PRINCIPLES

OF POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
- Part 2 -

Bob Coulter
1
Power System
Principles Protection
of Protection – Part 2
Protection Function - Components
PR Protection Relay
Bus
CB Circuit Breaker
CB CT Equip
Equip Protected Item
Tr

PR P CT Current Transformer
C
L
VT
VT Voltage Transformer
DC Aux HMI Control

DC Aux DC Auxiliary supply

HMI Man-machine interface

Basic Arrangement of a
Protection Scheme PCL Communications Link

Tr CB trip coil
2
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Methods of Detecting Faults
„ Magnitude of current – Overcurrent protection
„ Magnitude of current in earth or neutral – Earth Fault protection
„ Magnitude and Phase Angle of current – Directional Overcurrent protection
„ Magnitude and Phase Angle of current in earth or neutral – Directional Earth Fault
protection
„ Magnitude and Angle of Impedance (Ratio V/I) – Impedance protection
„ Difference between two or more currents – Differential protection
„ Difference between Phase Angles of two currents – Phase Comparison protection
„ Magnitude of negative sequence current
„ Magnitude of Voltage – Overvoltage or Undervoltage protection
„ Magnitude of Frequency – Over or Underfrequency protection
„ Temperature – Thermal protection
„ Specials i.e. transformer gas protection,
3
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 OVERCURRENT and EARTH FAULT
PROTECTION

Bob Coulter

4
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Principle of an Overcurrent Relay
+ve
Ip Primary
current

I Current I≥Iset Time Is CT secondary

Level Delay current
Detector Generator
Output
Is Auxiliary
Iset
Operating
Current
Relay
Setting

Ip Iset Tset To Circuit Breaker

Trip Coil
Time Delay
Tset Setting

Time Time

Operate Zone
Operate Zone
Tset
Tset

Iset 10xIset Current Iset Current

5 Inverse Time Characteristic Definite Time Characteristic

Principles of Protection – Part 2
Connection of Overcurrent Relays for Phase and
Earth Fault Protection
CT .Current
CT
Transformer
Ip(R)

OC Phase
Ip(W)
Overcurrent
Relay
Ip(B)
EF Earth Fault
Is(B) Is(W) Is(R)
Overcurrent
OC OC OC Relay

Ip Primary fault
EF current

Is Secondary
6 current
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Current Flow for Phase -to-Phase Fault
Phase-to-Phase

CT .Current
CT
Transformer
0

OC Phase
Ip(W)
Overcurrent
Relay
Ip(B)

EF Earth Fault
Is(B) Is(W) 0
Overcurrent
OC OC OC Relay

Ip Primary fault
EF current

Is Secondary
7 current
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Current Flow for Phase -to-Earth Fault
Phase-to-Earth

CT Current
CT
Transformer
Ip(R)

OC Phase
0
Overcurrent
Relay
0

EF Earth Fault
0 0 Is(R)
Overcurrent
OC OC OC Relay

Ip Primary fault
EF current

Is Secondary
8 current
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Four -Wire Systems - 1
Four-Wire

CT Current
CT
Transformer

OC Phase
Overcurrent
Relay

Neutral EF Earth Fault

Overcurrent
OC OC OC Relay

Ip Primary fault
EF current

Is Secondary
9 current
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Four -Wire Systems - 4
Four-Wire

CT Current
CT
Transformer

OC Phase
Overcurrent
Relay

Neutral EF Earth Fault

Overcurrent
OC OC OC Relay
RCD
Ip Primary fault
EF current

Is Secondary
10 current
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Setting Overcurrent Protection - 1
„ Load current to be carried – safety margin of 30 to 50%

„ Minimum fault current to be detected

ƒ Phase to phase or phase to earth

ƒ Allowance for fault resistance

ƒ Back-up for failure of adjacent protection

„ Maximum fault current to be detected

„ Short-time rating of protected equipment

„ Time coordination margin between adjacent protection schemes

11
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Load Modeling Considerations
ƒ Network loads usually recorded
as 15 or 30 minute averaged MW
values MVAr
ƒ OK for thermal, load accounting
and setting slow control scheme
purposes

ƒ Real and reactive power

components vary
instantaneously and to some
degree independently

ƒ Not much known about load

variation over an averaging time
frame of seconds
hh:15 hh:30 hh:45 Time Interval

12
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Statistical distribution of short-time load variation
short-time

13
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Example of short-time load variation
short-time
13.2

13

Load 12.8
MWs

12.6

12.4

12.2

12
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time in seconds

10 second load values - output from simulation

14
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Time Coordination Margin between
Overcurrent Relays
Operating time interval between the operation of two adjacent
overcurrent relays has to allow for:
„ Fault current interrupting time of the relevant circuit breaker
„ Overshoot time of the relay
„ Errors in current transformer ratio, relay operating time and calculated
fault current magnitude

Example 1: Electromechanical Relay and Oil Interruption CB

Time Coordination Margin = 0.4 seconds

Example 2: Digital Relay and Vacuum Interruption CB

Time Coordination Margin = 0.25 seconds
15
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 IMPEDANCE PROTECTION
PRINCIPLES

16
Power System
Principles Protection
of Protection – Part 2
Impedance or Distance Protection
Basic Arrangement of an Impedance Z< Impedance Relay
Protection Scheme
CB Circuit Breaker
CB CT Line
Line Protected Item

Tr CT Current Transformer
P VT Voltage Transformer
Z< C
L
Fault
VT DC Aux DC Auxiliary supply
Bus PCL Communications Link
DC Aux
Tr CB trip coil

„ Uses voltage and current measurement

„ Can use angle of impedance as well as magnitude
V
„ Z= Operates for Z ≤ Z set
I
17
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Transmission Lines

18
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 Impedance Measurement - Load vs Fault Discrimination - 1

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I L
E o
VA VB a
d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n)

VA = 77.64∠-3.02° kV (ph-n) VB = 68.60∠-9.35° kV (ph-n)

I = 318.1∠-31.15° A Z = VA/I = 244.1 ∠28.13° Ω

19
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Load vs Fault Discrimination - 2

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I L
E Fault o
VA VB a
d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n)

VA = 58.36∠-6.50° kV (ph-n) VB = 0 kV

I = 1533∠-73.30° A Z = VA/I = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

20
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Load vs Fault Discrimination - 3

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I Fault L
E o
VA at VB a
50% d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n)

VA = 45.67∠-10.20° kV (ph-n) VB = 0 kV

I = 2399∠-77.01° A Z = VA/I = 19.04 ∠66.80° Ω

21
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Load vs Fault Discrimination - 4

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I L
E o
VA Fault VB a
d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n)

VA = 0 kV VB = 0 kV

I = 5333∠-90.0° A Z = VA/I = 0 Ω
22
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Representation on R:X Plane – 1
V
jX V

I
θ
θ Inductive
Reactance
Real Power Flow I
into Bus from Line
-R R
Capacitive Real Power Flow
Reactance from Bus into Line
V Bus

V Line
- P +
θ
-jX I - +
θ
Z Q
I
23
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 Representation on R:X Plane - 2
Bus A Bus A
B B
Line Line

P + - P

Z - + Z - +
Q
Load
Q
G
jX

Generation Load

-R R
A

24
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Polar Characteristics on R:X Plane
jX jX jX
z
z

R
θ θ
R R

Impedance Mho Offset Mho

jX z jX jX

X
θ
R R R

25
Elliptical Reactance Quadrilateral
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Zones of Impedance Measurement
Station Y
D
Station X Station Z
Line Z = 100Ω Zd
E A B C
Line Z = 100Ω
Ze Zg
Zf Z Za Zc
Zb
Zone 3
Time t = 1.5s
Zone 1 Zone 2 t = 1.0s
Zone 1
t = 0.5s t = 0.5s
t = 0.1s ∆t = 0.4s t = 0.1s t = 0.1s
X Y Z
80% 120% 80% Impedance
0Ω 100Ω 200Ω
26
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement – Relay Connections - 1
Relay
Source Line
Location
ER1 F
IR
A
EW1 U
IW L
EB1 T
IB
VRn VWn VBn

ZL1, ZL2, ZL0 Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence Line Impedances
ZS1, ZS2, ZS0 Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence Source Impedances
Z1, Z2, Z0 Sequence Impedances to Fault: Z1=ZS1+ZL1, Z2=ZS2+ZL2, Z0=ZS0+ZL0
VRn, VWn, VBn Phase-to-Neutral Voltages at Relay Location
IR, IW, IB Phase Currents at Relay Location
ER1, EW1, EB1 Phase-to-Neutral Source Voltages: Note EW1= α2ER1 and EB1= αER1
27
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance - 1

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I
E
VA Fault R VB

System Voltage = 132kV nominal No Load Condition

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 63.25∠-9.64° kV (ph-n) VB = 20.58∠-59.04° kV (ph-n)

I = 1372∠-59.04° A Z = VA/I = 30.0 + j35.0 Ω

28
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance - 2

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I Fault
E VA VB
R at
50%

System Voltage = 132kV nominal No Load Condition

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 57.69∠-17.43° kV (ph-n) VB = 30.36∠-55.30° kV (ph-n)

I = 2024∠-55.30° A Z = VA/I = 22.5 + j17.5 Ω

29
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance - 3

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I
E
VA R Fault VB

System Voltage = 132kV nominal No Load Condition

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 56.57∠-45.0° kV (ph-n) VB = 56.57∠-45.0° kV (ph-n)

I = 3771∠-45.0° A Z = VA/I = 15.0 + j0 Ω

30
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance & Load - 1

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I L
E o
VA Fault R VB a
d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 62.98∠-9.44° kV (ph-n) VB = 19.38∠-58.60° kV (ph-n)

I = 1376∠-59.99° A Z = VA/I = 29.08 + j35.34 Ω

31
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance & Load - 2

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I Fault L
E o
VA R at VB a
50% d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 57.06∠-17.09° kV (ph-n) VB = 27.04∠-58.49° kV (ph-n)

I = 2032∠-56.63° A Z = VA/I = 21.66 + j17.88Ω

32
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Measurement - Fault Resistance & Load - 3

A Z B
Source - ZS Line - ZL

I L
E o
VA R Fault VB a
d

System Voltage = 132kV nominal Load = 75MW,30MVAr = 80.8 ∠21.8°MVA

Zs = 0 + j15 Ω ZL = 15 + j35 = 38.08 ∠66.80° Ω

E = 80 ∠0° kV (ph-n) R = Fault Resistance 15 Ω

VA = 54.21∠-45.86° kV (ph-n) VB = 50.93∠-49.22° kV (ph-n)

I = 3829∠-47.36° A Z = VA/I = 14.15 + j0.37 Ω

33
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Impedance Zone Coverage
Zone 3
Zone 2

Z Z Z Z
Zone 1: A to B Zone 1

Zone 1 A Zone 1: B to A B

Zone 2
Zone 3

Left End of Line (20%) Centre 60% of Line Right End of Line (20%)
Faults Cleared in Zone 1 Faults Cleared in Faults Cleared in Zone 1
time from A (≅ 0.1s) Zone 1 time (≅ 0.1s) time from B (≅ 0.1s)
and Zone 2 time (≅ 0.5s) at A and B and Zone 2 time (≅ 0.5s)
from B from A
34
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 DIFFERENTIAL

PROTECTION

PRINCIPLES

35
Power System
Principles Protection
of Protection – Part 2
Basic Current Differential Protection – External Fault
Is1 N1 Is2

∆I
Current
|I|>0
Measuring Relay

N2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ Ip1 = Ip2
„ Therefore Is1 = Is2
„ Therefore ∆I = 0, magnitude of I = 0
„ Current measuring relay does not operate
36
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Basic Current Differential Protection – Internal Fault 1
Is1 N1 Is2

∆I
|I|>0 Current
Measuring Relay

N2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
If Fault

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ If = Ip1+ Ip2
„ Therefore Is1 ≠ Is2
„ Therefore ∆I = Is1+Is2 ≠ 0, magnitude of I> 0
37 „ Current measuring relay operates
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Basic Current Differential Protection – Internal Fault 2
Is1 N1

∆I
|I|>0 Current
Measuring Relay

N2
Is1 Is1 Is2 = 0
Protected
Ip2 = 0
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2

If Fault

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ If = Ip1 as Is2 = 0 ie no fault current infeed from one side
„ Is2 = 0
„ Therefore ∆I = Is1 ≠ 0, magnitude of I> 0
38 „ Current measuring relay operates
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Basic Current Differential Protection – Internal Fault 3
Is1 N1 Is2

∆I
Current Measuring
|I|>0
Relay

N2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
If High Impedance
Fault
Consider ideal current transformer performance:
„ If = (Ip1- Ip2) > 0
„ Therefore Is1 ≠ Is2
„ Therefore ∆I = Is1- Is2 ≠ 0, magnitude of I> 0
39 „ Current measuring relay operates
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Basic Current Differential Protection – Internal Fault 4
Is1 N1 Is2

∆I
|I|>0 Current Measuring
Relay

N2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2

Short-circuited
Ip1 CT 1 turns CT 2 Ip2
Protected Equipment

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ Ip1 = Ip2
„ Therefore Is1 = Is2
„ Therefore ∆I = 0, magnitude of I = 0
40 „ Current measuring relay does not operate
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Summary Current Differential Principles

„ Protection zone defined by current transformer locations

„ Measures quantities for fault detection at two or more
locations
„ Faults between current transformer locations are called
“internal” faults and faults outside of zone between current
transformers are called “external” or “out of zone” faults
„ In principle can have very high sensitivity, i.e. operation for
high impedance type faults possible
„ Will not operate for load current
„ Will not operate for internal series type faults
41
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Balanced Voltage Differential Protection
– External Fault
Current Measuring Relay
|I|>0

Vs1 Vs2

Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2

Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ Ip1 = Ip2
„ Vs1 = Vs2 and Is1 = Is2 = 0
„ Therefore magnitude of I = 0
„ Current measuring relay does not operate
42
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Balanced Voltage Differential Protection
– Internal Fault
Current Measuring Relay
|I|>0

Vs1 Vs2

Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2

Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
If Fault

Consider ideal current transformer performance:

„ Vs1 ≠ Vs2
„ Therefore magnitude of I ≠ 0

43 „ Current measuring relay operates

Principles of Protection – Part 2
Practical Current Differential Circuit
Is1 N1 Is2
RL RL
∆I
Z Current
Is1 Is2
Measuring
|I|≥Iset
Relay
Rc RL RL Rc

Xm
Is1 N2 Is2
Xm

Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
Xm = Magnetising reactance of current transformer, note this is non-linear
Rc = resistance of current transformer RL = secondary circuit wiring resistances
secondary winding
Z = Input impedance of current measuring Iset = Current setting of measuring relay
relay
Note: Operating criteria for protection now |I|≥Iset instead of |I|>0
44
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Principle of Biased Current Differential Relay
k[Is1+Is2]
C
k Is1-Is2
Is1 Is2
1 1

1 1

Is1-Is2

Is1 Is2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
C is a current magnitude comparator - operates for │Is1-Is2│ ≥ │k[Is1+Is2]│
k[Is1+Is2[ input is called “restraint” or “bias” input, [Is1-Is2] input is called
“operate” input. k is less than 0.5, typically 0.1 to 0.4,and is called the
45 bias setting.
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Biased Current Differential Relay – External Fault
k[Is1+Is2]
C
k Is1-Is2
Is1 Is2
1 1

1 1

Is1-Is2

Is1 Is2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 CT 2 Ip2
„ Ip1 = Ip2
„ Is1 and Is2 will be similar in magnitude and phase therefore
Is1-Is2 will be small and Is1+Is2 will be large.
„ │Is1-Is2│ < │k[Is1+Is2]│so no operation
46
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Biased Current Differential Relay – Internal Fault 1
k[Is1+Is2]
C
k Is1-Is2
Is1 Is2
1 1

1 1

Is1-Is2

Is1 Is2
Is1 Is1 Is2 Is2
Protected
Equipment
Ip1 CT 1 If Fault CT 2 Ip2
„ Primary fault current If = Ip1+Ip2
„ Is1-Is2 will be large and Is1+Is2 will be small.
„ │Is1-Is2│ > │k[Is1+Is2]│so operation achieved
47
Principles of Protection – Part 2
Biased Current Differential Relay – Internal Fault 2
k[Is1]
C
k Is1
Is1 0
1 1

1 1

Is1

Is1
Is1 Is1 0 0
Protected
Equipment Ip2=0
Ip1 CT 1 If Fault CT 2

„ Primary fault current If = Ip1

„ Operate input will be equal to Is1, restraint input will be k[Is1]
„ │Is1-Is2│ > │k[Is1+Is2]│so operation achieved
48
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 ∆I BΦ Relay

∆I WΦ Relay

∆I RΦ Relay

R R
Protected
W W
Equipment
B B

Arrangement for Phase by Phase Protection

49
Principles of Protection – Part 2
 ∆I Restricted Earth
Fault Protection

R
N W
B

Protected Equipment

Arrangement for Earth Fault Protection Only

50
Principles of Protection – Part 2