EL

PT
Power System Protection
Prof A K Pradhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
N
Module 01: Introduction to Numerical Relaying
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System
 EL
Module 01

•Faults in power system

PT
•Elements of protection scheme

•Features of a protection scheme

•Fault analysis review– Sequence component

•Numerical Relaying Concept

N
 EL
Lecture 01-
Faults in power system
• Reasons of fault

PT
• Types of fault
• Issues with fault
N
A power system

EL
Distribution lines
Source Transformer Transmission line Transformer

G Loads

PT
•normal operation- current flows to the load from source
•power balance
N
 Faults-
• Overhead line faults

EL
• Cable faults
• Transformer faults
• Generator/source faults

PT
N
Reasons of fault
• Weather conditions: lighting strikes, heavy rains/

EL
wind/snow-
• Interference of living beings- tree falling, animal
intervention
• Equipment failures: short circuit faults due to

PT
malfunctioning, ageing, insulation failure in
generators, motors, transformers, cables
• Human errors: forgetting removal of metallic parts
after maintenance and switching the circuit,
selecting improper rating of equipment or devices
N
Fault types

EL
• Shunt fault (short circuit)- high current
• Series fault (open conductor)- voltage issue

• Shunt faults- line-to-ground, line-to-line, double-line-to-ground, Three

PT
phase fault

• Permanent faults
• Transient Faults-momentary tree contact, bird or animal contact,
N
lightning strike, conductor clashing
 High Current issue during fault
• Why so high current?

EL
Source Transformer Transmission line
ZS ZTransf Zline
~ ~
In

Load ZLoad

Source Transformer Transmission line

PT
ZS ZTransf X Zline
~ X (1-x) ~
If
Load

• Reason of damage-
H=If2 R t,
N
where R=resistance of the element, t=duration of fault,
If=fault current , H=associated heat in that element
 Fault and related issues
• For human safety

EL
• Equipment damage
• Fire
• To preserve power system stability

PT
• Power quality- voltage sag
• Interruption duration- associated revenue of the utilities
N
Requirement of the power system

• Faults are inevitable in a power system-may be risk to life and/or

EL
property, disruption in power supply

• Provision of adequate protection to detect and disconnect

PT
elements of the power system in the event of fault
-an integral part of power system design

•Power system faults must be cleared as fast as possible

N
 Changes observed in system during fault
• Faults may lead to significant changes in the system quantities- overcurrent, over- or undervoltage,
phase angle, direction of current flow, impedance of the current path, system frequency, temperature
• Fault leads to voltage and current signals modulation

EL
Fault in a 220 kV overhead line

PT
N
-This gives a scope for fault detection
----***----
 EL
PT
Power System Protection
Prof A K Pradhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
N
Module 01: Introduction to Numerical Relaying
Lecture 02 : Elements and features of protection scheme
 EL
Module 01

•Faults in power system

PT
•Elements and features of protection scheme

•Fault analysis review– Sequence component

•Numerical Relaying Concept

N
 EL
Lecture 02-
• Different Elements of protection scheme
--functionalities of elements

PT
--different relays
• Features of protection scheme
N
 Elements of Protection Scheme
•Fuse- suitable for low voltage systems
•High voltage systems- Protective Relay+Circuit Breaker

EL
Relay Scheme
Protection Scheme
Sensor Circuit breaker bus bar

VTVoltage

Current Transformer (CT)

Transformer
(VT)
R Relay

PT
CT Relay

Battery CB Trip coil

Line
Battery
N
Fault clearing time= relay decision time + circuit breaker opening time
Phase-B-to-ground fault: ABB REL 511 (Distance Relay) report

EL
PT
N
 Phase-B-to-ground fault: ABB REL 511 (Distance Relay) report

EL
Relay decision time

Fault inception

PT Trip signal
N
 Phase-B-to-ground fault: ABB REL 511 (Distance Relay) report

EL
CB opening time

PT
Fault cleared
Trip Signal issued

N
 Phase-B-to-ground fault: ABB REL 511 (Distance Relay) report

EL
Fault clearing time= Relay decision time (26 ms)
+ CB opening time (70ms)
= 96ms
Fault inception

PT
Fault cleared
N
Protection Scheme

EL
Protective Relay System
Protection Scheme
Current
Transformers Circuit
(CTs) Breaker
52
Communication:
•Fiber optic

PT
Voltage •telephone line
Transformers
(VTs) •Power line carrier
Communication
Relay channels
N DC supply DC supply
 Elements of protection scheme
•Protective relays Protective Relay Functionalities
•Circuit breakers

EL
• Detect
•CTs and VTs (instrument transformers)
• Trigger
•Communications channels
• Report
•DC supply system
• Monitoring
•Control cables

Instrument Transformers Circuit Breaker Functionalities

PT
•CTs -Current scaling • Interrupt
-Isolation • Isolate the faulted section
• Reconnect
•VTs -Voltage scaling
-Isolation
We will focus only on Protection Relays
N
Features of a Protection Scheme
Things to be considered in relay applications:
 Reliability

EL
 Accuracy
 Speed
 Backup
 adaptive

 data recording

PT
 Integration
 Power draw (on the battery), Burden (AC current/voltage inputs)
 Cost
 Calibration/Maintenance
 Life
N
 Relay –should be Reliable

• Dependability- It is the measure of certainty that it will operate for all faults for which it is designed.

EL
• Security is the measure of certainty that the relay will not operate otherwise.

PT
Say- fuse ratings available are 3 A and 5 A for a load of 2 A, which one we will select?

Reliability=Dependability + Security
N
Selectivity

EL
For fault at F, R1or R2 should issue trip signal?

PT
Selectivity required-so that only the faulted element is isolated.
• magnitude of current (overcurrent)
• fault direction (directional relay)
• time grading: the protection device which is the closest to the fault
N
trips fastest, (e.g. overcurrent, distance protection)
Different Relay Characteristics

Different Relay Principles

EL
PT
•Fault at F, close to the transformer, will lead to very large current.
•Overcurrent relay at R -not good enough to discriminate external/internal fault of
the transformer- differential relay more suitable
N
• IEEE C37.2 Standard Device Numbers

EL
52 Circuit breaker
51 Time-overcurrent relay
50 Instantaneous-overcurrent relay
67 Directional-overcurrent relay

PT
21 Distance relay
87 Differential relay
81 Frequency Relay
27 Undervoltage protection
N
Protection Zones

EL
Zone
Zone

Zone
Zone
G

PT
•Zone classification-(i) Closed and (ii) Open

•Closed or unit protection -differential relay

•Open- or non-unit protection , overcurrent relay, distance relay

N
Primary and backup

EL
For fault at F, if R2 or the breaker fails to trip?

PT
R2 primary
R1 backup
N
 Other functions available in protection schemes

• Automatic reclosing: Autorecloser

EL
Recloser
Temporary faults: Tree touching, Lightning
sectionalizer
Single line-to-ground faults are more likely to be temporary than 3-Phase faults
Faults being permanent in nature for Cables –reclosing is not applied

--Restore service (distribution, transmission)

--Prevent system instabilities (transmission)

PT
• Sectionalizer
In conjunction with a recloser or breaker, Counts the number of operations of the interrupting device upstream
Opens while the interrupting device is open.

• Fault location- for service restoration

---***---
N
 EL
PT
Power System Protection
Prof A K Pradhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
N
Module 01: Introduction to Numerical Relaying
•Lecture 03 : Fault analysis review– Sequence components
 EL
Lecture 03

Fault analysis review– Sequence components

PT
- The concept of positive, negative and zero sequence

-Calculation of sequence components

- Short circuit analysis using sequence diagram
N
Symmetrical Component-its significance

EL
• Using symmetrical component analysis as a tool, unbalanced
system conditions, like those caused by common faults can be
analyzed
• Most of numerical relays operate using symmetrical component

PT
quantities
N
 Symmetrical Components
• Unbalanced phasors of a three phase system can be resolved into three balanced phasors
called the symmetrical components of the original phasors.

EL
• The set of balanced components are- (i)positive (ii)negative and (iii) zero sequence

For abc phase sequence of a system

Positive sequence -consisting of three Va1
phasors equal in magnitude and Vc1 120° Vb1   2 Va1

PT
separated by 1200 to each other and
having the same phase sequence as
120°
120°
Vc1  Va1
the original phasors of the system (abc
in this case)   1120
Vb1
‘1’-Positive sequence
N
Symmetrical Components
• Negative sequence- consisting of Vb2 120° Va2 Vb2  Va 2

EL
three phasors equal in magnitude
and displaced by 1200 to each other Vc2   2 Va 2
with phase sequence opposite to
the original phasors (abc in this case)   1120
Vc2
of the system
‘2’-Negative sequence

PT
Va0
•Zero sequence- consisting of three Vb0
phasors equal in magnitude and with
zero phase displacement from each Vc0
other (no rotation sequence )
N
Va0  Vb0  Vc0
‘0’-Zero sequence
Symmetrical Components
• Unbalanced 3 phase system to 3 sets of balanced system

EL
For abc phase sequence of phasors of a system
Va1
Vb2 Va2
Vc1 120° 120° Va0
Vb0   1120

PT
Vc0
Vc2
Vb1
Positive sequence Negative sequence Zero sequence
Vb1   2 Va1 Vb2  Va 2 Va0  Vb0  Vc0
N
Vc1  Va1 Vc2   2 Va 2
 Symmetrical Components
•Each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its sequence components

EL
Va0   1120
Va1 Vb2
For abc phase sequence of the system 120° Va2 Vb0
Vc1 120°

Va  Va0  Va1  Va 2 Vc0

Vb  Vb0  Vb1  Vb2  Va0   2 Va1  Va 2 Vc2

PT
Vb1 Va0  Vb0  Vc0
Vb2  Va 2
Vc  Vc0  Vc1  Vc2  Va0  Va1   2 Va 2 Vb1   Va1 2
Vc2   2 Va 2
Vc1  Va1

Va2 Va0
Va1
N
Va
 Symmetrical Components
For abc phase sequence of the system
Va  Va 0  Va1  Va 2

EL
 Va  1 1 1   Va 0 
Vb  Va 0   2 Va1  Va 2  V   1  2    Va1  Vabc   T Va012 
 b 
Vc  Va 0  Va1   2 Va 2  Vc  1   2   Va 2 
  1120

PT
 Va 0  1 1 1   Va 
Va012   T  Vabc 
1
 V   1 1   2   Vb 
 a1  3 
 Va 2  1  2    Vc 
Similarly for currents,
 Iabc   T  I012  
1
N
a 
 I012
a 
  T 
 
I abc
 Symmetrical Components
Example : Calculate the sequence components for the given phase voltages for a system
with abc as phase sequence

EL
Va  1100 kV, Vb  88  100 kV, Vc  80175 kV
Solution:
𝑉𝑎0 1 1 1 110∠0° 27.03∠ − 79.32°

PT
1
𝑉𝑎1 = 1 𝛼
3
𝛼2 88∠ − 100° = 85.68∠21.84° kV
𝑉𝑎2 1 𝛼2 𝛼 80∠175° 26.01∠ − 11.78°

  1120
N
 Symmetrical Components
• Example : A balanced load condition with abc phase sequence has, Ic
Ia  1000A, Ib  100  120A, Ic  100120A 120°

EL
120°
Ia

Obtain sequence components. 120°

Ib
Solution:
1
 Ia 0  1 1 1   Ia  Ia 0  1000  100  120  100120   0A
 I   1 
1
 2   I b 
3

PT
 a1  3  1
 Ia 2  1  2    Ic  Ia1  1000  (1120)(100  120)  (1240)(100120)   1000A
3
1
Ia 2  1000  (1240)(100  120)  (1120)(100120)   0A
3
N
Note- Only positive sequence component available and is same as Ia
 Symmetrical Components
Example : Calculate the line currents, if the obtained sequence currents for a system with
abc as phase sequence are:

EL
Ia0  0 A, Ia1  6.2  30 A, Ia 2  6.245 A

Solution:

PT
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 0 9.84∠7.5°
𝐼𝑏 = 1 𝛼 2 𝛼 6.2∠ − 30° = 11.46∠ − 172.5° A
𝐼𝑐 1 𝛼
N 𝛼2 6.2∠45° 1.62∠7.5°
 Sequence impedance
1 2 3 4
G1 T1 abc T2 G2
I Line

EL
V23abc
For a transposed transmission line,

L ]   T  [ZL ] T 
1
 Zs Zm Zm  [Z012 abc

PT
 Zabc   Z Zs Zm   Zs  2Zm 
L   m
0 0
 Zm Zs   Z012  
L    0 Zs  Zm 0 
Zm 
 0 0 Zs  Zm 
[V23abc ]  [Zabc ] 
 
I abc
T[V23012 ]  [Zabc ]  T  
 
I 012

Z0   Zs  2Zm 
L L

]  T [Z ]T  I

1
012 abc 012

N
Z1   Zs  Zm 
[V 23 L

 Z2   Zs  Zm 
[V23012 ]  [Z012  
012
L ] I
 Sequence impedance
1 2 3 4
G1 T1 abc T2 G2
I Line

EL
V23abc

For a transmission line,

PT
Z1L Z2L I2 Z0L I0
I1

Reference Bus Reference Bus Reference Bus

N
Z1L = Z2L
Z0L > Z1L
 Sequence impedance
G1 1 T1 2 3 T2 4 G2
Line

EL
• For a synchronous machine (generator):
 Positive sequence component of a synchronous machine can be subtransient,
transient or synchronous reactance

PT
 The zero sequence component depends on the stator winding connection; star
grounded (solidly or with impedance), ungrounded or delta

The sequence circuits: Z1S I1 Z2S I2 Z0S I0

+
N
E
-
 1 2 3 4
G1 T1 T2 G2
Line

EL
• For transformer:
 positive sequence and negative sequence impedances are same. Z1T = Z2T

PT
 zero sequence impedance Z0T depends on the type of connection of the
primary and secondary sides.
Z1T Z2T I2
I1
N
Reference Bus Reference Bus
 Zero Sequence Circuit of Transformer
Case Connections Zero-sequence Equivalent Circuits
Z0T s

EL
1 p s p

Reference Bus
2 p s p Z0T s

Reference Bus

PT
3 p s p Z0T s

Reference Bus
4 p s p Z0T s
Reference Bus
5
N s p Z0T s
p

Reference Bus
Sequence Network for different types of fault
(i) Three phase fault
Ifa1
a

EL
Iaf Rf
F
b
Ibf Rf Pos.-seq. network Rf

PT
Icf Rf

I fc  Ifa 0  1   Iaf   0 
1 1
 f  1   
 2   Ifb    Iaf 
120° 1
I fa I
  3
a1 
120°
 Ifa 2  
1  2
   Ifc   0 
 
120°
N
I fb Ifa1  Iaf and Iaf 2  Iaf 0  0
(ii) Single phase-to-ground fault
f
F Ia1
a F
Va1 Pos.-seq. network
3Rf

EL
Rf f
b F Ia2
=0
F f
Va2 Neg.-seq. network Ia0
c
=0 f
F Ia0

PT
F
 Ifa 0  1 1 1   Iaf  Va0 Zero-seq. network
 f  1  
 Ia1   3 1   2   Ifb 
 Ifa 2  
1  2
   Ifc 
 
 Ifa 0  1 1 1   Iaf 
 f  1   Ifa
 2   0 
N
 Ia1   3 1  I I I 
f
a1
f
a2
f
a0
 Ifa 2  1  2    0  3
 
(iii) phase-to-phase fault

EL
a Rf
=0
f f
Ia1 F Ia2
b F
F
Rf Va1 Pos.-seq. network F
Va2 Neg.-seq. network
c

PT
N
(iv) double phase-to-ground fault

EL
a Rf
=0 f
Ia1 F F
f
Ia2 F
f
Ia0
b
Rf F
Va1 F Neg.-seq. network
Pos.-seq. network Va2 F Zero.-seq. network
Va0

PT
c

N
 EL
• After obtaining sequence components from sequence diagram, Phase
quantities can be obtained
 Ifa  1 1 1   Iaf 0 
 f    f 

PT
I
 b   1  2
   Ia1 
 Ifc  1   2   Ifa 2 
N  

*****
 EL
PT
Power System Protection
Prof A K Pradhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
N
Module 01: Introduction to Numerical Relaying
•Lecture 04 : Fault analysis review– Sequence component
 EL
Lecture 04

Fault analysis review– Sequence component

PT
- The concept of positive, negative and zero sequence

-Calculation of sequence components

- Short circuit analysis-sequence diagram
N
 Sequence Diagram of a System
G1 1 T1 2 3 T2 4 G2
Line
The system

EL
Ia1 Z1S1 1 Z1T1 2 Z1L Z1T2 Z1S2
3 4
+ +
E1 E2 Positive Sequence
- - Network

PT
Ia2 Z2S1 1 Z2T1 2 Z2L Z2T2 Z2S2
3 4
Negative Sequence
Network
Ia0 Z0S1 1 Z0T1 2 Z0L Z0T2 Z0S2
3 4
N
Zero Sequence
Network
 Sequence Network for different types of fault
(i) For abc-type (three phase) fault

EL
G1 1 T1 2 3 T2 4 G2
Line F
x Rf (1-x)

PT
Ifa1
1 2 F 3 4
+ +
Z1S1 Z1T1 xZ1L (1-x)Z1L Z1T2 Z1S2 E2 Rf
E1
- -
N
 Sequence Network for different types of fault
(ii) For ag-type (phase-to-ground) fault
a
I fa
Rf

EL
b
c
Ifa1
1 2 F 3 4

E1 Z1S1 Z1T1 xZ1L (1-x) Z1L Z1T2 Z1S2 E2

PT
1 2 Ifa 2 3 4
3Rf
Z2S1 Z2T1 xZ2L (1-x) Z2L Z2T2 Z2S2

1 2 Ifa 0 3 4
N
Z0S1 Z0T1 xZ0L (1-x) Z0L Z0T2 Z0S2
 Sequence Network for different types of fault
(iii) For bc-type (phase-to-phase) fault
a

EL
b
Rf
c
Ifa1
1 2 F 3 4
Z1S1 Z1T1 xZ1L Z1T2 Z1S2

PT
E1 E2 RF

Ifa 2
1 2 3 4
Z2S1 Z2T1 xZ2L (1-x) Z2L Z2T2 Z2S2
N
 Sequence Network for different types of fault
(iv) For bcg-type (phase-to-phase-to-ground) fault
a Ifa1
1 2 F 3 4

EL
b
Rf E1 Z1S1 Z1T1 xZ1L Z1T2 Z1S2 E2
c

Ifa 2
1 2 3 4

PT
Z2S1 Z2T1 xZ2L (1-x) Z2L Z2T2 Z2S2 3Rf

Ifa 0

Z0S1 Z0T1 xZ0L (1-x) Z0L Z0T2 Z0S2

N
Example Equip- MVA Voltage X1(pu) X2(pu) X0(pu)
ment Rating Rating
G1 1 T1 2 Line1 3 T2 4 G1 250 11 kV 0.25 0.25 0.05
G2
G2 250 11 kV 0.2 0.2 0.05

EL
F T1 250 11/220 kV 0.06 0.06 0.06
Line2 Xn
T2 250 11/220 kV 0.07 0.07 0.07
Line 1 250 220kV 0.1 0.1 0.3
Line 2 250 220kV 0.1 0.1 0.3
G2: Xn=j0.03(pu)

PT
Draw positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence networks for the
system given with system data in the table. A single line-to-ground fault in phase-a
occurs at bus 2 of the network with negligible fault resistance. Calculate
a) fault current
b) line-to-neutral voltages at fault point
N
c) currents and voltages at generator terminals.
Solution: 1 T1 2
G1 Line1 3 T2 4 G2
Chosen:
Base MVA =250 MVA
Base voltage: 11 kV for LT side of the transformers F Line2

EL
and 220 kV for HT side transformer
Sequence network for ag fault at bus 2:
1 2 3 4
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
G1 G2
‘+ seq’

PT
3Rf=0
j0.25 j0.06 j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
N ‘- seq’

j0.05 j0.06 j0.15 j0.07 j0.05

‘0 seq’ j0.09
 Positive sequence equivalent:
Z1= j0.157 F For the ‘ag’ fault:
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
equivalent network
1 2 3 4
10 10 10
j0.157

EL
F
10 Ia1 Va1
Negative sequence equivalent:
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2 Z2= j0.157 F j0.157
1 2 3 4 Ia 2 Va 2

PT
Zero sequence equivalent: j0.051

Z0= j0.051 F Ia 0 Va 0
j0.05 j0.06 F j0.15 j0.07 j0.05
1 2 3 4
N j0.09
(a)
10
Ia0  Ia1  Ia 2    j2.74pu
j0.157  j0.157  0.051

EL
j0.157
F  Ia  1 1 1    j2.74   j8.22
 I   1  2     j2.74   0  pu
10 Ia1 Va1
 b 
 Ic  1   2    j2.74  0 
j0.157 ag-fault

PT
Ia 2 Va 2
250 106
Base current   656.07A
3  220 103

j0.051
Ia 0 Va 0 Fault current  8.22  656.07  5392.9A
N
(b) The sequence voltages at the fault point are
j0.157
Va1  1  ( j0.157)  ( j2.74)  0.57pu F
Va 2  ( j0.157)  ( j2.74)  0.43pu 10 I a1 Va1

EL
Va 0  ( j0.051)  ( j2.74)  0.14pu j0.157

 Va  1 1 1   0.14   0  Ia 2 Va 2
 V   1  2    0.57   0.891256.370  pu
 b 
 Vc  1  j0.051
 2   0.43  0.891103.630 

PT
Ia 0 Va 0
Thus line-to-neutral voltage at the fault point are
Va  0
220
At fault point ‘F’ Vb  (0.891256.37)  113.18256.37 0 kV
3
N
220
Vc  (0.891103.63)  113.63103.630 kV
3
(c)
Ia1 At Generator G2:
1 2 3 4
•The component of Ia1 flowing towards bus 2 from
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
generator G2
G1 ‘+’ G2
 

EL
j0.31
Ia 2  ( j2.74)     j1.35pu
 j0.31  j0.32 
j0.25 j0.06 j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
‘-’
•The component of Ia2 following towards bus 2
Ia 0 from generator G2 is also equal to (-j1.35 ) pu

PT
j0.05 j0.06 j0.15 j0.07 j0.05
‘0’ j0.09

•The component of Ia0 flowing towards bus 2 from generator G2 is

 j0.06 
N
 ( j2.74)     j0.39pu
 j0.06  j0.15  j0.07  j0.05  j0.09 
The line currents at terminals of the generator G2 are

 Ia  1 1 1    j0.39 3.092700 
 I   1 a 2  
a    j1.35    0.96900  pu

EL
 b 
 Ic  1 a a 2    j1.35   0.96900 

250 106
Base current for the generators   13121.59A
3 11000

PT
Therefore,
Ia  3.09 13121.59  40545.73 A
I b  0.96 13121.59  12596.72 A
N
Ic  0.96 13121.59  12596.72 A
 1 2 3 4
The sequence voltages at the terminals of G2 are j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
Va1 G2
Va 0     j0.39  j0.05  j0.09   0.0546pu G1

Va1  1    j1.35  j0.2   0.73pu j0.25 j0.06 j0.05 j0.07 V j0.2

EL
a2

Va 2     j1.35 j0.2   0.27pu

j0.05 j0.06 j0.15 j0.07 Va 0 j0.05 j0.09
The lines to neutral voltages at terminals of G2 are

 Va  1 1 1   0.0546  0.40500 

PT
 V   1  2  
 b     0.73   0.91251.80  pu
 Vc  1   2   0.27   0.91108.20 

Thus, actual values of line to neutral voltages at the terminals of G2 are

11
N 11 11
Va   0.405  2.57kV, Vb   0.91  5.78kV, Vc   0.91  5.78kV
3 3 3
 The phase shift for Ia2 is +30, Ia2=1.39
(270  30)  1.393000 pu

At Generator G1(Bus1): •The component of Ia1 flowing from G1 to bus 2

Ia1  j0.32 
1 2 3 4  ( j2.74)     j1.39pu
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2  j0.31  j0.32 

EL
G1 ‘+’ G2 Due the delta –star transformer, there will be
Ia 2 phase shift of -300 in the positive sequence
current.
j0.25 j0.06 j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
‘-’ Therefore , the component of Ia1 flowing
from G1 to bus 2

PT
Ia 0
 1.39(2700  300 )  1.392400 pu
j0.05 j0.06 j0.15 j0.07 j0.05
‘0’ j0.09

Ia2  1.39(2700  30)  1.393000 pu

N
•The phase shift for Ia2 is +30o,
 The phase shift for Ia2 is +30, Ia2=1.39
(270  30)  1.393000 pu

At Generator G1(Bus1):

The line currents at the terminals of G1 are

EL
 Ia  1 1 1    2.40270 
0
0
 I   1  2  
 b    1.392400    2.402700  pu
 Ic  1   2  1.393000   0 


Therefore,

PT
Ia  2.4 13121.59  31491.81 A
Base current = 13121.59 A
I b  2.4 13121.59  31491.81 A
Ic  0
N
Therefore, actual values of to neutral voltages at the terminals of G1 are

1 2 3 4
The sequence voltages at terminals of G1 are
j0.25 j0.06 F j0.05 j0.07 j0.2
Va 0  0 Va1 G2
G1
Va1  1  ( j1.39)  j0.25   0.6525 pu
Va 2  ( j1.39)  j0.25   0.3475 pu j0.25 Va 2 j0.06 j0.05 j0.07 j0.2

EL
Taking into account the phase shift
Va1  0.6525(0  300 )  0.6525  300 pu, j0.05 Va 0 j0.06 j0.15 j0.07 j0.05 j0.09
Va 2  0.3475(180  300 )  0.34752100 pu
The line to neutral voltages at the terminals of G1 are

PT
 Va  1 1 1    0.556298 
0
0
 V   1  2   0.6525  300   0.5562420  pu
 b     
 Vc  1   2   0.34752100   1900 

Therefore, actual values of to neutral voltages at the terminals of G1 are

N
11 11 11
Va   0.566  3.59kV, Vb   0.566  3.59kV, Vc   6.35kV
3 3 3
Usage of fault Analysis

•Circuit breaker rating

EL
•Relay settings

• In numerical relays

PT
N
 Significance to relay applications
Obtain the Sequence components for a 3-phase fault
with abc phase sequence

Ia  12.6  135.286kA, Ib  12.6104.714kA, Ic  12.6  15.286kA

EL
 Ia0  1 1 1   Ia 
  1 2 
I 
 a1  3 1    Ib 
 Ia2  1  2    Ic 
   

PT
1
Ia 0  12.6  135.286  12.6104.714  12.6  15.286   0kA
3
1
Ia1  12.6  135.286  (1120)  (12.6104.714)  (1240)  (12.6  15.286)   12.6  135.286kA
3
1
Ia 2  12.6  135.286  (1240)  (12.6104.714)  (1120)  (12.6  15.286)   0kA
3
N
Note- Only positive sequence component available and is same as Ia
 Significance to relay applications
Obtain the Sequence components for ag-fault
with abc phase sequence

EL
Ia  2.12  124.42kA, I b  0, Ic  0
1
 Ia 0  1 1 1   Ia  Ia 0   2.12  124.42  0  0   0.7133  124.42kA
  1   3
 Ia1   3 1   2   I b  1
 Ia 2  Ia1   2.12  124.42  (1120)  0  (1240)  0   0.7133  124.42kA
  
1  2
   Ic  3

PT
1
Ia 2   2.12  124.42  (1240)  0  (1120)  0   0.7133  124.42kA
3

Ia
Note: Ia1  Ia 2  Ia 0 
3
N
Significance to relay applications
Sequence components for bc-fault
with abc phase sequence

EL
Ia  0, Ib  10.07143kA, Ic  10.07  37kA
1
Ia 0   0  10.07143  10.07  37   0
3
1
Ia1   0  (1120)  (10.07143)  (1240)  (10.07  37)   5.81  127kA

PT
3
1
Ia 2   0  (1240)  (10.07143)  (1120)  (10.07  37)   5.8153kA
3

Note: Ia1  Ia 2

N
Significance to relay applications
Sequence components for bcg-fault
with abc phase sequence

Ia  0, Ib  7.5136.9kA, Ic  8.90.27kA

EL
1
Ia1   0  (1120)x(7.5136.9)  (1240)x(8.90.27)   5.4  112kA
3
1
Ia 2   0  (1240)x(7.5136.9)  (1120)x(8.90.27)   3.474.75kA

PT
3
1
Ia 0   0  7.5136.9  8.90.27   2.0756.47kA
3

Note: 
Ia1   Ia 2  Ia0 
N
Remarks on sequence components
• Positive-sequence quantities are the only component present during

EL
balanced, three-phase conditions (Normal situation or 3-phase fault)
• Negative-sequence quantities are a measure of the amount of
unbalance existing on a power system.
• Zero-sequence quantities are associated with ground being involved

PT
in an unbalanced condition.
• Relation between sequence quantities- types of fault
N
Usage of fault Analysis

• Relaying applications-

EL
1. Negative sequence overcurrent relay-
Unbalanced loading or faults on the power system which are not removed or
isolated can cause excessive rotor heating in rotating machinery-

PT
generator/motor which may lead to damage

2. Winding protection in transformer- for fault involving ground – I0 is used.

N
Applications to relay-example For ag-type fault of the earlier system

Negative sequence impedance

EL
R
based directional relaying I2R

Z2R=V2R/I2R,
values of Z2R are positive or negative
depending on direction of fault
forward or reverse

PT
I2R and V2R refers to here at R for phase-a
For fault at F, Z2R is negative
When fault will be at F1, Z2R is positive
N
 Protective Relays Using Symmetrical Component Quantities for operation

Device number Application Sequence quantities used

EL
50N, 51N Ground overcurrent Io
50_2 Negative Sequence overcurrent I2
67_2 Negative sequence directional VoIo or V2I2
overcurrent
21N Ground distance Io, I2, I1, Vo, V1 , V2

PT
87 Differential protection K1I1 + K2I2 + KoIo
46 Phase unbalance I2
59_2 Negative Sequence Overvoltage V2
N Suffix: _1 Positive-Sequence _2 Negative-Sequence
*****
 EL
PT
Power System Protection
Prof A K Pradhan
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
N
Module 01: Introduction to Numerical Relaying
•Lecture 05 : Numerical Relaying Concept
 EL
Lecture 5

Numerical Relaying Concept

PT
•Basic Architecture

•Data acquisition
N
Numerical relays in our laboratory

EL
PT
N
 Digital relay architecture
Analog Analog to Digital Discrete

EL
v-i input (A/D) output
subsystem Conversion subsystem

Operation
Discrete Processor signaling
input
subsystem (relay algorithm)
}

PT
Communications
ports

N RAM ROM/PROM EEPROM

 Signal path
SignalinPath
numerical
for relay
Microprocessor-Based Relays

EL
Current
transformer
(CT)

Potential
transformer

PT
(PT)
Digital Magnitude
Analog A/D Digital
cosine And
low-pass conversion Filter
filter and impedance
filter
phasor
N
 A numerical relay diagram

Isolation Antialiasing
Trip 1
Transformers Filters
HMI Trip 2

EL
V a Pilot Send/Shift
Pilot Stop
Vbb
V
BFI 1
Vc
Vc
M A/D Micro- -
Micro
BFI 2
Ia U Subsystem processor Output RI 1
Ib X Relays
EPROM RI 2
Program RB 1
Ic Memory

PT
RB 2
RAM
Trip Alarm
Digital inputs Temporary
52a Storage Failure Alarm

52b NOVRAM General Start

Ext. Target
Ext.Reset
Target Reset Settings;
Contact Target Data
Pilot 1 Input
Real - Time Isolated
Isolation Clock
Pilot 2 DC/DC
N Data Data Commn
Comm Power
Communication
Communication
SBP Link or Link
Network
or Network Cards Supply

Simplified diagram of a typical microprocessor relay

 A digital relay module

EL
PT
• Hardware + software (algorithm)
N
DSP or Microcontroller -FPGA based
CT connection

EL
1A/ 5A
CT

PT
others
conductor

relay
N
PT connection

EL
PT
Vin

PT
others

relay
N
110 V ph-ph
 Surge suppression

EL
Vin
M

PT
OV

N
Sample and hold

EL
• Analog to digital (A/D)conversion
12-bit ADC
0111 1111 1111 (7FF) hexadecimal largest positive number

PT
1000 0000 0000 (800) smallest negative number
7FF, 211-1=2047
800, -211= -2048
N
successive approximation, flash, and sigma-delta ADCs
Quantization error
• An ADC card of rating ±10 Volt

EL
• The resolution with hexadecimal for 12-bit ADC =10/2048=4.883 x10-3 Volt
• The difference between an input value and its quantized value is referred to as quantization error.

• Quantization error
(V/2)
q=  2 N V

PT
2 N-1

Where V is the largest possible input,

N is number of bits
Normalized error=2-N
N
 50 Hz signal to be sampled
1

EL
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Current(A)
0

PT
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
N
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Time(s)
Sampling at 1kHz, 50 Hz signal ∆t=1ms
1

EL
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Current(A)
0

PT
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
N
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Time(s)
Sampling rate 400 Hz, for 50 Hz signal ∆t=0.02/8 s =0.0025 s
1

EL
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

PT
0
Current(A)
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
N
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time(s)
Sampling rate 3.2 kHz for 50 Hz signal, ∆t=0.02/64 s
1

EL
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

PT
0
Current(A)
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
N
-1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035

Time(s)
Aliasing issue with sampling
1

EL
0.8

0.6

0.4 Sampling at 100 Hz

Current(A) 0.2 for 50 Hz signal

PT
0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
N
-1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time(s)
 Aliasing issue with 5th harmonic 30% with fundamental
1.5

EL
Sampling at 400 Hz,
1
50 Hz system

0.5

High frequency component

0 can appear to belong to

PT
Current(A) fundamental frequency.
-0.5

-1

-1.5
N
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time(s)
Anti-aliasing filter

EL
• Low pass filters-for a specific sampling rate
• RC-filters
gain

PT frequency fc

Filter response •Multi-stage RC filter

N
•OPAM-based
Technical Specifications AC Voltage Inputs
• Sampling 1 kHz -8 kHz Three-phase, four-wire (wye) connections are
supported

EL
• 32 bit Rated Voltage Range: 0–300 V L-N
• Data recording- 10-20 cycles or more— Burden: 0.1 VA @ 125 V
• Power supply- AC Current Inputs (Secondary Circuit)
Rated Voltage: 48–125 Vdc, 110–120 Vac 1 A Nominal: 18.2 A

PT
Operational Voltage Range: 38–140 Vdc 5 A Nominal: 91 A
85–140 Vac
Burden Rating
Burden: < 35 W, < 90 VA
1 A Nominal: 0.1 VA @ 1 A
5 A Nominal: 0.5 VA @ 5 A
N
 Digital relay Algorithm

Read present sample v-i

EL
Digital filtering

Phasor/harmonics calculation

PT
Modify if
Protection method
required

Relay logic
No trip
N
Trip Signal
 Fault detection

• Sample-to-sample comparison

EL
3

2.5

1.5 Sample difference

during fault
1

PT
Current (A) 0.5
Sample difference
before fault
abs(in-in-1)

-0.5 Fault
inception
-1

-1.5

-2
0.04
N
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Time( s )
 Fault detection

• Cycle-to-cycle comparison

EL
Cycle comparison
during fault
Cycle comparison
before fault

PT
Current (A)

Fault abs(in-in-N)
N inception

Time(s )
Fault detection

EL
10

Current (A) 0

-10
0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08
4

Sample-to- 2

PT
sample
0
0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08
10

Cycle-to-cycle 5

0
0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08
50
N Time(s )

0
0.05 0.055 0.06 ***** 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08