Appendix 1 GrAmmAr toolkit

Definitions to help you seek more information

Grammar term Definition/model Example

adjective Describes nouns or A red book; an innovative

gerunds. project.

adverb Adds information as to The student read quickly.

how something is done.

articles There are only three in A shot in the dark; an empty

English: a, an, the. There house; the Highway Code.
are particular rules about
using these and you will
find these in a grammar
book.

clause Part of sentence Cats eat mice which are vermin.

containing a verb. If Main clause subordinate clause
the verb and the words
relating to it can stand
alone, then they comprise
the main clause. If the
words cannot stand
alone, then the verb and
the words that go with
it form a subordinate
clause.

conditional Used to explain future If I had the time, I would go out.

possible situation, note condition consequence
the comma after the
condition.

conjunction Word that joins two The book was on loan and the
clauses in a sentence student had to reserve it.
where the ideas are
connected or equally
balanced.

demonstratives There are four in English: This house supports the abolition
this, these; that, those. of smoking in public.

direct object The noun or pronoun Foxes kill sheep. Foxes eat them.
which is affected by the
verb.

Continued overleaf

Appendix 1 Grammar toolkit 161

Grammar term Definition/model Example

future tense Explaining things that I shall work until I am 65.

have not yet happened. They will come early.
There are two forms: ‘will’ He is going to work harder.
or ‘shall’ and ‘going to’.

gerunds The gerund acts as a Speaking is easier than writing

noun and is formed with for most people.
the part of the verb called
the present participle: . . .
-ing.

indirect object The person or thing that Tutors give (to) students written
benefits from the action of work. They give (to) them essays.
a verb. (‘to’ is understood
and not written.)

infinitive Sometimes called the e.g. to work.

simple or root form of the
verb. This form is usually
listed in dictionaries, but
without ‘to’.

nouns Term used to refer to Abstract nouns: imagination,

things or people. There
are different types: e.g.
abstract (non-visible),
concrete (visible) and
proper nouns (names
of people, places,
organisations, rivers,
mountain ranges).
thought.
Concrete nouns: chair, table.
Proper nouns: Caesar, Rome,
the Post Office, the Rhine, the
Andes.

passive voice Used to describe things Essays are written by students.

objectively, that is, Action Actor
placing the emphasis
of the sentence on the
action rather than the
actor. Although some
electronic grammar
checkers imply that the
passive is wrong. It is
perfectly correct. Often
used in academic writing
(see p. 65 and p. 120).

past participle This is usually formed by Worked but many irregular verbs
adding -ed to the verb e.g. bent, drunk; eaten, seen;
stem. However, in English thought; understood.
there are many irregular
verbs. You will find lists
of these verbs in many
dictionaries.

162 Appendix 1 Grammar toolkit

Grammar term Definition/model Example

phrasal verbs These verbs have a Set down (deposit), pick up

particle or particles (see (collect), write down (note), look
prepositions) as one of their out for (observe).
components. These verbs
are generally regarded as
being less formal in tone
than single word verbs.

possessives Words indicating My house and his are worth the

ownership: same. Mine is larger but his has
my, mine, your, yours, his, more land.
her, its, our, ours, their,
theirs.

prepositions Words used with nouns. Put money in the bank for a
Sometimes these are rainy day or save it for summer
followed by an article (a, holidays in the sun.
an, the), sometimes not,
e.g.
at, by, in, for, from, of, on,
over, through, under, with.

present This is formed by adding The sun is setting.

participle -ing to the simple verb We were watching the yachts.
form. It is used to form
continuous verb tenses.

pronouns Words used instead of I have given it to him.

nouns: We gave them information
I, me, you, he, him, she, for him.
her, it, we, us, they, them.
Also words such as: each,
everyone.

relative Words which link
pronouns adjective clauses to the
noun about which they
give more information:
that, which, who, whose,
whom.
This is the house that Jack built.
Jack, who owns it, lives there.
Jack, whose wife sings, is a
baker.
Jack, to whom we sold the flour,
used it to bake bread.

sentence The smallest grouping The people elect their leaders in

of words, one of which a democracy.
must be a verb, which
can stand together
independently and make
sense.

subject The person or thing that Caesar invaded Britain.

performs the action in a Caterpillars eat leaves.
sentence.
Continued overleaf

Appendix 1 Grammar toolkit 163

Grammar term Definition/model Example

tense In English, to show Simple Past

past, present and future I studied we studied
tense shifts, the verb
you studied you studied
changes. This often
involves adding a word s/he studied they studied
to show this. Some Present
verbs behave irregularly
I study we study
from the standard rules.
Here are three basic you study you study
tenses; more can be s/he studies they study
found in a grammar book Future
or language learner’s
I will study we will study
dictionary.
you will study you will study
s/he will study they will study

topic The first sentence in a Skiing is a popular sport. (TI)

introducer (TI)/ paragraph introduces the Skiers enjoy this in winter on
sentence (TS) key point of the text; the real snow and in summer on
topic (second) sentence dry slopes. (TS)
explains the paragraph
content.

verb The action or ‘doing’ word I work, I am working, I will

in a sentence. It changes work, I worked, I was working,
form to indicate shifts in I have worked, I had worked.
time (see tense) and who
is ‘doing’ the action (I,
you, he/she, it, we, you
[plural], they).

164 Appendix 1 Grammar toolkit

Appendix 2 twelve common GrAmmAr errors
Error
1 Comparing
Sometimes there is confusion
with when to use a word ending
in -er or -est rather than using
more or most. For grammar book
entry, look for Comparatives
and Superlatives
2 Describing
Commas are vital to meaning
where a ‘wh-’ clause is used.
For grammar book entry, look for
Relative clauses
3 Encapsulating
Using one word to represent
a previous word or idea. For
grammar book entry, look for
Demonstrative pronoun
Appendix 2 Twelve common grammar errors
Incorrect examples (8) and correction (3)
Comparing two things:
8✘The debit was more bigger than the credit.
3✘The debit was greater than the credit.
Comparing three or more things:
8✘China has the most greatest population in
the world.
3✘China has the greatest population in the
world.
Countable and non-countable:
8✘There were less cases of meningitis last
year.
3✘There were fewer cases of meningitis last
year. (Countable)
8✘There was fewer snow last year.
3✘There was less snow last year.
(Non-countable)
8✘Toys, which are dangerous, should not be
given to small children. (Inference: all toys
are dangerous – not what author means.)
3✘Toys which are dangerous should not be
given to small children. (Inference: only
safe toys should be given to children –
what the author means.)
8✘. . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This
increases in rush-hour.
3✘. . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This
impact increases in rush-hour.
or
3✘. . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This
use increases in rush-hour.
or
3✘. . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This
air quality increases in rush-hour.
(Be sure that the word ‘this’ or ‘these’, ‘that’
or ‘those’ represents is identifiable by using a
general noun that encapsulates the idea – in
this case ‘impact’.)
Continued overleaf
165
Error
4 Its/it’s
These two phrases are often
confused. For grammar book
entry, look for Possessives
(its) and Apostrophes or
Contractions (it’s)
5 Joining
Words such as ‘because’, ‘but’
and ‘and’ join two clauses, they
should not be used to begin
sentences. For grammar book
entry, look for Conjunctions
6 Double negative
Two negatives mean a positive.
Sometimes using a double
negative can cause confusion.
For grammar book entry, look for
Double negatives
7 Past participles
These are sometimes misused,
especially when the verbs are
irregular. For grammar book
entry, look for Past participles
8 Preposition
These should not come at the
end of a sentence. For grammar
book entry, look for Prepositions
166 Appendix 2 Twelve common grammar errors
Incorrect examples (8) and correction (3)
8✘As it’s aim, the book describes the whole
problem.
3✘As its aim, the book describes the whole
problem. (possession)
8✘Its not a viable answer to the problem.
3✘It’s not a viable answer to the problem
(It is . . .)
8✘Its not had a good review.
3✘It’s not had a good review. (It has . . .)
8✘Because the sample was too small, the
results were invalid.
3✘The results were invalid because the
sample was too small. (‘Because’ is a
conjunction and is used to join two ideas.)
8✘But the UN failed to act. And the member
states did nothing.
3✘The country was attacked, but the UN
failed to act and the member states did
nothing.
(‘but’ and ‘and’ are conjunctions that join
two separate ideas)
8✘They have not had no results from their
experiments.
3✘They have not had any results from their
experiments.
8✘The government had not done nothing to
alleviate poverty.
3✘The government had done nothing to
alleviate poverty.
8✘The team had went to present their findings
at the conference.
3✘The team had gone to present their
findings at the conference.
8✘These figures are the ones you will work
with.
3✘These figures are the ones with which you
will work.
Error
9 Pronouns
These are used to replace nouns.
The singular pronouns often
cause confusion because they
need to agree with the verb. For
grammar book entry, look for
Pronouns
10 Specifying
Words that are used to identify
specific singular and plural items
must match. For grammar book
entry, look for Demonstratives
11 Subject–verb agreement
Often singular subjects are
matched with plural verbs and
vice versa. For grammar book
entry, look for Subject–verb
agreement
12 There/Their/They’re
These simply need to be
remembered. For grammar
book entry, look for Words
that are often confused or
homophomes. Note ‘they’re’
is a contraction of ‘they are’.
Contractions are not usually used
in academic writing.
Appendix 2 Twelve common grammar errors
Incorrect examples (8) and correction (3)
Singular pronouns – anybody, anyone,
anything, each, either, everybody,
everyone, everything, neither, nobody,
no-one, nothing, somebody, someone,
something take a singular verb.
8✘Each of the new measures are to be
introduced separately.
3✘Each of the new measures is to be
introduced separately.
Reflexive pronouns
8✘Although disappointed, they only have
theirselves to blame.
3✘Although disappointed, they only have
themselves to blame.
3✘This kind of mistake is common. (Singular
demonstrative and verb)
3✘These kinds of mistakes are less common.
(Plural demonstrative and verb)
But
3✘That result is acceptable. (Singular
demonstrative and verb)
3✘Those results are not acceptable. (Plural
demonstrative and verb)
8✘The Principal, together with the Chancellor,
were present.
3✘The Principal, together with the
Chancellor, was present.
8✘It is the result of these overtures and
influences that help to mould personal
identity.
3✘It is the result of these overtures and
influences that helps to mould personal
identity.
8✘They finished there work before noon.
3✘They finished their work before noon.
(Shows possession)
8✘We have six places at the conference. We’ll
go their.
3✘We have six places at the conference.
We’ll go there. (Shows location)
8✘Researchers are skilled but there not highly
paid.
3✘Researchers are skilled but they’re not
highly paid. (They are . . . .)
167
 Appendix 3 rules of punctuAtion
usage for citing and referencing

In citing and referencing, punctuation marks are used in different ways

depending on the style that is being followed. The highlighted areas
in the table indicate this special usage. Check the style you need for
specific features involving punctuation Chapters 11–15.

Punctuation Mark How the mark is used

Apostrophe ... ’ • For possession: e.g. Napoleon’s armies

(singular owner)
Students’ essays
(plural owner)
• For contraction: e.g. Don’t cry; I’m hungry; it’s
late
But note: As its central theme, the book
considered wind power (no apostrophe required
at its).
Use of the apostrophe is less common in
academic writing. For example, some academics
would be less comfortable with: Hospital stay
patients’ difficulties with the effects of clostridium
difficile are not well-documented.
Preference might be for: The difficulties of hospital
stay patients with the effects of clostridium difficile
are not well-documented.

Brackets [ ... ] • Square brackets [ . . . ]: for adding words within

(parenthesis) ( ... ) a quote.
• Round brackets ( . . . ): to isolate explanatory
information.
• Both used in citing and reference list for: dates,
page numbers. Varies across styles.

Capital letter ABC • Starts sentences, proper nouns, seasons, rivers,

mountain ranges, places, Acts of Parliament,
titles, organisations.
• First word only in some styles; all significant title
words in other styles.

168 Appendix 3 Rules of punctuation

Punctuation Mark How the mark is used

Colon : • Divides statements of equal importance.

e.g. I hate maths; he loves it.
• Introduces lists.
• Introduces a ‘long quote’; depends on wording
of the preceding sentence.
• Used to separate elements in the reference list.
Varies across styles.

Comma . . ., • Separates items in a list of three or more

e.g. tea, beer, juice and wine.
• Separates part of a sentence
e.g. He came home, ate and fell asleep.
• Separates additional
information within a sentence
e.g. Rugby, in the main, is a contact sport.
• Marks adverbs
e.g. Certainly, the results have been positive.
• Used to separate elements in the reference list.
Varies across styles.

Dash – • Marks an aside/addition

e.g. Murder – regardless of reason – is a crime.

Ellipsis ... • Marks words omitted from a quotation

e.g. ‘taxes . . . mean price rises’.

Exclamation mark ! • Shows shock, horror. Rarely used in academic

writing e.g. Help!

Full stop . • Marks the end of a sentence

e.g. This is the end.
• Marks an abbreviation e.g. Prof., etc., i.e.,
m.p.h., p.a.
• Used to mark separation between elements of
reference. Styles vary.

Hyphen - • Joins a single letter to an existing word

e.g. x-ray.
• Separates prefixes e.g. post-modern.
• Prevents repetition of certain letters
e.g. semi-independent.
• Joins a prefix to a proper noun
e.g. pro-British.
• Creates a noun from a phrasal verb
e.g. show-off.
• Joins numbers and fractions
e.g. Twenty-three; three-quarters.
• Triple hyphens used to mark repetition of an
author’s name in reference list in some styles.

Appendix 3 Rules of punctuation 169

Punctuation Mark How the mark is used

Italics italics • Differentiates text to show quotations, titles of

publications in citations, species, works of art,
foreign words e.g. déjà vu; et al.
• Used in some styles in referencing for titles of
books, journal articles.

Question mark ? • Ends sentences that ask a direct question.

e.g. Who am I?
• If question mark is in original quote, then
include it in the quotation in the text.

Quotation marks ‘ ... ’ • ‘Single quotation marks’ mark exact words

(inverted commas) “ ... ” spoken/printed in a text.
• “Double quotation marks” place a quotation
within a quotation (British English).
• Note that in some word-processing packages
it is possible to choose between ‘curly quotes’
(“ . . . ”) and 'straight quotes' (" . . . ").
• Used in some referencing styles to enclose
article or chapter titles. Check Chapters 11–15
for specific features.
• Special use in quotation layouts for each style.
See Chapters 11–15.

Semi-colon ; • Separates two or more clauses of equal

importance
e.g. They won the battle; the other side won the
war.
• Separates listed items especially when
description uses several words.
• Used in some styles to separate reference list
elements. See Chapters 11–15 for details.

170 Appendix 3 Rules of punctuation