
shared pair as one dot and one cross in the overlap between the two outer shells.
The negatively-charged electrons of the shared pair attract the positively-charged nuclei
of the two atoms, holding them together strongly by electrostatic attraction.
An oxygen atom has a valency of 2, so it shares two of its electrons to form two covalent
bonds.
Hydrogen atoms have a valency of 1, so they can only share one electron and form one
bond.
This is why we have two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom in a water molecule, which
we show by overlapping each of the hydrogen atoms’ outer shells with the oxygen atom,
and drawing a shared pair of electrons in each overlap. This leaves four unshared
electrons in the outer shell of the oxygen atom.

a water molecule

hydrogen and oxygen atoms

Practice:
Draw dot and cross diagrams for these molecules: (answers at the end of the topic)
Hydrogen chloride HCl
Chlorine Cl2
Methane CH4
Ammonia NH3
Ethane C2H6
An oxygen atom can share two electrons with another oxygen atom, however, making two
covalent bonds between the SAME two atoms – a double bond.

This is why the formula for oxygen

molecules is O2

two oxygen atoms

an oxygen molecule

Practice:
Draw dot and cross diagrams for these molecules:
Carbon dioxide CO2
Ethene C2H4
It is also possible to have a triple bond, with three shared pairs of electrons. See if you
can draw a dot-and-cross diagram for:
Nitrogen N2
Working out the formula of covalent compounds:
1) Use the name to identify the atoms present
2) Write the valency for each
3) Swap the valencies
4) Simplify if they will both divide by same number

e.g. Carbon dioxide

C O
4 2 (swap to give C2O4 and simplify because both will divide by 2)
so the formula is: CO2

Work out the formula for a molecule made from each of the following pairs of atoms:
i) carbon and chlorine
ii) phosphorus and hydrogen
iii) sulphur and oxygen
iv) sulphur and hydrogen

… answers at the end of the topic

Metallic bonding - metal to metal
Atomic-resolution microscope images show us that
metal atoms are arranged in regular layers.

A metal consists of layers of positively charged metal

ions, which have given up their outer shell electrons to
form a ‘sea’ of free, delocalised electrons (which have a
negative charge).
Image of gold atoms
Strong electrostatic attractions hold the electrons and
Scale: atoms are about a
the metal ions together in a metallic bond.
millionth of a millimetre apart
Answers Work out formula for: Work out formula for:
• aluminium fluoride, AlF3 • potassium sulphate, K2SO4
• magnesium chloride, MgCl2 • sodium phosphate, Na3PO4
• sodium bromide, NaBr • ammonium bromide, NH4Br
• magnesium oxide, MgO • lithium hydroxide, Li(OH)2
• potassium oxide, K2O • calcium carbonate, CaCO3
• copper(I) oxide, Cu2O • magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2
• iron(III) chloride, FeCl3
• zinc sulphide, ZnS
• silver oxide Ag2O

Practice with these example reactions. You’ll need to check the word equations as not
all the products have been given.
Making copper nitrate by reacting copper(II) oxide with dilute nitric acid
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Testing for sulphate ions in sodium sulphate solution using barium chloride solution
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Testing for iron(III) ions in iron(III) chloride solution
FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Making lead(II) sulphate by precipitation from suitable aqueous solutions
e.g. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Displacing iodine from potassium iodide solution by reacting it with chlorine water
2KI(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Using the example for magnesium chloride, draw dot
and cross diagrams to show the ionic bonding in:
sodium oxide
magnesium oxide
calcium chloride
Draw dot and cross diagrams for these molecules:
Hydrogen chloride HCl

Chlorine Cl2

Methane CH4

Ammonia NH3

Ethane C2H6

Draw dot and cross diagrams for these molecules:

Carbon dioxide CO2

Ethene C2H4

Nitrogen N2
Work out the formula for a molecule made from each of the following pairs of atoms:
i) carbon and chlorine CCl4
ii) phosphorus and hydrogen PH3
iii) sulphur and oxygen SO2
iv) hydrogen and sulphur H2S
3. Stoichiometery
Quantitative Chemistry
When we do experiments to measure something in Chemistry, we:
• Repeat experiments (usually 3 times) to improve the reliability of the results, by
calculating an average of our results.
• Repeats also allow us to spot an anomaly: a result that does not fit the pattern of the
others.

• If we find an anomaly, we may repeat the experiment. We usually draw a circle around
the anomalous result to remind us that it should not be included in the average.

• We can also see anomalies on graphs. These

should also be ringed and then excluded from
any line of best fit.

• When we look at the values from the repeats,

the closer they are together, the more reliable
the results are.
Relative Atomic Masses

The periodic table does not show mass numbers, but relative
atomic masses.

The relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) is the average mass Chlorine atoms can’t have
of an atom, on a scale where one atom of the 12C isotope half a neutron. In reality
weighs 12 exactly. some isotopes are 35Cl
and some are 37Cl. The
It is an average value, taking into account all the isotopes of the average mass is 35.5
element.

Relative Formula Mass

The relative formula mass (Mr), sometimes written RFM, is the sum of the Relative Atomic
Masses of all the atoms in the substance’s formula.

The units of relative formula mass are g/mol. (We’ll see why later)

e.g. The formula for water is H2O. What is its Mr ?

Add the Relative Atomic Masses of the atoms involved:
O=16 H=1 so we have 2 x H and 1 x 0 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16)
therefore the relative formula mass of H2O = 18 g/mol
Practice:
Work out the Relative Formula Mass, Mr, of:
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Methane CH4
Carbon disulphide CS2
Copper sulphate CuSO4
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

In equations, we often need to use a number in front of a formula to tell us how many
molecules are reacting e.g. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
These numbers in front are NOT part of the Mr. The Mr of water is 18 g/mol, not 36 !

Practice:
Write down the Mr (or Ar) of the substances underneath the formulae in the following
equations:

3H2 + N2 → 2NH3

4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

Percentage composition (% by mass)
A water molecule contains 1 oxygen atom and 2 hydrogen atoms.

H H 1 1

O Ar 16

16g of every 18g of water is the oxygen atoms, 2g of every 18g of water is hydrogen atoms.

We can therefore say that water contains (16 ÷ 18) x 100 = 89% oxygen
water contains (2 ÷ 18) x 100 = 11% hydrogen

In general, the % of X in a substance is:

% of X = number of X atoms x Ar of X x 100

Mr of substance

e.g. % of H in CH4 % of H = 4 x 1 x 100 = 25%

16
What percentage (by mass) of sodium oxide (Na2O) is sodium?
Step 1 – get the Relative Atomic Masses Na = 23 O = 16
Step 2 – work out Relative Formula Mass of Na2O Mr = 23 + 23 + 16 = 62 g/mol
Step 3 – use the equation for % composition % Na = 2 x 23 x 100 = 74% Na
62
Using percentages by mass
e.g. What mass of sodium is there in a 20g chunk of sodium oxide? (Answer to 1 d.p.)
(you previously worked out that the % of Na in Na2O is 74%)

Mass of sodium = 74% of 20g = 74 x 20g = 14.8g to 1 d.p.

100

Practice: Work out the % by mass of oxygen in:

What is the mass of oxygen in
MgO
5.5g of magnesium oxide (MgO) ?
CO2

Na2CO3 (answers at the end of the topic)

Water of crystallisation
Crystals of ionic substances can contain fixed numbers of water molecules
as part of the giant ionic lattice. e.g. the formula of copper(II) sulphate
crystals shown here is CuSO4∙5H2O

This means there are 5 water

molecules in the lattice for every one
Cu2+ and SO42- ion.
The mass of these water molecules must be included
in Mr: CuSO4.5H2O = 63.5 + 32 + (4x16) + 5x(1+1+16)
= 249.5 g/mol

Without the water of crystallisation,

the substance is said to be
anhydrous:

Practice: Work out the Relative Formula Mass of:

alabaster CaSO4.2H2O
iron(II) sulphate FeSO4.7H2O
cobalt(II) chloride CoCl2.6H2O
alum KAl(SO4)2.12H2O
We can also get asked for the % by mass of water in crystals having water of crystallisation:
What is the % by mass of water in CuSO4.5H2O ?
In this case:
% of water = number of H2O x Mr of H2O x 100 Mr of CuSO4.5H2O
Mr of hydrated substance = 63.5 + 32 + (4x16) + (5x18)
= 249.5 g/mol
so % H2O = 5 x 18 x 100 = 36%
249.5

Experiment to calculate number of waters of crystallisation

The change in mass of crystals when they are heated to drive off the water of crystallisation
is used to work out how many waters of crystallisation the crystals contain.
e.g. hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals have the formula:
CuSO4.nH20 where n = integer
To find ‘n’:
• Weigh the hydrated crystals.
• Heat until all the water has been given off (the crystals turn white)
• Allow to cool and weigh the anhydrous crystals.
Example:

Results
Mass of hydrated crystals (before heating): 4.99g
Mass of anhydrous crystals (after heating): 3.19g
Mass of water given off = 4.99 – 3.19 = 1.80g

Calculation
Mr of CuSO4 = 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) = 159.5 g/mol
Mr of water = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18 g/mol

Use a table format like this to lay out your working:

CuSO4 H2O
mass (g) 3.19 1.80
÷
Mr (g/mol) 159.5 18
=
Ratio 0.02 : 1.00 (divide all by smallest)
1 : 5

So the formula is CuSO4 ∙ 5H20

Molecular formula
- tells you how many of each type of atom in a molecule
e.g. NH3 has one N and three H atoms

Empirical formula
– the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms present
The empirical formula can be the same as the molecular formula, but often is different.
e.g. Name Molecular formula Empirical formula
water H2O H 2O
ethane C2H6 CH3
glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
benzene C6H6 CH
hydrazine N2H4 NH2

Empirical formula calculations

e.g. A substance contains 4.0g calcium, 1.2g carbon and 4.8g oxygen. What is its
empirical formula? Use a table like this to lay out your working:
Ca C O
mass 4.0 1.2 4.8
÷ Ar 40 12 16
= ratio 0.1 0.1 0.3 divide all by smallest to get whole numbers
1 : 1 : 3 Formula is CaCO3
We also get questions where we are given percentage of each element (or of all but one
element – remember the percentages must add up to 100%), rather than mass. The
method is the same:
e.g. A hydrocarbon contains 25% of hydrogen and 75% of carbon. What is its empirical
formula?
H C
mass 25% 75%
Ar 1 12
Ratio 25 6.25  all by smallest to get whole numbers
4 1 Formula is CH4
Practice:
A compound of phosphorus and fluorine only, contains 24.6% phosphorus. What is its
empirical formula?

Sometimes the ‘whole numbers’ don’t come out as perfect integers – usually because of
rounding errors e.g. in the masses used. If your answer is NEARLY a whole number
e.g. 2.997 or 3.0017 … then you should round it to a whole number.

If your answer is in-between whole numbers, it may be a fraction (e.g. ½):

Al O
Ratio 1 : 1.5 … deal with this by multiplying everything up x 2
2 : 3 Formula is Al2O3
Experiment to determine empirical formula of a substance
The mass change when an element combines with oxygen can be
used to work out the empirical formula of the oxide. e.g.
Magnesium ribbon burns in air to form white magnesium oxide.
Method:
• weigh a crucible and lid.
• place magnesium ribbon in crucible with lid, and reweigh.
• heat crucible until magnesium burns.
• lift the lid occasionally until there is no further reaction.
• allow the crucible and lid to cool, and reweigh.
• repeat the heating, cooling and reweighing until two consecutive masses are the same, to
make sure that all of the magnesium has reacted
• calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed.
e.g. Results
Mass of magnesium before burning: = 1.20g
Mass of magnesium oxide after burning: = 2.00g
Mass of oxygen that reacted = 2.00 – 1.20 = 0.80g
Calculation Mg O
mass (g) 1.20 0.80
÷ Ar (g/mol) 24 16
= Ratio 0.05 : 0.05
1 : 1 The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO
From empirical to molecular formula

If you have worked out the empirical formula for a substance and you know the relative
formula mass, Mr, of the substance, then you can work out the molecular formula.

1. Add up the masses of the atoms in the empirical formula

2. Divide by the relative formula mass
3. Multiply all the numbers in the empirical formula by this amount

e.g. The empirical formula of a substance is found to be NO2. The relative formula mass is
found by mass spectrometry experiments, and found to be 92. What is the molecular
formula of this substance?
Empirical formula = NO2 Mr = 92
Step 1: NO2 = 14 + 16 + 16 = 46
Step 2: 92/46 = 2
Step 3: NO2 x 2 so molecular formula is N2O4

Practice:
Determine the molecular formula of these substances:
empirical formula HO Mr = 34
empirical formula CH2 Mr = 56
empirical formula CH Mr = 78
The Mole
The relative formula mass of a substance, weighed out in grams, is
known as one mole of that substance.
This means that the units of relative atomic mass, and relative formula mass,
are grams per mole: g/mol.
One mole of any substance contains exactly the same AMOUNT of that substance as one
mole of any OTHER substance. e.g. 18g of water (H2O) contains exactly the same number
of molecules as 2g of hydrogen (H2) or 32g of oxygen (O2).

Converting between mass and moles:

mass (g) = moles of substance x relative formula mass
moles = mass of substance (g)
relative formula mass
One mole of different elements
Practice: What is the mass of:
How many moles are there in: 0.1 moles of copper oxide (CuO)
4g of hydrogen (H2) 2 moles of water
36g of carbon atoms (C) 10 moles of ammonia (NH3)
160g of ozone (O3) 0.2 moles of ethane (C2H6)
Calculating Reacting Quantities
Using the chemical equation for a reaction we can use moles to work out what mass of
product we might make, or what mass of reactants we need.
e.g. “42g of nitrogen (N2) are reacted with hydrogen (H2) to form ammonia (NH3) according
to the equation N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3. What mass of ammonia will be made?”
Step 1 – What can I work out moles of? (which substance do I know formula and mass for?)
Moles of N2 = mass of N2 ÷ Mr Mr of N2 = 14 + 14 = 28 g/mol
Moles of N2 = 42 ÷ 28 = 1.5
Step 2 – use the equation to get mole ratios N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
Ratio : 1 : 3 : 2
Moles: 1.5 : 4.5 : 3.0
Write in the number of moles you calculated in step 1, then use the ratios to work out the
moles of the other substances in the equation.
Step 3 – work out the mass you were asked for in the question
Mass of NH3 = moles of NH3 x Mr Mr of NH3 = 14 + (3 x 1) = 17 g/mol
The mass of ammonia = 3.0 x 17 = 51g
% Yield
Reactions often do not go all the way to completion, or we don’t manage to recover all the
product made.
- product left behind in the apparatus
- difficulty separating product from reaction mixture
Our calculations assumed all our reactants would end up as products. The amount of
product we actually obtain is called the yield.
Percentage yield ( % yield) = amount actually made x 100
maximum amount possible
The maximum amount possible is calculated, assuming all the reactants react completely.
The amount you actually make is measured.

Example: Carbon burns in oxygen to make carbon dioxide, but other combustion products
can also be produced. 12g of carbon was burnt, and produced 33g of CO2. What was the
percentage yield of carbon dioxide? C + O2  CO2
Step 1: Work out the maximum amount of CO2 which can be made. (using moles)
12g carbon = 1 mole (moles = mass/Mr = 12/12)
mole ratio: 1 mole C makes one mole of CO2
mass CO2 = moles x Mr of CO2 = 1 x 44 = 44 g
Step 2: Work out % yield using actual mass and maximum mass
% yield = actual amount (33g) x 100 = 75%
maximum amount (44g)
Using Avogadro’s number 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms
Avogadro’s number is used to convert between moles of a substance and the actual number
of particles (atoms, molecules, ions etc.)
Symbol: NA Value: 6.0 x 1023
“number of…” = “moles of…” x NA

e.g. How many molecules are there in 90g of water?

Step 1: convert mass of water to moles of water
moles of H2O = mass of H20 ÷ Mr of H2O = 90/18 = 5.0 moles
Step 2: multiply moles by NA to get number of particles (molecules in this case)
molecules = moles x NA = 5.0 x 6.0x1023 = 3.0 x 1024 molecules

e.g. A buckyball contains 60 carbon atoms. What does it weigh ?

Step 1: use NA to work out how many moles of C60 one molecule represents
moles of C60 = molecules of C60 ÷ NA = 1 ÷ 6.0x1023 = 1.67 x10-24 moles

Step 2: convert moles to mass Mr of C60 = 60 x 12 = 720 g/mol

Mass of buckyball = moles of C60 x Mr of C60 = 1.67 x 10-24 x 720 = 1.2 x 10-21 g
Moles of gases
It is not always convenient to work with masses of a gas. We usually measure
volumes instead.
1 mole of any gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3 at room temperature and
pressure. This is called the molar volume. N.B. 1 dm3 = 1000cm3

number of moles = volume of gas (dm3)

molar volume

volume (dm3) = number of moles x molar volume

Practice converting volume to moles:

How many moles of gas in: What volume would be occupied by:
i) 6.0 dm3 of CO2 i) 0.5 moles of CH4
ii) 2.4 dm3 of NH3 ii) 2.0 moles of H2
iii) 240cm3 of O2 iii) 0.0125 moles of N2

We can come across volumes of gas within reacting quantity (mole) calculations:
More practice: “What volume of gas would be collected if 10g of calcium carbonate was
heated until it thermally decomposed: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) ”
Hint: calculate moles of CaCO3 decomposing, then use the 1:1:1 mole ratio in the equation
to work out moles of CO2 produced, then convert moles of CO2 to volume of CO2.
Moles in solution
Concentrated: a concentrated acid (or alkali) has a
large number of acid molecules per
cm3 of aqueous solution.
Dilute: a dilute acid (or alkali) has a small number of
acid molecules per cm3 of aqueous solution.

The units of concentration are mol/dm3 Note: 1dm3 = 1000cm3 and 1 dm3 = 1 litre
A solution with a concentration of 1 mol/dm3 has one mole of the solute dissolved in 1 dm3
of the solution.
A solution of 0.1 mol/dm3 is only a tenth of the concentration, i.e. it is ten times more
dilute.
concentration (mol /dm3) = moles
volume (in dm3)

e.g. 7.3g of HCl are dissolved in 0.1 dm3 (100cm3) of water. What is the concentration of the
HCl solution?
Mr of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
moles of HCl = mass of HCl / Mr of HCl = 7.3  36.5 = 0.2 moles
concentration = moles of HCl  volume of solution in dm3 = 0.2  0.1 = 2 mol/dm3
We can also work out how many moles are in a solution if we know its concentration and its
volume: 3 3
moles = concentration (in mol/dm ) x volume (in dm )

e.g. How many moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) would I need to dissolve to make up
500cm3 of solution with 0.1 mol/dm3 concentration ? Remember 1000cm3 = 1dm3

Step 1: Work out how many moles of NaOH would be needed (and convert volume to dm3)
moles of NaOH = concentration x volume in dm3 = 0.1 x 0.5 = 0.05 mol

Step 2: Work out the mass of sodium hydroxide needed for this number of moles
Mr of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
mass of NaOH = moles of NaOH x Mr of NaOH = 0.05 x 40 = 2.0g

Practice:
How many moles of sodium chloride would I need in order to make 250cm3 of solution
with concentration 2 mol/dm3 ?

What would the mass of the sodium chloride be ?

If I only had 5.85 g of sodium chloride, what concentration solution would I get if I
dissolved it to make 100cm3 of solution ?
(answers for all questions at the end of the topic)
Titration
Titration is a technique used to measure how much of
an acid is needed to exactly neutralise an alkali.

If we know the concentration of either the acid or the

alkali, we can use titration to find the concentration of
the other.

How to do a titration:
A volume of alkali is measured into the flask, using a
pipette. (more accurate than a measuring cylinder)
A few drops of indicator are mixed with the alkali.
The level of the acid in the burette is noted; burettes
are read to the nearest 0.05cm3 (half a division)
Acid is added dropwise until the indicator just changes
colour. This is called the endpoint.
The acid level is noted again, and the volume of acid
that has been added (the titre) is worked out.
Repeat titrations are done until you get two consistent
titres (within 0.2cm3 of each other), which are then
averaged.
Finding the concentration of an acid:
e.g. “A conical flask contained 25.0cm3 of NaOH solution and its concentration was 0.10
mol/dm3. When titrated, the indicator changed colour after 16.50cm3 of HCl of unknown
concentration had been added. Work out the concentration of the acid.”
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

Step 1: Work out the number of moles of alkali (NaOH) in the flask
moles of NaOH = concentration of NaOH x volume of NaOH in dm3
= 0.10 x 0.025 dm3 (25cm3 = 0.025dm3)
= 0.0025 moles of NaOH
Step 2: Use the mole ratio from a balanced equation
Knowing the moles of alkali, you can work out how many moles of acid must have been
added to exactly neutralise the alkali, using the mole ratio from the equation:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
1 : 1 : 1 : 1
0.0025 : 0.0025 Therefore 0.0025 moles of acid was added
Step 3: Calculate concentration of the acid
Use the volume of acid and the moles of acid to work out the concentration of the acid:
concentration of HCl = moles of HCl  volume of HCl (in dm3)
= 0.0025  0.0165 dm3 (16.50 cm3 = 0.0165dm3)
= 0.15 mol/dm3
Finding the concentration of an alkali:
e.g. A conical flask contained 25.0cm3 of NaOH solution and its concentration was unknown.
The indicator changed colour after 10.00cm3 of H2SO4 of 0.10 mol/dm3 concentration had
been added. Work out the concentration of the alkali.

THE STEPS ARE ESSENTIALLY THE SAME:

1) Show that the moles of acid used (conc x vol) = 0.001 mol
2) Use the mole ratio to show that moles of alkali used = 0.002 mol
3) convert moles of alkali to concentration of alkali (mol/vol) = 0.08 mol/dm3

A table format can be used to lay out the calculation:

Calculated values in purple, given values in black.

Equation 2NaOH + H2SO4 → NaCl + H2O

Concentration (mol/dm3) 0.08 0.10
Volume (dm3) 0.025 0.010 N.B 10cm3 = 0.010dm3
Moles 0.002 0.001 25cm3 = 0.025dm3
Ratio 2 : 1
The concentration of the alkali was 0.08 mol/dm3
Answers:

Work out the Relative Formula Mass, Mr, of:

Hydrochloric acid HCl 36.5 g/mol
Methane CH4 16 g/mol
Carbon disulphide CS2 76 g/mol
Copper sulphate CuSO4 160 g/mol
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 58 g/mol
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 132 g/mol

Write down the Mr (or Ar) of the substances underneath the formulae in the following
equations:

3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

2 28 17 27 32 102
Work out the % by mass of oxygen in:

MgO = 1 x 16 x 100/(24+16) = 40%

CO2 = 2 x 16 x 100/(12+16+16) = 73%

Na2CO3 = 3 x 16 x 100/106 = 45%

What is the mass of oxygen in 5.5g of magnesium oxide (MgO) ?

% O in MgO = 40% (see above)
40% of 5.5g = 5.5 x 40 = 2.2g
100

Work out the Relative Formula Mass of:

alabaster CaSO4.2H2O 172 g/mol

iron(II) sulphate FeSO4.7H2O 278 g/mol

cobalt(II) chloride CoCl2.6H2O 238 g/mol

alum KAl(SO4)2.12H2O 474 g/mol

A compound of phosphorus and fluorine only, contains 24.6% phosphorus. What is its
empirical formula?
P F
mass 24.6 (100 – 24.6) = 75.4
Ar 31 19
ratio 0.793548… 3.96842…
1 5 Formula is PF5

Determine the molecular formula of these substances:

empirical formula HO Mr = 34 H2O2
empirical formula CH2 Mr = 56 C4H8
empirical formula CH Mr = 78 C6H6

How many moles are there in:

4g of hydrogen (H2) 2
36g of carbon atoms (C) 3
160g of ozone (O3) 3.33..

What is the mass of:

0.1 moles of copper oxide (CuO) 8g
2 moles of water 36g
10 moles of ammonia (NH3) 170g
0.2 moles of ethane (C2H6) 6g
Practice converting volume to moles:
How many moles of gas in:
i) 6.0 dm3 of CO2 0.25 mol
ii) 2.4 dm3 of NH3 0.1 mol
iii) 240cm3 of O2 0.01 mol
What volume would be occupied by:
i) 0.5 moles of CH4 12 dm3
ii) 2.0 moles of H2 48 dm3
iii) 0.0125 moles of N2 300 cm3

What volume of gas would be collected if 10g of calcium carbonate was heated until it
thermally decomposed CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 100

Moles of CaCO3 = mass ÷ Mr = 10/100 = 0.1 moles
Mole ratio is 1:1 so 0.1 moles of CaCO3 produces 0.1 moles of CO2
Volume of CO2 (dm3) = moles x molar volume = 0.1 x 24 = 2.4 dm3
How many moles of sodium chloride would I need in order to make 250cm3 of solution
with concentration 2 mol/dm3 ?
250cm3 = 0.25 dm3
Moles pf NaCl = conc x vol (dm3) = 2.0 x 0.25 = 0.5 moles

What would the mass of the sodium chloride be ?

Mr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
Mass of NaCl = moles x Mr = 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25g

If I only had 5.85 g of sodium chloride, what concentration solution would I get if I
dissolved it to make 100cm3 of solution ?
100cm3 = 0.1dm3
Moles of NaCl = mass of NaCl / Mr = 5.85 / 58.5 = 0.1 moles
Concentration = moles / volume (dm3) = 0.1 / 0.1 = 1.0 mol/dm3
4. Electrochemistry
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is using an electric current to break up an ionic compound to form elements.
Covalent compounds can’t be split up by electrolysis.
Terms used in electrolysis:
Electrolyte - the compound which is being broken down. Must contain ions, and the ions
must be free to move (i.e. the substance must be a liquid/solution. Test: the solution or
molten substance will conduct electricity if it is an electrolyte.
Anode – the positive electrode, to which negative ions, referred to as anions will be
attracted.
Cathode – the negative electrode, to which positive ions, known as cations will be attracted

Electrodes are normally made

out of inert (unreactive)
materials.

Graphite and platinum are

common electrode materials.
During electrolysis, the positive ions travel to the negative electrode. Here they receive
electrons which turns them from positive ions back into atoms. The negative ions travel to
the positive electrode. Here they give up electrons to become atoms.

Because both reduction and oxidation take place at the same time, electrolysis is a REDOX
reaction.

Oxidation Is Loss of electrons

Reduction Is Gain
Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
e.g. molten copper(II) chloride, CuCl2
1) What ions are present ?
Cu2+ and Cl- ions
2) At the cathode:
• This negatively charged electrode attracts the Cu2+ ions
• The cathode gives 2 electrons to each Cu2+ ion
• The Cu2+ ions become Cu atoms and are deposited on the
cathode
Cu2+(l) + 2e- → Cu(s)
a half-equation
3) At the anode:
• This positively charged electrode attracts the Cl- ions
• The anode takes 1 electron from each Cl- ion
• The Cl- ions become Cl atoms, which bond in pairs as Cl2
• Bubbles of chlorine gas appear at the anode the other half-equation

2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

4) Overall:

copper chloride → copper + chlorine

CuCl2(l) → Cu(s) + Cl2(g)
Practice: (answers at the end of the topic)
What would the products be when aluminium chloride (which contains Al3+ and Cl- ions) is
melted and electrolysed ? Write half equations to show what goes on at each electrode.

Explain the following observations: When lead(II) bromide is heated until it melts and an
electric current passed through, a silvery coloured liquid is found under the negative
electrode (cathode) and a brown gas appears at the positive electrode (anode). Use half
equations to support your answer.

Electrolysis of solutions of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds will often dissolve in water, so the ions are free to move around in the
solution.
Water also contains ions - both H+ and OH-, as well as molecules of H2O. These ions are
also attracted to the electrodes.
e.g. When we make a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl), we get:
• Na+ ions and Cl- ions in the solution (from the NaCl)
• H+ and OH- ions in the solution (from the water)
The Na+ and H+ cations are both attracted to the cathode
The Cl- and OH- anions are both attracted to the anode
What happens at the electrodes during electrolysis of a solution:

At the cathode
There is competition between the two positively charged ions.
RULE:
The ion of the more reactive element stays in the solution.
The ion of the less reactive element is given electrons and
reduced to atoms of that element.
e.g.
• In a sodium chloride solution, Na is more reactive than H.
• The Na+ cations stay in the solution
• The H+ cations each gain an electron to become H atoms
• The H atoms bond in pairs to form molecules of H2(g) 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
At the anode
In dilute solutions, oxygen is formed from the hydroxide ions. In more concentrated
solutions of halides, the halogen can be produced in preference to oxygen:
RULE:
If Cl-, Br- or I- anions are present in sufficient concentration, they give up an electron and
become Cl2, Br2 or I2. e.g. 2 Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e-
Otherwise, the OH- anions from water give up an electron, and oxygen gas is formed at the
anode: 4 OH-(aq) – 4e- → O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
Example: What would be seen during electrolysis of a copper(II) sulphate solution, CuSO4(aq)?

OH- and SO42- anions attracted H+ and Cu2+ cations attracted

SO42- remains in solution, Cu deposited and H+ stays in

O2 given off solution

4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l)+ O2(g) + 4e- Cu2+(aq) + 2e-→ Cu(s)

copper sulphate solution (electrolyte)

Example: What would be seen during electrolysis of a concentrated lithium chloride LiCl(aq)
solution?

Cl- and OH- anions attracted Li+ and H+ cations attracted

OH- remains in solution, Cl2 Li+ remains in solution, H2 given

given off off

2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g)+2e- 2H+(aq)+ 2e-→ H2(g)

lithium chloride solution (electrolyte)

Example: What would be produced during electrolysis of a sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) solution?

OH- and SO42- H+ cations (from acid and

anions attracted water) attracted

SO42- remains in solution, H2 given off

O2 given off
2H+(aq)+ 2e-→ H2(g)
4OH-(aq)→ 2H2O(l)+ O2(g) + 4e-
sulphuric acid solution (electrolyte)
Practice: What would you observe during electrolysis of (i) silver nitrate solution; (ii)
magnesium iodide solution? Give relevant half equations. (answers at end of topic)
In this reaction, water is being split up into hydrogen and
oxygen.
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

We would observe that twice the volume of hydrogen is

collected compared to oxygen. This proves that the chemical
formula for water is H2O.

Similar experiments can be used to determine the formula of

other simple compounds that split up into gaseous elements
during electrolysis.
Moles of electrons One Faraday is the amount of electricity that corresponds to one
mole of electrons flowing around an electrical circuit (such as an
electrolysis cell)

In electrolysis we use half-equations to show what happens at each electrode. For example
in electrolysis of brine:
ANODE: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
“Two moles of chloride ions are oxidised to form one mole of chlorine molecules, and two
Faradays of electrons flows from the anode around the circuit to the power supply”
CATHODE: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
“Two Faradays of electrons flows into the cathode from the power supply, allowing two
moles of hydrogen ions to be reduced to form one mole of hydrogen molecules”
Calculations involving Faradays
e.g. 0.5 Faradays of electrons flow into the cathode during electrolysis of a copper sulphate
solution. What mass of copper could be deposited on the cathode?
At the cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Ratio 1 : 2 : 1
Moles of electrons = 0.5 (1 Faraday = 1 mole of electrons)
Mole ratio = 2 : 1 electrons : Cu
So moles of Cu = 0.25
Mass of Cu = moles of Cu x Ar of Cu = 0.25 x 64 = 16g
Case Study – Electrolysis of Brine
Brine is a concentrated solution of sodium chloride in water, so it contains Na+, Cl-, H+
and OH- ions.
At the cathode: H+ is reduced to hydrogen gas 2H+ + 2e- → H2
At the anode: Cl- is oxidised to chlorine gas 2Cl- - 2e- → Cl2
Overall: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
The Na+ and OH- ions stay in the solution, so the brine solution gradually turns into a
sodium hydroxide solution. All three products are very important in industry.

Uses of products from electrolysis of brine

CHLORINE is used:
• for making bleach and hydrochloric acid Environmental:
• for sterilising (killing bacteria) in drinking water Lots of electrical energy is
• for killing micro-organisms in swimming pool water needed to do electrolysis.
HYDROGEN is used: This has to be produced by
• in the Haber process for making ammonia burning fossil fuels, so CO2
• for hydrogenation of vegetable oils to make spreads etc. is released into the
• as a fuel environment (global
warming) and finite
SODIUM HYDROXIDE is used: reserves of crude oil are
• in soap and paper manufacturing used up.
• for making bleach
Electrolysis of brine is carried out in a diaphragm cell (or sometimes in a membrane cell).

The diaphragm cell is designed so that all the products are kept separate:
If chlorine mixes with hydrogen, it produces a mixture which will explode violently on
exposure to sunlight or heat, so the hydrogen and chlorine gases need to be kept apart.
Chlorine also reacts with sodium hydroxide solution. Therefore, if we are trying to
manufacture chlorine and sodium hydroxide these must be kept apart as well.
Answers
1) What would the products be when aluminium chloride (which contains Al3+ and Cl-
ions) is melted and electrolysed ? Write half equations to show what goes on at each
electrode.
Aluminium would be produced at the cathode: Al3+ + 3e- → Al
Chlorine would be produced at the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

2) Explain the following observations: When lead(II) bromide is heated until it melts and
an electric current passed through, a silvery coloured liquid is found under the
negative electrode (cathode) and a brown gas appears at the positive electrode
(anode). Use half equations to support your answer.
Molten lead forms under the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb
Bromine is given off at the anode: 2Br- → Br2 + 2e-

3) What would you observe during electrolysis of (i) silver nitrate solution; (ii)
magnesium iodide solution? Give relevant half equations.
Silver would be deposited on the cathode: Ag+ + e- → Ag
Oxygen would be given off at the anode: 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 2e-
Hydrogen would be produced at the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
Iodine would be formed at the anode: 2I- → I2 + 2e-
5. Chemical Energetics
Enthalpy Changes
All substances contain chemical energy, called
enthalpy. Like any kind of energy it is measured
in Joules (previously energy was measured in
Calories). When reactions happen, energy is
given out or taken in – these are enthalpy
changes.

Note: 1 calorie = 4.2 Joules

In an EXOTHERMIC reaction:
Chemical energy (enthalpy) is being turned into heat energy
which is transferred to the surroundings, so the temperature
we measure increases.
• combustion of fuels (including respiration)
• many oxidation reactions
• neutralisations
In an ENDOTHERMIC reaction:
Heat energy is taken from the surroundings and converted into
chemical energy (enthalpy), so the temperature decreases, or
we have to heat the reaction constantly to make it work.
• thermal decompositions
• photosynthesis (light energy in !)
Temperature change during an exothermic reaction
Uses of exothermic reactions: Self-heating cans
When the seal is broken, an exothermic
REUSABLE reaction is used to heat the contents of the
can, ready for eating/drinking.

DISPOSABLE
Hand Warmers
Hand warmers work by exothermic
reaction; the reusable one is ‘recharged’
using the reverse endothermic reaction.

Uses of endothermic reactions:

Cold packs
Non-refrigerated sports injury cold
packs use an endothermic reaction
to cool the pack down quickly ready
to be used on the injury to reduce
swelling.
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the technique of measuring how much energy a food or fuel releases when it
burns. Foods also release energy when they are used for respiration - this is also an
exothermic reaction, exactly the same as burning, but taking place inside the body.
We calculate the heat energy released during a reaction, Q, by measuring the temperature
change when a known mass of water is heated using this energy.

Q = m c T Q is energy released, in Joules

c is called the Specific Heat Capacity, m is the mass of water (in g)
and its value will be given in the question T is the change in temp. (in ˚C)
c is a constant = 4.2 (J/g/˚C)
Working out energy released:
e.g. In a calorimetry experiment, a fuel sample was burned and produced a temperature
change of 25°C in the calorimeter, which contained 100g of water. c = 4.2 J/g/˚C
Q = m x c x T = 100 x 4.2 x 25
= 10,500 J (or 10.5 kJ)
Comparing enthalpy changes
To compare reactions, we can calculate the energy released per mole of reactant used,
which we call the molar enthalpy change, ΔH.
To do this we work out the energy released as before, then divide by the moles reactant
used.
ΔH = -Q / moles
Example:
A 0.5g sample of ethanol is burnt, raising the temperature of 250g of water from 10˚C to 28˚C.
When 0.8g of butane is burnt, the temperature of 250g of water increases from 10˚C to 40˚C.
Which fuel produces the most heat energy per mole of fuel burnt ? c = 4.2 J/g/˚C

For ethanol: For butane:

Q = (4.2 x 250 x 18) = 18,900 J Q = (4.2 x 250 x 30) = 31500 J
Mol ethanol = mass/Mr = 0.5/46 = 0.01087 Mol butane = mass/Mr = 0.8/58 = 0.01379
ΔH = -Q/moles = -18,900/0.01087 ΔH = -Q/moles = -31500/0.01379
= -1,738,730 J/mol = -2,284,264 J/mol

A simple calorimeter not very accurate, but

can be used to compare the amount of
energy released by different fuels or foods.
It is not accurate, or precise, as there are
several major sources of experimental
error:
• Heat is lost around the sides of the
calorimeter, so not heating the water
• Incomplete combustion of the fuel may
release less energy
• The calorimeter is not insulated so heat
is lost from the water
Temperature changes in other reactions
lid

insulation

water

Calorimetry can be used to measure the energy reactants

changes in:
- reactions of solids with solutions (or water)
- neutralisation reactions etc.
The amount of energy produced by a chemical reaction in solution can be found by mixing
the reagents in an insulated container (e.g. polystyrene cup) and measuring the
temperature change caused by the reaction.

The total mass of the reactants is used in the calculation of Q = m c ΔT

The amount of each reactant (in moles) needs to be checked against the balanced chemical
equation to see which reactant is NOT in excess. Moles of the reactant NOT in excess should
be used in the calculation of ΔH = -Q / moles
What happens during a reaction
We know that when a reaction takes place, bonds are broken, and new bonds formed.

Consider the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine molecules to make hydrogen
chloride, and think about what bonds have to be broken, and what bonds formed:
H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl

One hydrogen-to-hydrogen bond has to be broken

One chlorine-to-chlorine bond has to be broken
Two hydrogen-to-chlorine bonds are formed

Energy is needed to break bonds. That’s why molecules have to

collide with sufficient energy for a successful reaction to take place.
Activation energy is the energy required to break all the necessary
bonds in the reactants.
The stronger the bonds are, the more energy is needed to break
them (bond energy).
The table shows how much energy different types of bonds require
to break: the average bond energy.
So bond breaking requires heat energy to be taken from the surroundings and used to break
the bonds. The surroundings get cooler. Bond breaking is ENDOTHERMIC

When new bonds form, energy is given out. This causes the surroundings to heat up. Bond
forming is EXOTHERMIC. (The amount of energy given out is equal to the bond energy for
that bond)

Consider our reaction between

hydrogen and chlorine again:
One H-H bond is broken: 436 kJ/mol
One Cl-Cl bond is broken: 242 kJ/mol
TOTAL ENERGY TAKEN IN = 678 kJ/mol

Two H-Cl bonds are made 2 x 431 kJ/mol

TOTAL ENERGY GIVEN OUT = 862 kJ/mol
Overall, is less energy is taken in than is given out. This means overall
energy is being released – this reaction is exothermic.
The molar enthalpy change for reactions can be calculated:
ΔH = energy taken in – energy given out
In this example the molar enthalpy change is -184 KJ/mol. We see
that the value of ΔH is negative for all exothermic reactions.
In an exothermic reaction, ΔH is always negative (the
energy of the products is lower than that of the
reactants). Exothermic
Explanation: Less energy is used to break the bonds in
the reactants than is released when the bonds in the
products are formed.

This can be illustrated using

an energy level diagram,
which shows the energy
changes during the
reaction. We can see that
the products are of lower
energy (more stable) than
the reactants, and that the
overall energy change (ΔH)
is negative.
In an endothermic reaction, ΔH is always positive (the energy of the
products is higher than that of the reactants)
Explanation: More energy is used to break the bonds in the
Endothermic
reactants than is released when the bonds in the products are
formed.

This can be illustrated using

an energy level diagram,
which shows the energy
changes during the
reaction. We can see that
the products are at higher
energy (less stable) than
the reactants, and that the
overall energy change (ΔH)
is positive.
Effect of a catalyst
A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction, without being used up itself.
It does this by lowering the activation energy for the reaction, by providing an alternative
pathway. On the catalyst surface the reactants have their bonds weakened, so that less
energy is needed to break these bonds.

This can also be illustrated

using an energy level diagram.

The effect of the catalyst is to

make the activation energy
smaller, but less energy is
released when the bonds in the
products are formed, so overall
ΔH is the same. The energy
released during a reaction is
not affected by the use of a
catalyst.
6. Chemical Reactions
Rates of reaction

The rate of a reaction tells us how rapidly the products are made from the reactants.

Rate of reaction = amount of reactant used or amount of product made

time time

Fast reactions:

combustion, explosions

Slow reactions:

baking, corrosion/rusting, fermentation

Measuring the rate of a reaction:

e.g.
1) Measure the volume
of gas produced in a reaction,
at regular time intervals

2) Measure the decrease in mass of the

reactants, at regular time intervals, as a
gas is produced and lost into the
atmosphere

3) Measure the time taken for a colour

change to occur, or the solution becoming
opaque.
Rate Graphs:
If we measure the amount of product formed vs. time the results will look like
this:

volume of gas (cm3)

time (s)

The gradient shows the rate of reaction:

• It is initially steep because the reactions is fastest at the start.
• The rate slows down as reactants are used up – the gradient gets less steep.
• Eventually the curve becomes flat as the reaction finishes, when one of the
reactants has been completely used up.
Rate Graphs:

If we measure the amount of reactants used up vs. time, the results will look
like this:

mass of reactants (g)

time (s)

• The initial gradient is still steepest, the reaction is fastest at the start

• The curve becomes flat when the reaction stops because a reactant has
been completely used up.
Comparing rates:
volume of gas (cm3)

time (s)

Practice questions: (answers at the end of the topic)

• Which is faster, blue or green reaction ?
• Which reaction finishes first, blue or green ?
• Which two curves could be the same reaction happening at two different
temperatures ? Which is hotter ?
 Collision Theory

The reaction: methane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water

Our model:
= methane
= oxygen

The particles in a liquid or gas are moving around – they have kinetic energy.
In order for a chemical reaction to occur the reactant particles must collide with each other.

There is an amount of energy called the Activation Energy for each reaction – it is actually
the amount of energy needed to break the necessary bonds in the reactants.

If the particles are moving quickly and collide with more than the activation energy, then
they will react – a successful collision – a reaction occurs.

If the particles collide with less than the activation energy, then they will simply bounce off
one another and not react – an unsuccessful collision.
Reactions with a solid: e.g. zinc + hydrochloric acid
Imagine the particles in this reaction. A reaction can only take
place when the acid particles (blue) collide with the surface of
the solid zinc particles. A collision cannot take place with the
zinc particles inside a solid piece.
Factors which affect the rate of reaction:
- temperature of reactants
- pressure (only applies to gases)
- concentration of reactants (applies to solutions)
- surface area (applies to solid reactants)
- use of a catalyst
Concentration
The concentration of a solution means the number of particles in a given volume of the
solvent (usually water). We measure concentration in moles per dm3. (1dm3 = 1 litre)
• If we increase the concentration of a reactant, we have more particles per cm3.
• This means that collisions will take place more frequently.
• Therefore there will be more frequent successful collisions, and the rate of reaction will
increase.
Prediction: If we double the concentration of the acid, we double the number of acid
particles per cm3,we double frequency of successful collisions, therefore we double the
rate of the reaction. We can test this prediction experimentally.
Pressure The same volume of different gases contain the same number of particles of
gas (when the gases are at the same pressure and temperature).

Increasing the pressure of a gas makes the

particles closer together.

• So we have more particles per cm3.

• This means that collisions will take place more frequently.
• Therefore there will be more frequent successful collisions, and the rate of reaction will
increase.

Temperature
If we increase the temperature of a gas or solution:
• The particles will move more quickly (i.e. having more kinetic energy).
• This means that the particles will collide more frequently.
• Also the particles will collide with more energy.
• This means that more of the collisions will be successful, because more often the
colliding particles have more energy than the activation energy for the reaction.\
Both of these factors will increase the rate of reaction.
Prediction: Because the particles are colliding more frequently AND they are colliding with
more energy, doubling the temperature should more than double the rate of reaction.
Surface Area
Collision can only take place at the surface of a solid, so the larger the surface area, the
faster the rate of reaction.

For the same mass of solid reactant:

large lumps – slow reaction; low surface area
small lumps – faster reaction; more surface area
powder – fast reaction; high surface area

Catalysts
A catalyst affects the rate of a reaction but is not used up during the reaction.
It therefore remains behind when the reaction is complete, ready to be used to catalyse
further reactions.
Manganese(IV) oxide (MnO2) is an example of a catalyst. It speeds up the breakdown
(decomposition) of hydrogen peroxide.
MnO2
2 H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
Notice how the catalyst’s formula doesn’t show up in the equation, because its not a
reactant or a product. We write it over the arrow, showing that it is one of the conditions
for the reaction.
How does a catalyst work ?
Reactions require successful collisions between the reactant particles. The reactant particles
must collide with enough energy to break the bonds in the reactants. This is called the
Activation Energy for the reaction.

When a catalyst is added to a reaction it provides an alternative reaction pathway - a place

for the reaction to happen where the Activation Energy is lower, so more of the collisions
between the reactants are successful – so the rate is faster.

Catalysts need a high surface area so

that there are lots of places for the
reactants to bind onto the catalyst
surface ready to react. A powdered Close-up of a Pt-Rh
catalyst, or a rough gauze provides a catalyst used in industry
high surface area.

Is being a catalyst different from being a reactant ?

A reactant is used up during the reaction as it is turned into the products.
A catalyst is not used up.
We could remove it after the reaction (e.g. by filtering it then washing and drying it) and
weigh it to show it is all still there. We could use it again and again.
Examples of catalysts:
The catalytic converter in the exhaust system of cars contains a catalyst made from
platinum, rhodium and palladium. This catalyst removes toxic carbon
monoxide and nitrogen oxides (which cause
acid rain) from the exhaust gases from
the car.

Catalytic converter

The Haber process is used to make ammonia. An iron

catalyst is used to speed up the reaction so a lower
temperature can be used in the reactor, (lower energy
costs). It also means less fuel is burnt, conserving finite
fossil fuel resources and minimising greenhouse gas
emissions.

Ammonia reactor
Reversible reactions
Some reactions do not go to completion – we don’t get 100% yield because not all of the
reactants react to form products.
One of the reasons for this is that some reactions are reversible – the products can react to
form the reactants !
e.g. 3 H2 + N2  2 NH3
but also 2 NH3  N2 + 3 H2
We use a special symbol to denote a reaction which is reversible:

3 H2 + N 2 ⇌ 2 NH 3

A single arrow in an equation means that the reactants form the products but the products
can’t react to form the original reactants again.
e.g. CaCO3  CaO + CO2 (thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate)

The double-headed arrow means the reaction can go in either direction

e.g. NH4Cl ⇌ NH3 + HCl
(ammonium chloride reacts to form ammonia and hydrogen chloride
and also
ammonia and hydrogen chloride react to form ammonium chloride)
 thermal decomposition
NH4Cl → NH3 + HCl

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

neutralisation

Heat

The forward reaction is a thermal decompostition – ammonium chloride breaks up when

heated into two simpler substances: ammonia and hydrogen chloride.

The reverse reaction is a neutralisation – the hydrogen chloride is acting as an acid (H+
donor) and the ammonia as a base (H+ acceptor).
A reversible reaction – the test for water:
White, anhydrous copper sulphate forms blue hydrated copper
sulphate if water is added. The reaction is reversible. If the crystals
are heated they turn white as anhydrous copper sulphate is formed.

CuSO4.5H2O(s) ⇌ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)

hydrated anhydrous + water
copper sulphate copper sulphate

An alternative test for water:

Blue, anhydrous cobalt chloride is also used as a test for
water – it turns to pink hydrated cobalt chloride if water is
added. If the crystals are heated they turn blue again.
CoCl2.6H2O(s) ⇌ CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l)
hydrated anhydrous + water
cobalt chloride cobalt chloride
Equilibrium

When reactants are turning into products, and products are

turning into reactants, a dynamic equilibrium can be set up.

(Think of this as being like a balance-point – the forward

and reverse reactions becoming balanced. Running up an
escalator which is going down at a rate causing you to stay
in the same place would be one example of a dynamic
equilibrium. Adjusting the flow into and out of the pot so
that the volume of liquid remains the same even though the
actual liquid is constantly changing, would be another
example)

At equilibrium:
• There will be both products and reactants present in
a mixture.
• The rate of products turning into reactants will be
the same as the rate of reactants turning into
products.
• To get an equilibrium, none of the reactants or
products must escape – you need a closed system.
How it works:
The reactants begin to react forming
products. The initial rate of forward
reaction will be fast.
The forward reaction slows down as
reactants are used up.
Products have now been formed, so
they begin to react to form
reactants. The initial rate of the
reverse reaction is very slow as only
a few product particles are present.
As more products are formed, the
rate of the reverse reaction
increases.
Eventually the rates of forward
reaction and backward reactions
become the same. THE REACTIONS
HAVEN’T FINISHED BUT AN
EQUILIBRIUM IS SET UP.
How much is there at equilibrium ?

The amounts of the products and the reactants at equilibrium depends on the conditions
(e.g. temperature, pressure).

Changing the conditions will change the amounts of reactants and products present in
the mixture - a new equilibrium gets set up.

We call this changing the POSITION of the equilibrium.

- if changing the conditions causes the position of equilibrium to move in the forward
direction (to the right) we get more products, less reactants in the equilibrium mixture

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

- if changing the conditions causes the position of equilibrium to move in the backwards
direction (to the left) we get less products, more reactants in the equilibrium mixture

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
Making more product at equilibrium
Whenever we change the conditions, the position of the equilibrium will shift to try and
oppose the change.

N.B. The effect of pressure only

applies to GASES in the balanced
equation !
Example:

endothermic in the forward

CH3OH (g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO2(g) + 3H2(g) direction

This reaction is called steam reforming of methanol. It is used to produce hydrogen, a

valuable fuel, from an alcohol.

What would be the best conditions of temperature and pressure to get the best yield of
hydrogen?

Temperature: A high temperature would move the position of equilibrium in the

endothermic direction, which is the forward direction, so more products
would be made.

Pressure: There are four moles of gases on the right side of the equation and only
two moles of gases on the left side. A low pressure would move the
position of equilibrium in the forward direction, making more product.

Catalyst: A catalyst would speed up the reaction (in both directions) so products
would be made sooner. It would have no effect on the position of
equilibrium, and hence the yield, only how quickly the product is made.
True or False ? (answers at the end of the topic)

• All chemical reactions are reversible.

• The mass can change if a solid product is formed in a closed system.

• Equilibrium can only happen in closed systems.

• In a reversible reaction, reactants can form products and products can form
reactants.

• A ⇌ symbol shows that an equilibrium has been set up.

• Once at equilibrium no more products are formed.

• Once at equilibrium, the forward and backward reactions stop.

Answers:

volume of gas (cm3)

time (s)

• Which is faster, blue or green reaction ? BLUE – steeper gradient.

• Which reaction finishes first, blue or green ? BLUE – flat after shortest time.
• Which two curves could be the same reaction happening at two different
temperatures ? Which is hotter ? BLUE (HOTTER) , GREEN because both
produce the same volume of gas, just at different rates.
True or False ?
• All chemical reactions are reversible.
FALSE – burning, and rusting, for example, can’t be reversed
• The mass can change if a solid product is formed in a closed system
FALSE – all the same atoms are still there, mass is conserved
• Equilibrium can only happen in closed systems.
TRUE – a closed system is a requirement for an equilibrium
• In a reversible reaction, reactants can form products and products can form
reactants. TRUE – this is exactly what does happen
• A ⇌ symbol shows that an equilibrium has been set up.
FALSE – it only shows that the reaction is reversible
• Once at equilibrium no more products are formed.
FALSE – the reactions happen continuously, so product is still being
made, but it is being used up by the reverse reaction at the same rate.
• Once at equilibrium, the forward and backward reactions stop.
FALSE – these reactions continue, but at the same rate
Industrial Processes
In industry, we want sustainable development – using the
products as efficiently as possible to minimise use of energy
(economic) and minimise waste products (environmental).

We can optimise reaction conditions

to get as much product as possible in
the reaction mixture, and to do so
using the minimum amount of energy
practical.

To do this we need to consider:

- temperature
- pressure
- removing products as they are formed
- use of catalysts
The Haber Process
for the production of ammonia.

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)

nitrogen + hydrogen ⇌ ammonia

Raw materials:
- nitrogen (N2) which is obtained from the air
(by fractional distillation of air)
- hydrogen (H2) which is mainly obtained from the cracking of
hydrocarbons, or from natural gas
and steam: CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3 H2(g)
Conditions:
iron catalyst; temperature of about 450°C; pressure of about 200
atmospheres (a fairly high pressure)
Energy Changes in reversible reactions

Reversible reactions are exothermic (give out heat) in one

direction and endothermic (take in heat) in the other.
The same amount (Joules) of heat energy is given out in one
direction and taken in in the other direction.

exothermic

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

endothermic
Uses of ammonia
Ammonia is a very important substance, used in huge quantities
for making nitric acid and for manufacturing products such as:

•Fertilisers

•Explosives

•Dyes

•Medicines
How the Haber process works:

By cooling and condensing the ammonia to remove it as a liquid,

then recycling the unreacted gases:
• Reactants are used efficiently, not wasted
• Energy used to make reactants is not wasted
• A reasonable yield of ammonia is made as quickly as possible
Why use a temp. of 450ºC for the Haber process ?
Heat energy is given out when ammonia is formed – the forward
reaction is exothermic

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 ΔH is negative

If we do the reaction at a low temperature then we should get

more ammonia in the reaction mixture at equilibrium.

BUT the rate of reaction is too slow at low temperatures. We

therefore use a moderate temperature as a compromise in order
to make ammonia quickly enough to be economical.

We also use a catalyst to speed up the reaction rather than more

heat, so the process is more energy efficient. The catalyst has no
effect on the %conversion.
Why use a pressure of about 200 atmospheres ?

4 moles of gas turn into 2 moles of gas when ammonia is formed:

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 less molecules of gas on RHS

If we carry out the reaction at high pressure then we will get more
ammonia in the reaction mixture at equilibrium. In addition the
rate of reaction will increase.

BUT high pressures

- take a lot of energy to create
- require greater safety precautions to prevent leaks or
explosions.

We therefore use a moderately high pressure as a compromise.

The Contact Process
For the production of
sulphuric acid.

Raw materials:
- sulphur, S, which is obtained from local refineries where it has
been recovered from oil and gas (fossil fuels)

- oxygen, O2 which is obtained by drying and compressing air.

Conditions:
Vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) catalyst; temperature of about 450°C;
pressure of about 2 atmospheres.
There are three stages to the process:
Stage 1: making sulphur dioxide
The sulphur is burnt: S(l) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

Stage 2: making sulphur trioxide

The sulphur dioxide and oxygen are heated to 450°C with the
vanadium(V) oxide catalyst and pressurised to 2 atmospheres. An
equilibrium is formed:
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2 SO 3(g)

Stage 3: making sulphuric acid

The sulphur trioxide goes through a series of reactions to form
sulphuric acid:
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) → H2S2O7(l) The sulphuric acid is then
further diluted to the
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2 H2SO4(aq) concentration required.
Uses of sulphuric acid
• Making fertilisers
e.g. ammonium sulphate

• Making detergents (including

shampoos and liquid soaps)

• Making paints (to extract the

white pigment, titanium oxide
from its ores)
Why use a temp. of 450ºC for the Contact process ?
Heat energy is given out when sulphur trioxide is formed – the
forward reaction is exothermic

2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3 ΔH is negative

If we do the reaction at a low temperature then we should get

more SO3 in the reaction mixture at equilibrium.

BUT the rate of reaction is too slow at low temperatures. We

therefore use a moderate temperature as a compromise in order
to make sulphur trioxide quickly enough to be economical.

We also use a catalyst to speed up the reaction rather than more

heat, so the process is more energy efficient.
Why use a pressure of about 2 atmospheres ?

3 moles of gas turn into 2 moles of gas when sulphur trioxide is

formed:
2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3 less molecules of gas on RHS

If we carry out the reaction at high pressure then we will get more
sulphur trioxide in the reaction mixture at equilibrium; in addition
the rate of reaction will increase.

The conversion of SO2 into SO3 is already so good (99.5%) in this

case that a higher pressure than 2 atmospheres (which is quite a
low pressure really) is not needed.

The catalyst has no effect on the %conversion, but helps to speed

up the reaction, as it would be too slow to be economically viable
without.
Alternative raw material
Instead of burning sulphur, another way of making sulphur dioxide is
to roast a sulphide ore such as iron pyrites in excess air:

4 FeS2(s) + 11 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s) + 8 SO2(g)

Once the sulphur dioxide has been made, the other two stages of the
Contact Process are the same.

Iron pyrites
Oxidation and Reduction
An oxidation reaction is one in which oxygen is added to a substance.
Example:
Methane is oxidised when it burns in air. Oxygen is added to the carbon in
methane, forming carbon dioxide. Oxygen is also added to the hydrogen in
methane, forming water.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
methane oxygen carbon dioxide water

A reduction reaction is one in which oxygen is removed from a substance.

Example: CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Copper(II) oxide is reduced when copper oxide hydrogen copper water
it is heated and hydrogen passed
over it, forming copper and water.

The hydrogen in this reaction is

being oxidised to form water
A redox reaction is one in which both oxidation and reduction take place.
Redox reactions are very common.

Example:
CuO(s) + Mg(s) → Cu(s) + MgO(s)
copper(II) oxide magnesium copper magnesium oxide

reduction oxidation

We also define oxidation as loss of electrons and reduction as gain of electrons. We need to
show that these two sets of different definitions are consistent with each other.

Oxidation Is Loss of electrons OIL

Reduction Is Gain of electrons RIG
The first thing to notice is that the O2- ions appear on both sides. They are unchanged in
the reaction, so we can remove them from the equation. We call them spectator ions.
The equation now reads: Cu2+ + Mg → Cu + Mg2+
This is called an ionic equation; it shows only the ions and atoms involved in the reaction.
Now we can consider what happens to each reactant in turn, by making this into a pair of
half-equations:
To form a positive ion, magnesium
atoms must lose two electrons – this is
oxidation. Mg → Mg2+ + 2e-
To make copper atoms from copper
ions requires two electrons to be added
– this is reduction. Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu

So the two definitions are consistent.

Why do we need both definitions ?
Using the OIL RIG definitions allows us to find oxidation and reduction in reactions that
don’t involve oxygen.
Example: zinc reacts with sulphur to form zinc sulphide Zn(s) + S(s) → ZnS(s)
By writing the two half equations you can show that zinc is being oxidised to zinc ions and
sulphur is being reduced to sulphide ions.
An oxidising agent is a substance that reacts with another, causing that substance to be
oxidised.

Example: the reaction between copper(II) oxide and magnesium again.

CuO + Mg → Cu + MgO

oxidation
Here the magnesium is being oxidised to magnesium oxide. The substance reacting with the
magnesium to make this happen is CuO, so copper(II) oxide is the oxidising agent.

A reducing agent is a substance that reacts with another, causing that substance to be
reduced.
Example: the reaction between copper(II) oxide and carbon.
2 CuO + C → 2 Cu + CO2

reduction
Here the copper oxide is being reduced to copper. The substance reacting with the copper
oxide to make this happen is carbon, so carbon is the reducing agent.
Note: in a redox reaction you will be able to find both an oxidising agent and a reducing
agent.
Corrosion and Rusting
Many metals react when exposed to the atmosphere.
Only the most unreactive metals remain unaffected.
The term for this is corrosion.

Iron is corroded when it reacts with oxygen and water (both

present in the atmosphere), to make hydrated iron(III) oxide,
which we know as rust.
The iron is oxidised in this reaction.

Preventing rusting
The simplest method is to make a barrier between the iron
and the air.
- by painting the iron
- by coating the iron with oil or grease
- by coating the iron with plastic
- by coating the iron with a less reactive metal e.g. tin

If the barrier breaks down, the iron rusts.

Galvanising
A different method for preventing
rusting is galvanizing the metal. This
uses a more reactive metal, zinc, to
protect the iron.

Galvanised iron is coated with zinc. Even if the zinc layer is scratched through, the iron
doesn’t rust. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so rather than the iron atoms being oxidised
to make rust, the zinc atoms get oxidised instead:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
The electrons released in this reaction can turn any iron ions back into iron atoms.

Sacrificial protection
Metal hulls and keels of
boats, have blocks of zinc
attached that work in the
same way. These are called
sacrificial anodes.

Magnesium is used to do the

same job at intervals along
underground pipelines.
Reactivity series of Metals Sacrificial anodes work because zinc is more reactive than
iron, but how did the engineers know to use zinc rather
than e.g. copper ?
Would it work if the pipes were made of titanium rather
than iron ? Could aluminium be used for galvanising iron ?
We need to put the metals in reactivity order. This can be
done by comparing the rate of reaction of different metals
under the same reaction conditions.

Unfortunately metals do not all react with the same

substances, or react too violently for safe experimental
work, so we will have to use a series of reactions:

• Reaction of metals with water will help us put the most

reactive metals in order

• Reaction with dilute acid can then be used to put the

moderately reactive metals into order.

• The unreactive metals which don’t react with acids or

water can then be sorted using a series of displacement
reactions.
1. Reactions of metals with water
Reactive metals will react with cold water
Using this method we will be able to establish the order:
potassium > sodium > lithium > calcium > other metals

The Group 1 metals (K, Na, Li) react vigorously with cold water, fizzing
to produce hydrogen gas.

e.g. 2 Li(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen

Calcium reacts exothermically with cold water, producing hydrogen

gas, but the reaction is less vigorous than between lithium and water.

2 Ca(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

calcium water calcium hydroxide hydrogen

Magnesium hardly reacts with cold water at all – the reaction is extremely slow, so it
appears not to be reacting if we observe the reaction.

Other metals such as iron, zinc, copper, silver and gold do not react with cold water, and are
thus less reactive than potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium.
2. Reactions with steam
While magnesium does not react with cold water,
we find that magnesium, iron and zinc all react
with steam but metals such as copper, silver and
gold do not.

This method is unsuitable for more reactive

metals, which would also react with steam, as the
reaction would be too vigorous.
magnesium reacting with steam
We can use this method to establish the order:
… magnesium > zinc > iron > other metals

When these metals are heated in steam, the metal oxide is produced, along with hydrogen
gas:
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + H2O(g) → ZnO(s) + H2(g)

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

 3. Reactions of metals with dilute acids
It is too dangerous to react the very reactive metals, potassium,
sodium, lithium and calcium with acids.
Reactions with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid can be used to
establish the reactivity order for magnesium, aluminium, zinc and
iron. The metal reacts to produce a salt, plus hydrogen gas. For the
less reactive metals we may need to warm the acid.
Magnesium reacts vigorously with cold dilute acid.
The reaction is exothermic, and hydrogen is given off:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Aluminium reacts slowly with cold acid, but after warming reacts very vigorously:
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Zinc and iron react slowly with cold acid, but more rapidly on warming:
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Other metals do not react with these dilute acids even when warmed.
Order: … magnesium > aluminium > zinc > iron > other metals
4. Displacement reactions between metals
Reactions with water and acids are of limited use as they only work for metals which are
more reactive than hydrogen. As an alternative we can use “competition” redox reactions.
We call these displacement reactions. The basic idea is that a more reactive metal can
“steal” from an ion of a less reactive metal the ion that it is bonded to, but a less reactive
metal can’t “steal” an ion from a more reactive one..
Mg + ZnO → MgO + Zn ✓ MgO + Zn → Mg + ZnO 

Example: The Thermit Reaction

This reaction shows that aluminium is more reactive than
iron. It of practical use as it is used to make molten iron
for welding rails together.
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
aluminium iron(III) oxide aluminium oxide iron
The iron is displaced from its oxide by the more reactive aluminium. Aluminium is oxidised
to aluminium oxide. Iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron.
We can also do displacement reactions in solution. A more
reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from a
solution of one of its salts.
Example: If we dip a zinc strip in copper sulphate solution,
copper metal is deposited on the zinc. If we place a copper
strip in zinc sulphate solution no reaction occurs. This
indicates that zinc is more reactive than copper.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

We can use this method to establish the order of reactivity of the less reactive metals:
… tin > lead > copper > silver > gold
This method does not work for reactive metals such as calcium or sodium as the metals
react with the water in the solution.
These are redox reactions, even though oxygen is not directly being added or removed:
e.g. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

element, contains ions: contains ions: element,

Zn atoms Cu2+ and SO42- Zn2+ and SO42- Cu atoms

loss of e- = oxidation gain of e- = reduction

Results of a series of displacement
experiments:
Magnesium ribbon in lead nitrate solution:
Observation: Crystals of lead are seen growing
on the magnesium
Mg(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Pb(s)
Conclusion: Mg more reactive than Pb
Copper wire in silver nitrate solution:
Observation: Crystals of silver are seen growing
on the copper wire
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) Copper wire in silver nitrate solution
Conclusion: Cu more reactive than Ag
Copper wire in lead nitrate solution:
Observation: No reaction
Conclusion: Cu must be less reactive than Pb
Iron nails in copper sulphate solution:
Observation: A coating of copper is deposited
on the iron nails
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Conclusion: Fe is more reactive than Cu
Halogen displacement reactions
Displacement reactions also allow us to establish the reactivity order of the halogens –
chlorine can displace bromine and iodine from bromide or iodide ions; bromine can
displace only iodine from iodide ions; iodine can’t displace other halogens…

These are redox reactions too. e.g. Br2(aq) + 2 KI(aq) → I2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq)
We can take this apart to see what is happening:
Br2(aq) + 2e- → 2 Br-(aq) 2 I-(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e-

The bromine atoms gain electrons to

become bromide ions, so in this reactions
the Br2 is being REDUCED.
The iodide ions lose electrons to become
iodine atoms, so in this reactions the I-
ions are being OXIDISED.
This means that of the three, chlorine is
the most powerful oxidising agent, and
iodine is the least powerful oxidising
agent.
ANALYSIS – Identifying unknowns
Ionic substances contain positive and negative ions. We need to use different tests to
identify the positive and the negative ions:

Identifying some positive (metal) ions:

1: Flame tests – some metal ions give

characteristic flame colours. Dip a clean metal
wire into the solid substance, and put into a
blue/roaring Bunsen flame

Li Ca Na Cu K
2: Reactions with sodium hydroxide:
Dissolve the substance to be tested in distilled water, and add sodium hydroxide solution.

Ion: Effect of sodium hydroxide, NaOH:

Aluminium White precipitate of Al(OH)3 which dissolves if excess sodium hydroxide
is added e.g.:
AlCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Magnesium White precipitate of Mg(OH)2 which doesn’t re-dissolve in excess sodium
hydroxide e.g.
MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Copper (II) Pale blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2 e.g.
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Iron (II) Dirty green precipitate of Fe(OH)2 e.g.
Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Iron (III) Orange-brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3 e.g.

FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Ammonium (NH4+) Warm with NaOH – ammonia gas given off, which turns damp red litmus
paper blue. e.g.
NH4NO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l) + NaNO3(aq)
Identifying some negative ions
• could be halide ions e.g. Cl-, Br-, I-
• could be sulphate ions, SO42-
• could be carbonate ions, CO32-
We use a sequence of chemical tests to determine which negative ion is present:

1: Carbonates fizz when an acid, e.g.

hydrochloric acid, is added, because
carbon dioxide gas is given off. This can
be identified by bubbling it through
limewater, which turns cloudy.

2: Solutions containing halide ions

produce precipitates of silver halides
when treated with nitric acid then
silver nitrate.
- silver chloride is WHITE
- silver bromide is CREAM
- silver iodide is YELLOW.

The nitric acid is added first to remove

interfering ions that might also form
precipitates, such as hydroxide or carbonate.
3: Sulphate ions can be identified by adding barium chloride which has been acidified with
hydrochloric acid. A white precipitate of barium sulphate is produced.

The hydrochloric acid is added first to remove interfering ions that might form white
precipitates, such as hydroxide or carbonate.

These last two are the same reactions as we saw for making insoluble salts, with a
precipitate of the barium sulphate being formed, and the other ions remaining in solution.
Write an equation for what happens when magnesium sulphate solution is tested with
barium chloride. Include state symbols.

Practice Questions: (answers at the end of the topic)

Substance A is ionic. It produces no flame colour, but does produce a white precipitate
when sodium hydroxide is added. This precipitate remains if more sodium hydroxide is
added. If nitric acid is added to substance A, followed by silver nitrate solution, a white
precipitate is seen. What is A?

Substance B is ionic. No precipitate is produced when sodium hydroxide is added. The

substance produces a red flame colour. If hydrochloric acid is added to B fizzing is seen and
the gas given off turns limewater cloudy. What is B?

Substance C is potassium aluminium sulphate. How would you prove this using chemical
tests?
Identifying gases
We need to know how to identify five different gases:

HYDROGEN (H2)
– test with a lit splint, hydrogen gives a squeaky pop

OXYGEN (O2) effect of ammonia gas on

– test with a glowing splint, which relights in oxygen damp red litmus

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

– bubble the gas through limewater, CO2 turns it cloudy

AMMONIA (NH3):
- will turn damp red litmus paper blue (ammonia is a base)

CHLORINE (Cl2): not the same as testing for chloride!

effect of chlorine gas on
- will bleach damp litmus paper, turning it white
damp red or blue litmus
Answers:

Substance A is ionic. It produces no flame colour, but does produce a white precipitate
when sodium hydroxide is added. This precipitate remains if more sodium hydroxide is
added. If nitric acid is added to substance A, followed by silver nitrate solution, a white
precipitate is seen. What is A? magnesium chloride

Substance B is ionic. No precipitate is produced when sodium hydroxide is added. The

substance produces a red flame colour. If hydrochloric acid is added to B fizzing is seen and
the gas given off turns limewater cloudy. What is B? lithium carbonate

Substance C is potassium aluminium sulphate. How would you prove this using chemical
tests? Flame test will show lilac flame: potassium ions present
sodium hydroxide solution will produce a white precipitate which redissolves
when excess it added: aluminium ions present
acidifying with hydrochloric acid, followed by adding barium chloride will
produce a white precipitate: sulphate ions present
7. Acid, Bases and Salts
Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions change substances into other substances.
A chemical equation is used to represent a reaction. This has the form:
reactants → products

Word equations use the names of the reactants and products.

e.g. hydrogen + oxygen → water

Balanced symbol equations use the formulae of the reactants and products.
e.g. 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

What happens in a chemical reactions:

• Chemical bonds in the reactants are broken – this requires energy
• The atoms are rearranged to make new substance(s)
• New bonds are formed to hold the atoms together in the products
Balancing Equations
No atoms are lost or gained during a chemical reaction – all the atoms in the reactants are
there in the products. This is why equations have to be balanced.
This means that mass does not change during a chemical reaction – mass is conserved.
We use numbers in front of the chemical formulae so that the rule about all the same
atoms being present before and after is true. We never change the formulae themselves
- that would make it a different chemical reaction.

e.g. H2 + O2 → H2O NOT BALANCED

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O BALANCED
State Symbols
We use these to show the physical state of the substances in equations:

(s) for solid (l) for liquid

(g) for gas (aq) for aqueous solution (i.e. dissolved in water)

e.g.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
“Solid calcium will react when placed in water, producing a solution of calcium hydroxide
and bubbles of hydrogen gas”
 Acids

Acids, especially concentrated acids, are corrosive: you need eye protection and gloves.
What makes an acid acidic?
All acids form H+ ions when we dissolve them in water. These make the solution acidic.
H2O
e.g. HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Dissolving the acid in water is important. Hydrogen chloride molecules are not acidic
(when we test the pH of a solution of hydrogen chloride dissolved in an organic solvent
we see it is neutral. Water is not acidic (we see a neutral pH for pure water too).

When hydrogen chloride molecules are dissolved in water the bond between the
hydrogen and the chlorine atom breaks, and H+ ions are formed in the solution making
it acidic (which can be seen because the pH becomes less than 7).

A base is defined as a substance which can neutralise an acid.

Examples: metal oxides, and metal hydroxides.
 Alkalis
Some bases are soluble in water. We call these
alkalis. Alkalis, especially concentrated ones, are
also corrosive.

What makes an alkali alkaline?

All alkalis form hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), when dissolved in water, making the solution
alkaline.
H2O
e.g. NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Why acids are neutralised by alkalis:

Acids produce H+(aq) ions Alkalis produce OH-(aq) ions

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

Water, which is neutral with a pH of 7, is formed when acidic H+ ions and alkaline OH- ions
react with each other. This is what we mean by a neutralisation reaction.
pH and indicators
Indicators change colour, telling us if a solution is acidic or alkaline. They can’t measure pH.

The pH scale is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Universal indicator is SPECIAL because it turns different colours at different pH values, so it

CAN be used to give the approximate pH (or a pH probe can be used).

Colour of universal indicator at

different pH values
Making salts
Definition: A salt is made when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal ions (or
ammonium ions).
The name of the salt begins with the name of the metal, followed by a name reflecting the
acid it was made from:

e.g sodium chloride

from hydrochloric acid
magnesium sulphate
from sulphuric acid
potassium nitrate
from nitric acid

Observations
You may be asked what you would observe when any of these reactions take place. You
need to learn the general equations and the state symbols, which will help you:
1. Is a gas produced ? If so, you would observe fizzing/bubbles.
1. Is the acid reacting with a solid ? If so, the solid will dissolve/disappear as the salt
solution is formed.

2. Would there be a temperature change ? Reactive metals react with acids

exothermically, and neutralisations are exothermic.
Making soluble salts:
The following four methods each react an acid with a different type of substance to
produce a solution of a salt in water (i.e. the salts produced are soluble). Once any
unreacted material has been removed to leave a pure solution of the salt, a dry sample can
be prepared by evaporating the water.

1) Making salts by reacting acids with metals

Used for reactive metals, but DANGEROUS if the metal is too reactive (e.g. Na or K) because
reaction is exothermic.
General equation: METAL + ACID → SALT + HYDROGEN
e.g. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Method:
1.Add metal to acid until no more bubbling is seen (all the acid has
reacted).
2.Filter to remove unreacted metal, leaving salt solution.
3.Heat the solution in an evaporating dish to remove some of the water,
then allow to cool to form crystals.
4.Filter to remove the crystals and dry them (warm oven), or leave in
warm place for all water to evaporate.

Observations:
Metal dissolves, a gas is produced (bubbling), heat is produced
2) Making salts by reacting acids with insoluble bases (metal oxides)
Can be used with any metal oxides. Useful for making salts from unreactive metals e.g.
copper or lead.

General equation: METAL OXIDE + ACID → SALT + WATER

e.g. CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Method:
1. Add metal oxide to acid until no more will dissolve (all the acid has reacted). Warming
is often necessary to get the metal oxide to react at a reasonable rate.
2. Filter to remove unreacted metal oxide, leaving the salt solution.
3. Heat the solution in an evaporating dish to remove some of the water, then allow to
cool to form crystals.
4. Filter to remove the crystals and dry them (warm oven), or leave in warm place for all
water to evaporate.

Observations:
Metal oxide dissolves
3) Making salts by reacting acids with insoluble metal carbonates
All insoluble metal carbonates. Useful for making salts from unreactive metals e.g. copper. For
soluble metal carbonates, see next method.

General equation: METAL CARBONATE + ACID → SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE

e.g. CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Method:
1.Add metal carbonate to acid until no more fizzing
occurs (all the acid has reacted)
2.Filter to remove unreacted metal carbonate
3.Heat the solution in an evaporating dish to
remove some of the water, then allow to cool to
form crystals.
4.Filter to remove the crystals and dry them (warm
oven), or leave in warm place for all water to
evaporate.

Observations:
Metal carbonate dissolves, gas produced (fizzing)
4) Making salts by reacting acids with alkalis (soluble metal hydroxides)
This method works for all alkalis and is useful for making salts of reactive metals such as
sodium or potassium, and for making ammonium salts. Note: this method can also be used
when reacting soluble metal carbonates with acids to make salts.

General equation: METAL HYDROXIDE + ACID → SALT + WATER

e.g. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Method:
1.Add acid progressively to the alkali or soluble metal
carbonate, testing the pH periodically using a pH probe
or removing a drop and testing with universal indicator.
2.Stop when the pH = 7 (neutral).
3.Heat the solution in an evaporating dish to remove
some of the water, then allow to cool to form crystals.
4.Filter to remove the crystals and dry them (warm oven),
or leave in warm place for all water to evaporate.

Observations:
None – although a small temperature rise may be
detected.
Ammonium salts
The ammonium ion plays the same role as a metal in reactions with acids to form salts.

Know the difference:

AMMONIA is a molecule, NH3
AMMONIUM an ion formed from ammonia, NH4+

When ammonia dissolves in water it forms an ammonium hydroxide solution. This solution
contains ammonium ions (which can behave like metal ions in forming salts) and hydroxide
ions (which make the solution alkaline).
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

Ammonium hydroxide reacts with acids because it is an alkali:

e.g. ammonium hydroxide + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate + water
NH4OH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate are important fertilisers, because they are rich
in nitrogen.
Making insoluble salts – by precipitation reactions
Definition: a precipitate is a solid formed in a solution when a product of a reaction is
insoluble.

We can’t use the methods for soluble salts because the insoluble product would end up
mixed with the unreacted insoluble metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate reactant – it
would be difficult to separate the two solids.

Instead, insoluble substances can be made by reacting

solutions of two soluble substances together.
Method:
1. The two solutions are mixed and a precipitate forms.
2. The precipitate is removed from the remaining solution by
filtering.
3. The solid residue is then washed with distilled water and left
to dry (a warm oven could be used).
SOLUBILITY RULES
Before we can mix two soluble salt solutions, we need to know what is soluble:
• Sodium, potassium and ammonium salts (usually)
• All nitrate salts
• Most chloride salts, except silver chloride
• Most sulphate salts, except calcium sulphate and barium sulphate
• Most carbonates are INSOLUBLE except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and
ammonium carbonate.

Choosing what soluble substances to react to make your salt:

Write the name of the substance you want to make
e.g. barium sulphate

Choose a soluble salt containing the Choose a soluble salt

metal ion you want. containing the other ion you need.
All metal nitrates are soluble so… All sodium or potassium salts are soluble so…
➔ use BARIUM NITRATE ➔ use SODIUM SULPHATE

… mix these two solutions together to get the precipitate

8. Periodic Table
Metals and Non-metals
Metallic elements occupy the
left side and middle of the
periodic table.
Non-metals are found on the
right side of the periodic table.

Testing for metals and non-metals:

• metals conduct electricity; non metals do not conduct electricity – except graphite !
• oxides of metals form alkaline solutions in water
• oxides of non-metals form acidic solutions in water
Experiments to show that magnesium is a metal:
• electrical conductivity test: conducts electricity
• burning to form magnesium oxide, dissolving
magnesium oxide in water, and testing pH: alkaline
solution
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Experiments to show that sulphur is a non-metal:
• electrical conductivity test: does not conduct
• burning to form sulphur dioxide, dissolving sulphur
dioxide in water, and testing pH: acidic solution
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
Chemical Families

Elements in the same Group have the same number of outer shell electrons. The same
number of outer shell electrons means similar chemical properties – so each Group is a
chemical family.

Group 1 – The Alkali Metals Group 0 – The Noble Gases

Group 7 – The Halogens

Group 1 - The Alkali Metals Lithium Li
Physical properties
Group 1 metals are unusual metals - some of their physical Sodium Na
properties are different to typical metals.
Potassium K

Rubidium Rb

Caesium Cs

These are the properties of typical metals

Differences:
• Group 1 metals are soft – can be cut with a knife
• They become dull soon after being cut, as they react with
oxygen in the air rapidly to form alkali metal oxides
• They have low density – lithium, sodium and potassium float
on water
• They have low melting points – sodium and potassium melt
from the heat generated when reacting with water
Comparing Group 1 metals to typical metals Trends
Going down Group 1 the metals
- become softer
- get more dense
- melt and boil at lower
temperatures

Chemical Properties of alkali metals

Group 1 metals are very reactive! They are normally stored under oil. The oil acts as a
barrier preventing them from reacting with oxygen in the air, or with water.

Trend
Reactivity increases as
we go down the group

An alkali metal An alkali metal

stored in oil in water
Explaining the order of reactivity in Group 1
Group 1 elements react by losing their outer shell electron to form metal ions with a 1+
charge, and hence gain a full outer shell.

The further away from the positively charged nucleus the outer shell electron is, the easier it
is for the atom to lose it, so the more reactive the element is.

This is because the attraction between the negatively charged electron and the nucleus gets
weaker the further away the electron is, and the more shells there are in between.
Reaction with water
Group 1 metals all react with water to produce alkaline solutions. This is one example of
being a chemical family. This is why they are called alkali metals.
Hydrogen gas is given off (fizzing) and a solution of the metal hydroxide is left behind. It is
an exothermic reaction – enough to melt sodium or potassium!
Li, Na and K float and move around on the surface of the
water while reacting, until they are completely dissolved.
Potassium produce a lilac flame as it reacts, but sodium and
lithium don’t normally get hot enough to produce a flame.
e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

Reaction with halogens (Group 7 elements)

Group 1 metals react with Group 7 non-metals to make salts called metal halides.
e.g. Sodium metal react with chlorine gas to make sodium chloride.
e.g. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
Group 7 - The Halogens

The Halogens are the elements in Group 7

They are non-metals, having coloured vapours.
The halogen elements consist of molecules made up of pairs of atoms. e.g. chlorine is Cl2(g)
They each have 7 electrons in their outer shell

Trends in the physical properties

of the halogens
As we go down Group 7:
• colour increases in intensity
• state goes from gas to liquid to solid
• melting point increases
• boiling point increases
We would therefore predict that astatine
would be a very dark (black) element, solid
at room temperature, and with a melting
and boiling point higher than those of iodine.

Trend in reactivity
Reactivity of the halogens decreases as we go
down the group (opposite trend to Group 1)
Chemical Properties
The halogens have 7 electrons in their outer shell. They react by gaining an electron to
complete their outer shell, or by sharing electrons with other atoms.
Reactions with metals
When a halogen atom gains an electron it forms an ion with
a 1- charge, which we call a halide ion:
fluoride F- (see notes on reactions of Group 1
chloride Cl- metals with halogens)
bromide Br-
iodide I-

Reactions with non-metals

Halogens can react with other non-metals, sharing their outer shell electrons to form
bonds. e.g. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride
Displacement reactions of halogens

A more reactive halogen can

displace a less reactive halogen
from an aqueous solution of its
halide salts.

When chlorine water (a solution of chlorine in water) is added to a colourless solution of

potassium bromide, the solution turns orange as bromine is formed, because chlorine can
displace bromine from potassium bromide:
Cl2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2 KCl(aq)
chlorine + potassium bromide → bromine + potassium chloride
This shows that chlorine is more reactive than bromine. A similar reaction occurs if chlorine
is added to a solution of potassium iodide, with brown iodine being formed in the solution.

When orange bromine water is added to colourless potassium iodide solution, a dark red-
brown colouration is seen due to the formation of iodine in the solution, because bromine
can displace iodine from potassium iodide:
Br2(aq) + 2 KI(aq) → I2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq)
bromine + potassium iodide → iodine + potassium bromide
This shows that bromine is more reactive than iodine. No reaction occurs if bromine is
added to a solution of potassium chloride as bromine is less reactive than chlorine.
Group 8 or 0 - The Noble Gases
The noble gases are in Group 8 (aka Group 0)
They are all colourless gases
They are very unreactive
They exist as individual atoms rather than forming molecules.

Uses - balloons:
Helium is used (rather than hydrogen) in lighter-than-air
balloons because its lack of reactivity means it will not
ignite. The only other gas with a sufficiently low density is
hydrogen, which is extremely flammable and dangerous.

Uses – in discharge tubes:

When electricity is passed through a glass tube containing a
noble gas at low pressure, the atoms are excited and light is
produced. Each noble gas produces a different colour.
Neon is the brightest, hence its use in advertising signs.
Uses – inert atmospheres:
Argon is used to fill light bulbs because it Ar
is very unreactive. It prevents the
tungsten filament from reacting with
oxygen when it gets hot, and “burning
out”. It is also used when welding to
prevent oxygen getting to the hot metal
and causing corrosion.

Explaining the lack of reactivity

Their lack of reactivity is because they have a full outer shell and
therefore don’t form stable ions.

It takes a lot of energy to rearrange the full outer shell so as to be

able to form bonds with other elements to form a molecule, so
this doesn’t happen either.
9. Metals
 Extracting and using metals

Only the most unreactive metals such as gold

and platinum are found as native metals.

ores
All the other metals we use are extracted
from their ores by chemical processes.

native

iron ore
Definition: An ore is a rock containing enough of a metal compound
for it to be worth extracting the metal from the rock.

The metal compounds in rocks are often metal oxides,

sometimes metal sulphides or carbonates.

Bauxite contains aluminium oxide, from which we

extract aluminium.

Galena is lead sulphide from which we obtain lead.

Iron pyrites (Fools Gold) is actually iron sulphide, and

contains no gold. We normally obtain iron from an ore
called haematite which contains iron oxide.
 Methods for turning the metal compounds in
ores into metals depend on how reactive the
metal is.

Two methods commonly used are:

1) REDUCTION WITH CARBON

C Used for oxides of metals less reactive than
carbon – the carbon displaces the metal, stealing
the oxygen to form carbon dioxide and leaving
the metal. Carbon is used because it is cheap
and plentiful.

2) ELECTROLYSIS
Can be used for any ore, but uses huge amounts
of energy, so an expensive process. Therefore
usually only used for metals more reactive than
carbon.
Extraction and uses of Iron

Reduction is used to extract iron

from its ore (haematite) which is
mainly iron(III) oxide.

The iron ions are reduced to iron

atoms, using carbon. This is oxidised
to form carbon dioxide.

iron(III) oxide + carbon → iron + carbon dioxide

2 Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)
The process happens in a blast
furnace.

Raw materials:

Iron ore – contains the iron to be

extracted

Coke – contains the carbon to reduce

the iron ore

Air – provides oxygen to burn the

carbon, which also heats the blast
furnace

Limestone – is mainly calcium

carbonate, which removes the
impurities (sand) in the iron ore by
reacting to form slag, which floats on
the molten iron
The chemistry:
Firstly the carbon in the coke is oxidised by the oxygen in the air to form carbon
dioxide. This exothermic reaction heats the blast furnace:

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

The carbon dioxide reacts with more oxygen to form the reducing agent, carbon
monoxide:

C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO(g)

The carbon monoxide then reduces the iron oxide in the iron ore to iron:

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

Meanwhile the calcium carbonate is thermally decomposed to calcium oxide. This is
a base which neutralises the sandy impurities (silicon dioxide, an acidic non-metal
oxide) to make calcium silicate:

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
calcium oxide sand slag
What comes out:

Molten iron – this is cast iron and

contains carbon impurities. It is brittle
and not yet very useful.

Slag – calcium silicate is a waste

product, but can be used for road
surfacing.

Carbon dioxide – produced in several

of the reactions in the blast furnace.

Nitrogen – left over from the air going

into the blast furnace, after the
oxygen has been used in reactions.
The uses of iron arise from its properties. Cast iron can be alloyed to make its properties more
suitable for specific purposes.

Different types of steels are alloys of iron,

each with different properties. Stainless
steel has added chromium atoms and resists
corrosion, remaining shiny.

Mild steel is iron with up to 0.3% carbon.

It is hard and strong, but not brittle, so
it can be shaped e.g. for car body panels,
ship building etc.

High-carbon steels have up to 2% carbon.

They are very hard – useful for knife blades,
but are brittle so cannot be bent to shape.
Extraction of lead
from its ore

This is done in two stages. Firstly the lead ore (which is mainly lead sulphide) is heated in
air to oxidise it. The products are lead oxide and sulphur dioxide:

2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)

The lead oxide is then heated with coke (carbon) in a blast furnace to cause a
displacement reaction which produces lead and carbon dioxide. This works because
carbon is more reactive than lead, so carbon can reduce the lead oxide to lead.

2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(l) + CO2(g)

Extraction and Uses of
Aluminium
Electrolysis is used to extract
aluminium from aluminium oxide;
this is obtained by purifying its ore
(bauxite).

The ionic aluminium oxide is split

into its elements, aluminium (a
metal) and oxygen (a gas).

aluminium oxide → aluminium + oxygen

2 Al2O3(l) → 4 Al(l) + 3 O2(g)
 The aluminium oxide is mixed with cryolite, which acts as a solvent to dissolve the
aluminium oxide, and allows the mixture to melt at a lower temperature (about
950˚C rather than nearly 2000˚C).

This saves some energy costs – although the current required is very high, so the
cost of electricity is a major factor.

At the cathode, molten aluminium is collected:

Al3+(l) + 3e- → Al(l)

At the anode, oxygen is formed:

2O2-(l) - 4e- → 2O2(g)

The anodes are made of graphite (carbon) and

react with the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide.
This means they get eaten away, and have to be
replaced sometimes.
The uses of aluminium arise from its properties. Pure aluminium is
too soft to be much use. It can be alloyed to make their properties
more suitable for specific purposes.

alloy pure metal

Harder: layers Soft: layers can
disrupted, can’t slide over each
slide over each other
other
Aluminium resists corrosion because it forms a thin but tough layer
of aluminium oxide over the surface of the metal. This prevents the
metal underneath from reacting further with oxygen or moisture
from the air.

Titanium also forms a protective layer like this, so it too resists

corrosion – it is also less reactive than aluminium.
By growing the oxide layer on the surface of titanium to
different thicknesses, it can be made to reflect different
colours of light.
Extracting titanium from rutile
Carbon can’t be used to extract
titanium from its ore because the
titanium reacts further with carbon,
so a more reactive metal, e.g. sodium
or magnesium, is used to reduce
the titanium ore instead.
rutile – titanium ore

For both titanium and aluminium:

Extraction of these metals from their ores is expensive.

- because there are many stages in the processes

- large amounts of energy are needed £
Overhead power lines are
made from aluminium

•low density
•excellent conductor
•corrosion resistance
Aluminium alloys are used for commercial aircraft
• light weight (low density)
• good strength
• corrosion resistance
Titanium is used in bodies of high-performance aircraft and in some
jet engine parts

• light weight (low density)

• corrosion resistant
• Keeps strength at
high temperature
Titanium is used in hip-replacements.

• strength
• resistance to corrosion
11. Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
A huge variety of molecules in living organisms, are based on carbon with just a few other
elements e.g. O and H.
This is possible because carbon always forms 4 bonds (valency = 4), so it can be bonded to
other atoms in many different configurations.

Isomerism
Molecules with the same numbers of each type of atom can still have these atoms bonded
together in different spatial arrangements. This is called isomerism.

e.g. C2H6O could be…

Types of chemical formula

Molecular formula e.g. C2H6 (the one we normally use)

- a list of the atoms in a molecule, and how many of each

Empirical formula e.g. CH3

- the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms present in the molecule
(divide the numbers by highest common factor)

Displayed formula H H
- shows each atom and ‘sticks’ for the bonds H C C H
between them, so we can tell isomers apart
H H
Structural formula e.g. CH3CH3
- lists each carbon atom and what it is bonded to, so this too can tell isomers apart.

Practice: (answers at the end of the topic)

Write the displayed formula for the substance CH3CH2CH2CH3
Write the empirical formula for the substance C6H12O6
Write the molecular formula for the substance CH3CH(CH3)CH2NH2
Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of C3H8O
The ALKANES – a chemical family
A homologous series is a family of molecules with similar groups of bonded atoms that have
the same reactions and a trends in their physical properties.
Each successive member of the series differs from the other by –CH2- which means that all
the members of the series are related by a general formula.
The alkanes are a homologous series with general formula CnH2n+2. (‘n’ is the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule)

The alkanes are saturated

hydrocarbons:

Definitions:
Hydrocarbons: compounds
containing only hydrogen
and carbon atoms
Saturated: containing no
carbon-to-carbon double
bonds
Isomerism in the alkanes
There is only one alkane with 2 carbon atoms, and only one alkane with 3 carbon atoms,
but we can have two different isomers with 4 carbon atoms:

butane a branched isomer of

butane (methylpropane)

Note that the chain of carbon atoms can be bent, but this does not make a different isomer.
Branches can be on either side of the chain, or counted from either end of the chain (mirror
images), but the isomer still the same. For different isomers, the atoms have to be
connected in a different sequence. (Although there are other forms of isomerism which you may
meet if you study Chemistry beyond IGCSE)
Practice:
What are the structures of the two branched isomers of pentane (with 5 carbon atoms)?
Hint: You may come up with more than two structures, but check that they aren’t the same
structure just rotated or twisted!

pentane
Crude Oil: a mixture of very many different compounds,
mostly hydrocarbons, mainly alkanes.

[Mixture: can be separated by physical means such as

distillation – not chemically bonded together]
Crude oil is not useful itself – we have to separate out
alkanes of similar number of carbon atoms.

Each group of these is called a fraction, and has different

properties and uses. e.g. the fraction from 6 to 9
carbons long is petrol

Lubricants Medicines Paint Solvents Fuels

Polishes Detergents Waxes Plastics

Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil on an Industrial Scale

refinery gases 3 – 4 carbons: used for domestic

heating and cooking e.g. LPG, and
camping gas

gasoline (petrol) 6 – 9 carbons: used for fuel in cars

11-16 carbons: used as aviation

kerosene (jet fuel) fuel, and as paraffin for heaters
and lamps
diesel oil
14-20 carbons: used as fuel in
lorries, buses, trains and some cars

fuel oil 20 – 27 carbons: used for ships'

boilers, and for some industrial
heating

bitumen > 35 carbons: used, mixed with

rock chippings, for the top surface
of roads
Properties of alkanes vary with size of
the molecule
With increasing length of the carbon
chain (increasing size of the molecule):
• Boiling point increases
• Melting point increases
• Viscocity (thick, sticky) increases
• Flammability decreases
• Burns less cleanly (more smoke)

Most fractions (except the longest chains) are used as fuels.

• We probably want the fuel to go down fuel lines and through pumps, so it should be
runny not thick and sticky – we should avoid very long chain hydrocarbons
• We want the fuel to burn cleanly rather than with a smoky flame – we should avoid very
long chain hydrocarbons
• We don’t want the fuel to ignite too easily – otherwise it will be difficult to store and
handle safely – we should avoid the shortest chain hydrocarbons
• We usually want our fuels to be liquids as they take less space to store than a – we should
avoid the shortest chain hydrocarbons
• Given these criteria we can see why there is huge demand for petrol for use in cars, which
typically contains chains from 6 – 10 carbon atoms long.
Separating crude oil
• The process is called fractional distillation.
• It takes place in a fractionating column.
• It works because as the number of carbon atoms
in an alkane increases, the boiling points increase.
• It is NOT a reaction (no substances changed) – just
a separation

How it works:
Each fraction contains molecules with similar
numbers of carbon atoms and similar boiling points.
Different size fractions will therefore condense at
different temperatures.

The crude oil is vapourised and enters the bottom of

a fractionating column which has a temperature
gradient. (hot at the bottom, cooler towards the
top).

At different levels in the column, different fractions

cool down to their boiling points and condense, and
are collected.
Complete combustion of alkane fuels
When hydrocarbons burn in a plentiful supply of air (oxygen) they are fully oxidised. No
matter which hydrocarbon you burn, the products are the same: carbon dioxide and water.

General equation for complete combustion:

alkane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water e.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Incomplete combustion of alkane fuels

When hydrocarbons burn in a limited supply of air (oxygen) we get
incomplete combustion – the fuel is partially oxidised.

This might happen if a domestic fire is not properly maintained and air-
holes are blocked, for example. If there isn’t enough oxygen available to
form carbon dioxide we can get carbon monoxide or solid carbon (soot)
formed.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
alkane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water
• colourless, odourless
e.g. 2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l) • poisonous when inhaled
because it reduces the capacity of
the blood to carry oxygen.
• from domestic fires/heaters,
• from traffic exhaust
Other combustion products
Suphur dioxide, SO2,
and nitrogen oxides,
NOx, are also
produced when
fossil fuels are burnt
in power stations
and factories, and in
motor vehicles; they
cause acid rain.

Sulphur dioxide comes from traces of sulphur in fossil fuels, which

oxidise to sulphur dioxide when burnt. S + O2 → SO2
Sulphur is therefore removed from liquid fuels such as petrol before
sale (it is then used as the raw material in the Contact Process).
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water droplets in the atmosphere to form
sulphurous acid, making acid rain. SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
sulphurous acid
The wind can carry the gases and droplets a long way, so acid rain can
fall on regions far from where it was produced.
Acid rain can kill or stunt the growth of plants and trees, and harm or kill
aquatic animals. Buildings made of limestone or marble are corroded, and
some metals such as iron can also be corroded by acid rain.

The nitrogen oxides come from the very high temperature inside car engines, which causes
the nitrogen in the air to be burnt (i.e. react with the oxygen in the air). Nitrogen oxides in
the air contribute to the formation of smog, and can lead to respiratory illnesses.
Catalytic converters are used in the exhausts of cars. They
convert NOx to N2, and CO to CO2, but have no effect on SO2.
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g)

Catalytic converters only work when the

catalyst is really hot, so are not effective on
short trips.
Reaction of alkanes with halogens
Alkanes can also react slowly with halogens such as bromine, but only in the presence of uv
light, e.g. from sunlight.
This is a substitution reaction. One of the hydrogen atoms in the alkane is substituted for a
halogen atom.

e.g. CH4(g) + Br2(g) → CH3Br(g) + HBr(g)

methane bromine bromomethane hydrogen bromide

The brown colour of the bromine slowly disappears, as the products are colourless.

Practice – reactions of alkanes:

Write a balanced equation for the complete combustion of ethane, C2H6, and of propane,
C3H8.

Write a balanced equation for the incomplete combustion of ethane to give carbon
monoxide and water, and the incomplete combustion of propane to give carbon (soot) and
water.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between chlorine and ethane, and name the
products formed.
Alkenes – another homologous series
The alkenes are a homologous series of
hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n.
They are unsaturated as they contain one
carbon-to-carbon double bond. Ethene is the simplest alkene
ALKANES are SATURATED hydrocarbons
ALKENES are UNSATURATED hydrocarbons Isomerism in the alkenes
There is only one alkene with 2
carbon atoms, and one with 3
carbon atoms, but we can have
three different alkenes with 4
carbon atoms:

but-1-ene

but-2-ene

a branched
isomer
We use a number in the name to show between which (methylpropene)
carbon atoms the double bond is located.
Test for alkenes:
Add a few drops of bromine water (orange) to
the hydrocarbon, and shake.

• Alkenes can decolourise bromine water.

• Alkanes cannot do this (the bromine remains

orange)
This is an addition reaction. The double bond
in the alkene breaks and the two bromine
atoms are joined one to each carbon atom.

The numbers in the

name indicate which
+ Br-Br → carbon atoms the
bromine atoms are
attached to.

ethene bromine 1,2-dibromoethane

Other halogens e.g. chlorine or iodine react with alkenes in the same way.
Practice: Write a balanced equation for the reaction between propene and iodine, and
name the products.
Where do we get alkenes?
Short-chain hydrocarbons (e.g. in petrol) are in high demand as fuels, because of the very
large number of cars we use. Fractional distillation produces less than we need of the
short-chain fractions so they are in short supply.
There is lower demand for the longer-chain hydrocarbon molecules such as fuel oils (we
have much fewer ships than cars). Fractional distillation produces more than we need.
A reaction called cracking is used to make long chain hydrocarbons into shorter, more
useful alkanes, and also produces useful alkenes.

Catalytic cracking
• creates more of products (short chains) which are in
demand and in short supply
• makes more efficient use of finite crude oil reserves
(uses longer chains)
• The reaction is an example of thermal decomposition

Conditions: Long chain alkanes are converted to alkenes

using silica or alumina as catalysts and a temperature of
600 – 700°C.
The long chain gets broken into two shorter
parts. One will be an alkane, and one will be an
alkene.

Where the chain breaks is random, so cracking

creates a mixture of products which can be
separated by further fractional distillation.

E.g. An alkane 6 carbons long can break into a 4-carbon alkane and a 2-carbon alkene.
We can write this equation as: C6H14 → C4H10 + C2H4
hexane butane + ethene

There are some other possibilities to be aware of…

1) hydrogen can be a product, instead of a shorter alkane
e.g. butane → butene + hydrogen
C4H10 → C4H8 + H2
2) the chain could break twice to give an alkane and two alkenes
e.g. octane → butane + ethene
C8H18 → C4H10 + 2C2H4
Another route for making alkenes
Alkenes can also be made by dehydration of alcohols; alcohols can be made as sustainable
and as renewable resource by fermentation of sugars (see later).

e.g.

ethanol → ethene + water

The alcohol vapour is passed over hot aluminium oxide, which acts as a catalyst.
Products from alkenes – Ethanol
Alkenes are used to manufacture many useful substances:
Ethanol can be manufactured by passing ethene and
steam over a concentrated phosphoric acid catalyst at a
temperature of about 300°C and a pressure of 60-70 atm.
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
ethene + water (steam) → ethanol

Advantages of this method of making ethanol:

• rapid – continuous process with few steps
• makes pure ethanol
• manufacturing cost is low
• higher % yield
• best method in countries with good supplies
of crude oil

Disadvantages of this method of making ethanol:

• Uses ethene from crude oil – finite resource
• Lots of energy required – high temperature,
which means lots of fuel burnt and high CO2
emissions leading to more global warming
Ethanol can also be manufactured by fermentation of sugars from sugar cane or sugar
beet, at a temperature of about 30°C. The enzyme zymase in yeast catalyses this reaction,
but at higher temperatures the enzyme is denatured.
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2 CO2
sugar → ethanol + carbon dioxide

Simple distillation is used to extract the pure ethanol from the resulting aqueous solution
that is produced, which works because ethanol and water have different boiling points.

Advantages of this method of making ethanol:

• uses renewable resources (plant matter)
• fuel is carbon-neutral
• low energy consumption, reducing carbon dioxide
emissions and resulting in less global warming
• best in countries with good availability of sugar
cane and poor supplies of crude oil

Disadvantages of this method of making ethanol:

• slow – batch process involving more steps
• labour intensive
• product impure – has to be distilled to purify
• product is more expensive to manufacture
Products from Alkenes – Addition Polymers Fire resistant polymer fibre
suits for F1 pit crews

Polymer canopy on military

aircraft is light and tough

Modern climbing ropes are

woven from polymer fibres
Breathable weather-resistant Common household objects
sportswear uses polymer fibres made from polymer materials
Plastics and manmade fibres consist of very long chain molecules. These are made up from
lots of small molecules that have joined together.
We call the small molecules MONOMERS and the long chain they make, a POLYMER. The
name of the polymer comes from the monomer, with ‘poly’ in front of it.
Alkenes can act as monomers because they have a C=C double bond, which allows them to
join together

This reaction is called addition polymerisation because the alkene monomers add on to
one another to make one product only.

Changes that take place when a

polymer forms
• The double bond breaks in each
monomer, ‘opening up’ to join
with the next monomer.
• Many monomers join together in
this way to make a very long
chain.
ethene → poly(ethene) common name: polythene or PE

the monomer, Poly(ethene) is a really useful

ethene
a repeat unit of poly(ethene)
plastic. It is easy to shape,
strong, and transparent.
e.g.
plastic bags, drinks bottles,
dustbins,
clingfilm
BUT it melts easily and catches
fire easily !

How to write an
equation for the
reaction:
propene → poly(propene) common name: PP or polypropylene

the monomer, Poly(propene) is more rigid

propene than poly(ethene), tough
and durable.

It is used for making crates,

ropes and fibres in some
carpets

A repeat unit of
poly(propene)

How to write an equation for

the reaction:
chloroethene → Poly(chloroethene) common name: PVC
the monomer, PVC is also useful e.g. for
chloroethene window frames (because it is
stiff, and doesn’t bend easily)

and insulation on wires

(because it does not catch
fire easily, and is easy to add
a colour to)

a repeat unit of poly(chloroethene)

How to write an
equation for the
reaction:
Given a repeat unit for a polymer, you should be able to draw the monomer from which it
was formed:

1. remove the connecting bonds and any brackets

2. make the bond between the two carbon atoms of the chain into a double bond

Practice: Draw the monomers that

formed these two polymers:

PTFE poly(styrene)
Problems with polymers
Because they are very inert (unreactive) addition polymers are not
easily broken down by micro-organisms – they are not
biodegradable.
Being non-biodegradable can be good - plastic structures used
outside don’t need painting or maintaining like wooden objects.
But this does cause problems when we want to dispose of
polymers…

We currently have three options:

- dump plastic waste in landfill
- incinerate plastic waste
- collect, sort and recycle it

Landfill is a poor solution:

• the plastics never rot away
• more and more space is needed, and land is
valuable
• wildlife may be harmed by eating plastics or
getting entangled.
Burning (incinerating):
• Incinerators are expensive to build
• Toxic fumes can be released
• Energy from burning is useful e.g. for home/factory heating

Sorting and recycling plastics:

• very labour intensive to collect and sort
• plastics must be washed before sorting into different types
• not all types of plastic can be recycled
The cost of recycled plastic can be higher than new plastic !
Condensation Polymers
Unlike addition polymers, when the monomers in condensation polymers join together
there is a small molecule released, such as water, when each link is formed.

Condensation polymers are often formed by reacting two different monomers together.

e.g. nylon is a condensation polymer.

Answers

Write the displayed formula for the substance CH3CH2CH2CH3

Write the empirical formula for the substance C6H12O6 CH2O

Write the molecular formula for the substance CH3CH(CH3)CH2NH2 C4H11N

Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of C3H8O

CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH(OH)CH3 CH3CH2OCH3

What are the structures of the two branched isomers of pentane (with 5 carbon atoms)?
Hint: You may come up with more than two structures, but check that they aren’t the same
structure just rotated or twisted!
Write a balanced equation for the complete combustion of ethane, C2H6, and of propane,
C3H8.
2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Write a balanced equation for the incomplete combustion of ethane to give carbon
monoxide and water, and the incomplete combustion of propane to give carbon (soot) and
water.
2C2H6 + 5O2 → 4CO + 6H2O
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between chlorine and ethane, and name the
products formed.
C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl
chloroethane hydrogen chloride

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between propene and iodine, and name the
product.
C3H6 + I2 → C3H6I2
1,2-diiodopropane
Write a symbol equation for the cracking of heptane in which propane is one of the products

C7H16 → C3H8 + C4H8

Draw the monomers that formed these two polymers:

Monomer =

PTFE

Monomer =

poly(styrene)