The Absent Agriculturist in International Affairs

Author(s): A. R. Vasavi
Source: Georgetown Journal of International Affairs , Winter/Spring 2013, Vol. 14, No.
1 (Winter/Spring 2013), pp. 133-141
Published by: Georgetown University Press

Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/43134393

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 Culture&Society

Intpmatinna^ Affair "r'S^

A.R. Vasavi

A.R. Vasavi was until

Although issues of land, agricultural commodities, trade,
recently a Professor of
pricing, productivity, patents, and farm subsidies are cen-
Social Anthropology at
the National Institute
tral to international negotiations, the agriculturist continues
of Advanced Studies,
to be absent from decision-making regarding such matters.1 Bangalore, India. She
is currently a Senior
International agriculture- related transactions are domi-
Fellow of the Nehru

nated by players such as agribusiness multinationals, state

Memorial Museum and
Library, New Delhi.
representatives from developed countries, and a coterieHerofbooks on rural
compromised scientist-administrators, while agriculturists are: Harbingers of
India
Bain: Land and Life in South
are overlooked. Decision makers blindly support agribusi-
India , and the more
ness agendas and deploy deep and extant forms of violence
recent Shadow Space:
Suicides and the Predica-
against rural and agrarian terrains. The end result is the pro-
ment of Rural India, which
forms the basis for this
duction of multiple crises such as food scarcity, rural exo-
article.
duses, abandonment of agriculture, and neglect and decima-
tion of agriculturists. If such depredations are to be avoided,
agriculturists across nations must be recognized as citizens
with rights equal to those of urban, industrial citizens. Their
contributions must be factored into all decisions which affect
their lives, livelihoods, and futures.
The food crisis in Africa, impending food scarcity in large
parts of the developing world, and epidemic of suicides by
Indian agriculturists are typically associated with corruption,
migration, and extant conditions of poverty. While much
of this is true, there are deeper structural factors that cause
widespread distress in agricultural sectors. New regimes of

Winter/Spring 2013 [ 1 3 3 ]

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THE ABSENT AGRICULTURIST IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

tivators,
laws and regulations- promulgated by are overlooked. Claims made
national and international agencies
by the WTO - regime stating that agri-
value market rights, dominant cultural
states' trade liberalization will benefit
interests, corporate competitiveness,
developing countries are contested by
and investor profitability overcritics
agricul- and farmers' organizations, such
as Via Campesina.2
turists' rights. Policies pertaining to OECD demands
agricultural production, marketing,
for increased access to developing mar-
trade, and patents should accord ketsagri-
have caused prolonged delays in the
culturists their rightful voice. GATT. Developing countries' challeng-
This essay provides a sketch esofare
the only more evidence of continued
various ways in which policiesfailure
regard- to consider the sustainability of
agricultural
ing trade, development, expansion, and operations.3
international philanthropy related The torelegation of the agricultural
sector
agriculture bypass agriculturists. Such in international development
neglect accounts for continued regimes
crises in is evident in policy documents
various parts of the world anddisseminated
renders by institutions such as the
international aid redundant. World Bank and the Asian Development
Bank. Reports such as the World Develop-
Anti-Agrarianism: Trade and
ment Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
Development Policies. Despite
consider agriculture a laggard in need
of reengineering and replacement with
evidence of the resilience, viability, sus-
other vibrant economic activities.4 Such
tainability, and productivity of small
cultivators, current international trade
plans include opening agriculture to
and market-led regimes intentionally private sector players, encouraging con-
or unintentionally seek their demise. tract farming, and integrating the agri-
Policy priorities, such as providing
cultural economy into the larger global
high -technology and know-how, repro-markets.5 Policy pronouncements see
globalization of agriculture with in-
duce biases against agriculture and draw
on a range of perspectives to retool creased
ag- inputs of private capital and
riculture to fit into the new regimehigh-technology
of as the only solution
to problems of low productivity, food
global trade. Absent in these measures
are the more appropriate and requiredscarcity, and poverty in most rural areas.
Over the years, national agricultural
strategies of decentralizing agricultural
research, enhancing local innovation policy documents have begun to reflect
capacities, and ensuring political guidelines
ac- from international aid and
development agencies. This includes
countability of production systems.
recommendations which inevitably lead
Such measures could help address local,
ecology-specific problems and enable the economy to shift surplus rural pop-
ulations into urban areas, and for small-
agriculturists to retain their agency and
abilities. scale and subsistence farming to col-
Instead, a range of new trade and de-lapse. These statements set the tone for
velopment policies constitute an ori-the reproduction of 'agro -skepticism,'
entation in which the interests of the
in which the rural and the agricultural
are seen as lacking any worth.6 This is
majority, especially the marginal cul-

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 v asa vi Culture&Society

evident in the promotion of education, written by eminent scientists, scholars,

urbanization, and employment policies
that privilege urban sectors over rural
and agriculture ones in most countries-
especially those in the developing world.
Such attitudes account for repeated
or science-administrators as heads of
committees and organizations. Many of
these, such as the National Agricultural
Policy in India, provide comprehensive
reviews and recommendations to scaf-

statements by leading policy makers, fold agricultural growth and the rural
think-tank members, and administra- economy in general. Several govern-
tors that agriculture cannot cater to the ments, however, place these on the back
overpopulated rural regions, that the burner; as such, the policies remain far
poor human-to-land ratio accounts from implementation.
for the failure of agriculture to sustain On the second track are policies, leg-
people, and that an overhaul in the very islation, and programs formulated with-
working of the land is non-negotiable. out due process or public input. These
While each of these have legitimized the policies seek to integrate land and agri-
increasing externalization, financializa- culture into the larger global, neolib-
tion, and corporatization of agricul- eral economy. Scholars and representa-
ture - increasingly basing the sector on tives of public and private think-tanks
external inputs and integration into the are also members of such initiatives and
market- the larger structural issues and draw their perspectives from overarch-
problems of poor soil fertility and in- ing neoliberal economics which justifies
equitable access to land, resources, and increasing financialization and liberal-
capital remain unaddressed. ization of all economic activities. While
Attendant with these structural is- policies of the first track remain largely
sues is the dissemination of dominant rhetorical and rarely employed in actual
images of agriculturists all overprograms,
the the second track of policies
world: the starving peasants of Africa;
and programs are finalized by a chosen
the suicidal peasant of India; the left-
few and subsequently granted legitimacy
through implementation.
inclined and ready to bear arms peasants
Early results of the imposition of
of South America; the resilient peasant
turned factory worker of Southeast Asia ;
transnational agribusiness interests over
the peasant turned migrant worker those
of of regional and national food
China; and the increasingly uncompet-security were 'banana republics.' The
itive and exhausted farmers of Europe'banana republics' produced not only
exotic food crops for Western mar-
and the United States. Such stereotypes
support the 'advanced marginality' of but also tyrants who then wrecked
kets,
agriculturists in which the marginal the
are local economies of these regions.
further neglected and their needs delib-
Failure to address regional agricultural
erately overlooked.7 politics or provide appropriate policies
has led to conditions and events of ex-
Especially since I991» national-level
agricultural and rural policies seem treme
to violence in which the most mar-
be on three parallel tracks. One track
ginal and vulnerable are victims. Over
consists of a body of policies, missions,
the past two decades, several economic
committee reports, and position papers
programs have been undertaken with-

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THE ABSENT AGRICULTURIST IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

out being subject to widespread debate In bypassing democratic pro-

opment.
or scrutiny. Events from around cessesthe
and in the absence of stringent
and effective regulatory mechanisms,
world provide testimony to the rampant
violations of agrarian and agricultur-
these second track agricultural policies
ists' interests and ideas: the promotion
work against the interests of small and
of biofuel or crop-fuel production in agriculturists and the sustain -
marginal
Latin American countries; the spread
ability of
of agriculture.
fboom crops' (such as cocoa, oil-palm,
The third track of policy documents
coffee, and shrimp) in Southeast is Asian
produced by corporate consultants
nations; the access to mineral belts by to realize neoliberal goals of
who seek
international mining companies; and
commercializing agriculture and rede-
the continued promotion of export-
fining the mass of rural persons as pools
based factories in China's once-rich of cheap
ag- urban labor. For example, sev-
ricultural belts. eral regional states in India have "Vision
In all of these cases, the idea that 2020" and/or "Vision 2050" docu-
non -agricultural livelihoods and econ- ments which are authored by manage-
omies benefit both local and national ment consultancies and have become
economies has been the raison d'être for directives of state economic policies
without subjection to wide-spread dis-
such policies. These decisions have been
made by compromised political actorscussion or debate. Such documents
and bureaucrats and backed by interna- prescribe a shifting of large masses of
tional financial interests. The immedi- agriculturists toward more efficient
ate and long-term interests of agricul- livelihoods, commercializing agricul-
turists have been bypassed, leading tureto to make it both competitive and
contentious and violent confrontations. efficient in the global market, increas-
In India, U.S. -led programs, such ing
as the volume of people in the service
the Indo-U.S. Knowledge Initiative on economy, and legitimizing the notion
Agriculture, have been adopted without that tech- nology and appropriate man-
agement of resources will solve all the
any public debate.8 The fact that its key
objective is to develop new and com- structural problems of poverty. What
mercially viable technologies for agri- are sometimes presented as pro -agri-
cultural advancement in both countries culture policies are often populist pos-
indicates its biases and orientation. tures that support dominant farmers or
Linked to this, members from large leading
-agricultural players who also wield
transnational agribusiness corpora-
political clout.
The current internationalization of
tions constitute the Knowledge Initia-
tive Board, along with select represen-
agriculture enhances existing structures
tatives from the Indian governmentof inequity, introducing and abetting
various
and a few agricultural universities. Therisks while avoiding problems
absence of representatives from agri- distribution, inclusive eco-
of resource
nomic growth, and social development.
cultural groups, elected representatives,
Agricultural development is defined
and civil society organizations indicates
the blatant violation of democratic pro- by increased productivity, with
primarily
cesses in matters of agriculturalproductivity
devel- made a trope for develop -

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 vasa vi Culture&Society

ment itself. The end result has been a subsequently displaced local agricultur-
series of fallouts- economic, social, ists.10 In some cases, a single company
and ecological- encapsulated in currentis allocated up to a million hectares.
world-wide crises of food, energy, and Similarly, China's expansion into Af-
rica's agricultural belts has become a
livelihoods. Large parts of Africa, once
exporters of food grains and crops causeto for concern. Brazil's success in

the West, are now devastated by nearly export agriculture has led the country to
expand to various other South Ameri-
thirty-five years of corporate globaliza-
can nations, causing the collapse of
tion, free trade, and anti-peasant poli-
cies, all of which were imposed by the small cultivating units and creating large
World Bank, IMF, WTO, United States, pools of displaced peasantries. Such
and EU.9 Free trade agreements have agri-expansionism will only exacerbate
enabled private traders and companies land inequities, loss of livelihoods, and
to import subsidized food grains from the problems of ecological degrada-
these regions, rather than negotiate tion. Subsequently, already vulnerable
with local farmers. Subsequent 'dump- populations will become more prone
ing' drives local farm prices below costs to food scarcities and inevitably suffer
of production and local farmers out of from famines and war. Dispelling agri-
business. This process is singularly re- culturists from the worlds of agriculture
sponsible for destroying various viable and rendering agriculture into techno-

The current internationalization of agric

ture enhances existing structures of inequity
and agricultural production regimes in
industrial domains in which high pro-
vast regions of the world. ductivity alone is valued will have sharp,
long-term implications. It will be the
New Agri-Expansionism.basis
The for rupturing the social fabric and
new scramble for arable land has made collectivities that were also the founda-
rural areas the new global frontier. tions
Re- of viable economies, their atten-
cent international agreements and con-
dant societies, and the functioning of
cessions support such agri-expansion,nations.

often in violation of both ecological

International Philanthropy and
norms and citizenship rights. India,
Saudi Arabia, Korea, China, and the Agrarian Citizenship. Even as in-
EU have joined in a race to cultivate and
ternational trade regimes promote the
liberalization of markets and the mar-
expropriate vast tracks of Africa's agri-
cultural land. India's agribusiness com-
ginalization of small producers, inter-
panies have been permitted entry into national philanthropic agencies and
foundations seek to address the fall-out
some African countries, especially into
Ethiopia and Kenya, creating vast zonesthat results in decreased production,
food scarcity, and famines. "Live Aid"
of industrialized agriculture which have

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THE ABSENT AGRICULTURIST IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

and other international charitable re-and well-being represents the erosion

sponses to such forms of distressof arethe agrarian citizenship of agricul-
primarily in the form of emergency tural peoples. Such citizenship should
aid; they serve only as a bandage go that beyond civic and political citizenship
does little to heal the deeper structural
and recognize the land, agriculture, and
wounds of inequity. resource -based rights of agriculturists.
Over the past few years, initiatives
Agrarian citizenship should legitimize
such as Alliance for Green Revolution the "...political and material rights of
in Africa (AGRA), led by the Gates rural dwellers... based not solely on is-
Foundation, have looked for high-tech sues of rural political representation,
approaches to resolve Africa's endem- but also on a relationship with the so-
ic problems of food scarcity. AGRA cio is-ecological metabolism between so-
based primarily on a science and tech-ciety and nature."12 Moreover, it should
nology model and overlooks the volu- be the cornerstone of agricultural poli-
cies and trade relations.
minous data that critiques the original
Green Revolution itself. The AGRA The loss of agrarian citizenship has
initiative will make smallholders more often led to the formation of vast masses

of people as "rural refugees," or those

environmentally vulnerable by intro-
ducing methods and technologies of
displaced from rural areas and now re-

The denial of agriculturists' rights and well-

being represents the erosion of the agrarian citizen-
ship of agricultural peoples.

siding in urban ghettos. It also accounts

cultivation that will erode the ecological
bases of Sub-Saharan Africa. As Holt- for the spread of new forms of illegali-
Gominez et al point out: ties that threaten societies, nations, and
AGRA's 'alliance' does not allow international relations. These illegali-
peasant farmers to be the princi- include practices such as formation
ties
pal actors in agricultural improve- of labor gangs that override minimum
ment. The Rockefeller and Gates wage rules, black economies in which tax
Foundations consulted with the rules are subverted and banned prod-
world's largest seed and fertilizer sold, and transnational circuits of
ucts
companies, big philanthropy, and illegal migration. The disruption of Af-
multilateral development agencies, ghanistan's pastoral economy and the
but have yet to let peasant farmer rendering of the once sturdy Pashtun/
organizations present their views Afghan peasant into a warrior is only
on the kind of agricultural devel- one of many stark examples of what such
opment they believe will most ben- rural disruption entails. The subse-
efit them.11 quent "...loss over food and agriculture
The denial of agriculturists' rights implies a democratic deficit as citizens

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 v asa vi Culture&Society

are not given a voice in the determina- recognize the specificities of small-scale
tion of the policies affecting their lives agriculture and the constraints and dis-
and their future."13 advantages faced by the average, mar-
ginal African peasant. FLAN seeks to
Promising Alternatives. The
initiate a regime of fair trade with these
possibility and strengths of including agriculturists.16
agriculturists' voices is demonstrated Recent political mobilization in
in a select number of reports. The In- South America, as in Venezuela, that
ternational Assessment of Agricultural Knowledgeseeks
, to address the centuries-long land
denial
Science and Technology for Development (IAAS- to indigenous groups and the
TD) was one of the first to highlight thepromulgation of new civic and political
need for a rights-based approach to is- rights that recognize various livelihoods
is another big step in the direction of
sues of food security, agricultural devel-
opment, and science and technology for according rights to cultivators. In Asia,
agriculture.14 Focusing on smallhold-civil society organizations are now spear-
ings and their owners and workers, the heading coalition movements in which
UN -led study calls for the recognition
rights to land and natural resources are
of small cultivators and the moral basis
gaining currency. For example, in In-
of their livelihood, rather than market-
dia, Ekta Parishad, a Gandhian move-
oriented globalization. ment, has spearheaded the demand for
The "Democratizing Agricultural
land rights and recently signed a memo-
Research" workshops and farmer juries
randum with the Government seeking
held in West Africa and India are other address of land related issues. Women
positive examples.15 They have not onlyas key cultivators, especially in regions
represented the voices and ideas of ag-like Africa, are now being recognized
riculturists, but also placed them at by
the some governments and their legiti-
center of policy reconstruction and macy,
ef- rights, and knowledge are being
reinforced through new policy initia-
forts to forge new agricultural agendas.
As agriculturists at one of these meet-tives. These cases represent possibili-
ings pointed out, the challenge is to ties
re- of addressing the deficits of existing
tain their food security and also enable
agrarian structures and the exclusion of
them to have access to income. They agriculturists from decision and policy-
had strategies and suggestions to ensure
making.
these; agriculturists now recognize that
Conclusion. National and interna-
markets are not invisibly controlled, but
are instead manipulated and directed. tional crises are being forged as agri-
culturists become rural refugees and
Furthermore, agriculturists realize that
they can also have a say in the pricing
increasingly displaced peoples. Interna-
of their products. Similarly, FoodFirst
tional trade, development, expansion,
Information and Action Network In- and philanthropy agreements, which
ternational (FLAN), a German inter- claim to rescue agriculturists, exacerbate
national human rights organization, the situation. As agriculturists every-
marks a shift in the dominant capitalist where - from post-communist peasant
"West vs. Africa" narrative as it seeks to workers to displaced agrarian refugees

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THE ABSENT AGRICULTURIST IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

in Africa- search for sustainable solu- representation to the average marginal

tions to retaining viable livelihoods, agriculturist in each of their domains,
they also demand recognition of their regions, and nations that the myriad prob-
worth and citizenship. lems of food and livelihoods will be resolved.
If any genuine international change New imaginaries of agriculture are
is to be initiated, it must come in the required, which will not treat the agri-
form of offering dignity and agency to culturist as a supplicant, patient, refu-
agriculturists: recognizing citizenship gee, or dependent. Recognizing that
rights and the ecological specificitiesagriculturists are also repositories of
of varied agricultural zones, localiz- knowledge across the world will pre-
ing food production and distribution, pare us to face the complexities of global
enhancing ownership rights, provid-warming, climate change, the search for
ing for collective production, market-sustainable livelihoods and lives, and
ing abilities among the most marginal the strengthening of genuine grass-
cultivators, and enabling a sustainable roots based democracies. As one astute
resource base in which rights to cultur- and hard-pressed agriculturist said to
ally diverse forms of living and food se- me, "will there be life when the tillers
curity are central pillars. It will only be of soil, the feeders of the world will be
in the according of voice, agency, and done away with?"17

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 vasa vi Culture&Society

NOTES

Agriculture,"
I The term agriculturist is used as a blanket term to Economic and Political Weekly 43» no- 4*8: 19-
include both peasants/subsistence cultivators and9 also Ruth Wedgwood and Tiffany Basiano, "The
farmers who cultivate for the market. Right to Food' and Foreign Land Deals in Africa," The
2 Timothy A. Wise, "Promise or Pitfall? The Lim- Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns
ited Gains from Agricultural Trade liberalization for Hopkins University SAISPHERE (2011): 57" 59 •
Developing Countries," Journal of Peasant Studies 36, no. IO See the report by the Government of India
4 (October 2009): 855-870. Monitor, "The Indian Land Grab In Africa," Inter-
3 Faizel Ismail, "Narratives and Myths in the WTO net , http : / / www . counter cur rents . o rg/ goi20I2II. htm .
Doha Round The Way Forward?," Economic and Political II Eric Holt-Gimenez, Miguel A. Altieri, and
Weekly 47, no. 31 (August 20I2): 55~6o. Peter Rosset, Food First Policy Brief No. 12: Ten Reasons Why the
4 World Bank, World Development Report 2008: Agri- Rockefeller and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundations' Alliance for
culture for Development (New York: Oxford UniversityAnother Green Revolution Will Not Solve the Problems of Poverty and
Press, 2008). For detailed reviews and critiques ofHunger in Sub- Saharan Africa, (California 2006).
this report from the perspective of various regions and 12 See Hannah Wittman, "Reworking the Meta-
countries see the Journal of Peasant Studies 36» no. 3 (Juty bolic Rift: La Via Campesina, Agrarian Citizenship,
2009): 603-645. and Food Sovereignty Journal of Peasant Studies 36, no.
5 Contract Farming refers to farming practices 4 (October 2009): 805-826.
wherein the initial capital, inputs, and even know-how 13 Frederic Mousseau, Food Aid or Food Sovereignty?
are provided by agri-business agencies; farmers actEnding World Hunger in Our Time, (California, 2005): 6l.
only as cultivators or producers. 14 IAASTD, "Towards Multifunctional Agricul-
6 See the essay by Haroon Akram-Lodhi, "Mod- ture for Social, Environmental and Economic Sus-
ernising Subordination? A South Asian Perspective tainability," Internet, http://iaastd.net.docs/lo505_
on the World Development Report 2008: Agriculturemulti.pdf.
for Development," Journal of Peasant Studies 36, no. 3 15 Two exemplary cases are that of the work con-
(July 2009): 611-619. ducted by the International Institute for Environment
7 Loie Wacquant, "The Rise of Advanced Mar-and Development (IIED) in West Africa (see Michel
ginality: Notes on its Nature and Implications," ActaPimbert, Boukary Barry, Anne Berson, and Khanh
Sociologial 39, no. 2 (2006). Tran -Thanh, Democratising Agricultural Research for Food Sov-
8 The 'Indo -US Knowledge Initiative in Agricul- ereignty in West Africa (London: 2010). Also see the work
tural Research and Education' (KIA) was initiated inby Alliance For Democratising Agricultural Research
2006 under George Bush but did not take-off untilin South Asia, Raitha Theerpu (Farmers' Jury): Report of Jury on
March 20I0 under the Obama regime. Its purportedDemocratising Agricultural Research in Karnataka, (Hyderabad,
focus was on four key areas: Biotechnology, Food2009).
processing and Marketing, Education and Training, 16 FLAN International, Policies to Overcome the Marginalisa-
and Water Management and Precision Agriculture. tion of African Peasant Farmers. Policy implications of project work
The initiative provides a platform for strengthening on African smallholders in focus- a voice in EU trade policy, (Hei-
the role of agri-business giants such as Monsanto, delberg: 2009).
DuPont, Wal-Mart, Teseo, and Cargill in the nation, 17 Woman agriculturist, fieldwork notes in India
many of whose representatives are on its board. For anat the height of the epidemic of suicides, Karnataka,
excellent overview and critique of the KIA see Kavitha India.
Kuruganti's essay, "Targeting regulation in Indian

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